Discovery of Calculus

The development of calculus in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was

motivated by the need to understand physical phenomena such as the tides, the phases of the
moon, the nature of light, and gravity.
Newton and Leibniz found a fundamental relationship between the problem of finding
a tangent line to a curve and the problem of determining the area of a region. Their realization
of this connection is considered to be the “discovery of calculus.” Though Newton saw how
these two problems are related ten years before Leibniz did, Leibniz published his work
twenty years before Newton. This situation led to a stormy debate over who was the rightful
discoverer of calculus. The debate engulfed Europe for half a century, with the scientists of
the European continent supporting Leibniz and those from England supporting Newton. The
conflict was extremely unfortunate because Newton’s inferior notation badly hampered
scientific development in England, and the Continent in turn lost the benefit of Newton’s
discoveries in astronomy and physics for nearly fifty years. In spite of it all, Newton and
Leibniz were sincere admirers of each other’s work.

The actual discovery of the fundamental principles of calculus was made

independently by Isaac Newton (English) and Gottfried Leibniz (German) in the late
seventeenth century. The work of Newton and Leibniz was motivated by four major classes
of scientific and mathematical problems of the time:
• Find the tangent line to a general curve at a given point.
• Find the area of a general region, the length of a general curve, and the volume of a general
solid.
• Find the maximum or minimum value of a quantity—for example, the maximum and
minimum distances of a planet from the Sun, or the maximum range attainable for a projectile
by varying its angle of fire.
• Given a formula for the distance traveled by a body in any specified amount of time, find
the velocity and acceleration of the body at any instant. Conversely, given a formula that
specifies the acceleration of velocity at any instant, find the distance traveled by the body in a
specified period of time.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727): Newton was born in the village of Woolsthorpe. In 1665 and
1666, the entire framework of modern science was miraculously created in Newton’s mind.
He discovered calculus, recognized the underlying principles of planetary motion and gravity,
and determined that “white” sunlight was composed of all colors, red to violet. For whatever
reasons he liked to keep his discoveries to himself. Throughout his life Newton was hesitant
to publish his major discoveries, revealing them only to a select circle of friends. Ten years
after Leibniz published his results, Newton published his own work on calculus.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716): Leibniz was born in Leipzig, Germany. In

mathematics Leibniz was self-taught, learning the subject by reading papers and journals. As
a result of his fragmented mathematics education, Leibniz often rediscovered the results of
others, and this helped to fuel the debate over the discovery of calculus. He was an expert in
law, religion, philosophy, literature, politics, geology, history, and mathematics.

Applications of Calculus: Calculus was invented in the seventeenth century to investigate

problems that involve motion. We use algebra and trigonometry to study objects moving at
constant speeds along linear or circular paths, but we need calculus if the speed varies or if
the path is irregular. An accurate description of motion requires precise definitions of velocity
and acceleration. We obtain these definitions by using one of the fundamental concepts of
calculus- the derivative.
Although calculus was developed to solve physical problems, many diverse fields of
study use its power and versatility. Modern-day applications of the derivative include
investigating the rate of growth of populations, predicting the outcome of chemical reactions,
measuring instantaneous change in electrical current, describing the behavior of atomic
particles, estimating tumor shrinkage in radiation therapy, forecasting economic profits and
losses, determining the spread of epidemics, examining the impact of automobiles emissions
on ozone depletion, and analyzing vibrations in mechanical systems. We also use the
derivative in solving optimization problems such as manufacturing the least expensive
rectangular box that has a given volume, calculating the greatest distance a rocket will travel,
obtaining the maximum safe flow of traffic across a long bridge, determining the number of
wells to drill in an oil field for the most efficient production, finding the point between two
light sources at which illumination will be greatest, and maximizing corporate revenue for a
particular product.
 Another fundamental concept of calculus-the definite integral-arose from the problem
of finding areas of regions with curved boundaries. Scientists use definite integrals as
extensively as derivatives and in as many different fields. Some applications are finding the
center of mass or moment of inertia of a solid, determining the work required to send a space
probe to another planet, calculating the blood flow through an arteriole, estimating
depreciation of equipment in a manufacturing plant, and interpreting the amount of dye
dilution in physiological tests that involve tracer methods. We also use integrals to investigate
mathematical concepts such as area of a curved surface, volume of a geometric solid, or
length of a curve.
Calculus is the mathematics of change. Whenever there is motion or growth or where
variations in one quantity produce alternations in another, calculus helps us understand the
changes that occur. We can use calculus, for example, to predict the height and speed of the
rocket at each instant of time after launch. In the first moments after launch of space shuttle,
many changes occur rapidly. The rocket gains altitude as it accelerates to higher speeds. Its
mass decreases as fuel burns up. Inside the shuttle, an astronaut feels increasing force due to
the acceleration. As the distance from the earth gets larger, the astronaut’s weight decreases.
Indeed the values of many variables change dramatically during this time period.
One of the important themes in calculus is the analysis of relationships between
physical or mathematical quantities. Such relationships can be described in terms of graphs,
formulas, numerical data, or words. In this chapter we will develop the concept of a
“function,” which is the basic idea that underlies almost all mathematical and physical
relationships, regardless of the form in which they are expressed. The function is literally the
foundation of calculus and the backbone of the entire subject. Calculus is required, however,
to find precisely where graphs of functions rise or fall, exact coordinates of high or low
points, slopes of tangent lines, and many other useful facts. We can often successfully attack
applied problems in science, engineering, economics, and the social sciences that cannot be
solved by means of algebra, geometry or trigonometry if we represent physical quantities in
terms of functions and then apply the tools of calculus. We will study properties of some of
the most basic functions that occur in calculus, including polynomials, trigonometric
functions, inverse trigonometric functions, exponential functions, and logarithmic functions.
Function: Coined by Leibniz in 1673.

If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each value of x determines exactly
one value of y, then we say that y is a function of x [1].

i.e., y  f  x  where x is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.

Definition 2: A function f from a set D to a set E is a correspondence that assigns to each

element x of D exactly one element y of the set E.
It is important to remember that to each x in D, D E
there is assigned exactly one function value a f(a)
f(x) in E. Different elements of D, such as c & b f(b)
d, may yield the same function value in E. c f(c)
If different elements of D produce different f(d)
values of E, then it is called one to one d
function.
f is a one to one function if f  x   f  y  whenever x  y .

Four common methods for representing functions are:

 Numerically by tables
 Geometrically by graphs
 Algebraically by formulas
 Verbally

Example: If y denotes the area of a square of side x, then these variables are related by the
equation y  x 2

Domain: The set of all allowable x-values is called the domain of f.

Range: The set of all y-values (that result when x varies over the domain) is called the range
of f.

The x-intercepts of the graph of a function f are the solutions of the equation f ( x )  0 . These
numbers are the zeros of the function. The y-intercept of the graph is f(0), if it exists.

Even function and odd function: A function f is called an even function if f ( x )  f ( x )

for every x in the domain of f. Then the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Similarly, if f (  x )   f ( x ) then the function f is called an odd function for every x in the
domain of f. In this case the graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. Most functions in
calculus are neither ever nor odd.
Examples:
i) f ( x )  x . f (  x )   x   f ( x ) . ii) f ( x )  x  2 . f (  x )   x  2 .
Hence f is an odd function. Hence f is neither even nor odd.
f x f x
4 6

2 4

2
-4 -2 2 4

-2
-4 -2 2 4

-4 -2

f is symmetric with respect to  0, 0 

iii) f ( x )  cos x . iv) f ( x)  sin x

f ( x)  cos   x   cos x  f ( x) . f ( x)  sin   x    cos x   f ( x) .
Hence f is an even function.
f x Hence f is an odd function.
1 f x
1

0.5
0.5

-3 p -2 p -p p 2p 3p
-3 p -2 p -p p 2p 3p

- 0.5
- 0.5

-1
-1
f is symmetric with respect to y-axis.
f is symmetric with respect to  0, 0
Absolute Value Function: The absolute value or magnitude of a real number x is defined by

 x, x0
x 
  x, x0

Properties of absolute value: If a and b are two real numbers then

f x
1. a  a 3.0

2. ab  a b 2.5

a a 2.0
3. 
b b 1.5

4. ab  a  b 1.0

0.5

x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

Piecewise Function: Functions that are described by more than one expression are said to be
Piecewise functions. The function or formula changes depending on the value of x.

Natural Domain: If a real-valued function of a real variable is defined by a formula, and if

no domain is stated explicitly, then it is to be understood that the domain consists of all real
numbers for which the formula yields a real value. This is called the natural domain of the
function.
Examples: f  x   x , f  x   x2

The natural domain of the functions are  ,   .

References:

[1] Calculus Early Transcendentals, Anton, Bivens, Davis, 2012, 10th Ed., Laurie Rosatone, USA.
Find the domain of

1 x2  4
(i) f  x   ( ii) f  x    x  2  x  3 (iii) f  x  
 x  1 x  3 x2
D    1, 3 D   , 2  3,    f  x   x  2 if x  2
D   , 1  1, 3   3,   R   0,   D    2
Set of all real numbers except D   , 2   2,  
1 and 3.
R    4
R   , 4   4,  

Sketch the graph of the function and find the domain and range

Function Graph Even/odd Doman

symmetry Range
f x
4

3
Neither even D  1,  
nor odd
y  2  x 1 2
function
R   2,  
1

f x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Neither even D    1

2

x 1 nor odd
y
x 1
1
function
R    1
x
- 10 -5 5 10

-1
Polynomial: A function f is a polynomial function if f(x) is a polynomial, that is, if
f  x   an xn  an1 xn1    a1 x  a0

where the coefficients a0 , a1 ,  , an are real and the exponent are nonnegative integers. If

an  0 then f has degree n. The following are special case where a  0 :

degree 0: f  x   a constant function

degree 1: f  x   a x  b linear function

degree 2: f  x   a x2  b x  c quadratic function

Rational function: A rational function is a quotient of two polynomial functions g  x  and

g  x x2  5x  6
h  x  i.e., f  x   . Example f  x   2
h  x 2x  7x  8

Algebraic function: An algebraic function is a function that can be expressed in terms of

sums, differences, products, quotients or rational powers of polynomials. For example if
x  x 2  5
f  x   5x4  2 3 x  then f is an algebraic function.
x3  x

Transcendental function: Functions that are not algebraic are termed transcendental. The
trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions are examples of transcendental
functions.
For example, f  x   e x , f  x   tan x, f  x   log x .

Exponential function: If a   0,   , then functions f :    0,   defined by f  x   a x is

called exponential function with respect to base a where a  0, a  1 .

Logarithmic function: If b  0 and b  1 then b x and log b x are inverse function. If b  0

and b  1, then for a positive value of x the expression log b x (the logarithm to the base b of

x) denotes that exponent to which b must be raised to produce x. If b>0 and b≠1, then for a
positive value of x the expression log b x is said to be the logarithm to the base b of x.

Domain= (0,  ) , Range= ( ,  )

Example: log10 100  2 .
Natural exponential function: e x is called natural exponential function where e=2.718282.

e is the only one base for which the slope of the tangent line to the curve y  e x at any point
P on the curve is equal to the y-coordinate at P.
Symbol e is in honor of Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783).

Natural logarithmic function: The function log e x is the inverse of the natural exponential

function e x . It is standard to denote the natural logarithm of x by ln x read ‘ell en of x’. In

general, y  ln x if and only if x  e y .

Variable: A variable is a quantity to which an unlimited number of values can be assigned.

Variables are usually denoted by later letters of the alphabet i.e., x, y, z .

Arbitrary constants or Parameters: Constants to which any one of an unlimited set of

numerical values may be assigned and they are supposed to have these assigned values
throughout the investigation. They are usually denoted by earlier letters of the alphabet.
x y
Example:   1 ; where a and b are arbitrary constants.
a b

The concept of infinity (  ): If a variable v ultimately becomes and remains greater than any
assigned positive number, however large, we say v increases without limit, and write lim or
v

lim or v   .
v 

If a variable v ultimately becomes and remains algebraically less than any assigned negative
number, we say v decreases without limit, and write lim or lim or v   .
v v

If a variable v ultimately becomes and remains in numerical value greater than any assigned
positive number, however large, we say v, in numerical value, increases without limit or v
becomes infinitely great and we write lim or lim or v   .
v  v 

Infinity is not a number, it simply serves to characterize a particular mode of variation of a

variable by virtue of which it increases or decreases without limit.
 Even/odd Doman
Function Graph
symmetry Range
f x
8

6
Neither
f  x  ax D   ,  
even nor
if a  2  1 4 odd
i.e., f  x   2 x function R   0, 
2

f x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

6
Neither
f  x  ax D   ,  
even nor
if a  0.5  1 4 odd
i.e., f  x   0.5 x function R   0, 
2

f x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

20

15
Neither
even nor D   ,  
f  x  e x
10 odd
e=2.718282 function R   0, 
5

f x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

Neither
-2 even nor D   ,  
f  x  1 2 x
odd
-4
function R   , 1

-6
Function Graph Even/odd Doman
symmetr Range
y
f x
0.5

f  x   log b x -1 1 2 3
x Neither D   0,  
even nor
if b  10  1
odd
i.e., f  x   log10 x - 0.5
function R   , 

- 1.0

f x

f  x   log b x 3 Neither D   0,  
even nor
if b  0.5  1 2
odd
i.e., f  x   log 0.5 x 1 function R   , 
x
-1 1 2 3

-1

f x

f  x   log b x -1 1 2 3
x Neither D   0,  
even nor
if b  2.7182  1 odd
R   , 
-1

i.e., f  x   log e x function

-2

-3
f x

f  x   ln x 4

f  x  ex 2

f  x  x -1 1 2 3
x

-2

-4
Function Graph Even/odd Doman
symmetry Range
f x
3

Odd function
1 D   ,  
yx x Symmetry
R   ,  
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
with respect to
-1
the origin.
-2

f x
-3

Even function
6
D   ,  
Symmetry
yx 2
with respect to
R   0, 
4

the
2 y-axis.

f x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

20

Odd function
10 D   , 
yx 3
x Symmetry
R   ,  
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
with respect to
- 10 the origin.
- 20

f x

3.0

2.5
Neither even
2.0
nor odd D   , 
y x 1.5 function
1.0
R   0, 

0.5

x
2 4 6 8 10
Function Graph Even/odd Doman
symmetry Range
f x

Odd
function
D   ,  
1

yx 1/3
x Symmetry
R   ,  
- 10 -5 5 10
with respect
-1 to the
origin.
-2

f x

4
Even
function
3 D   ,  
yx 2/3
Symmetry
R   0, 
2
with respect
to the
1
y-axis.
x

f x
- 10 -5 5 10

1.0
Odd
function
D   ,    0
0.5

1
y x Symmetry
x
R   ,    0
- 10 -5 5 10
with respect
- 0.5 to the
origin.
- 1.0

f x
0.8

Even
0.6
function
D   ,    0
1
y 2 0.4 Symmetry
x with respect R   0,  
0.2 to the
y-axis..
x
- 10 -5 5 10
Function Graph Even/odd Doman
symmetry Range
f x

0.05
Odd function D   ,    0
1
y x Symmetry with
x3
R   ,    0
- 10 -5 5 10
respect to the
origin.
- 0.05

f x
10

8
Even function
6
D   ,  
y x Symmetry with
4 respect to the R   0, 
y-axis.
2

f x
- 10 -5 5 10

12

10
Even function
8
D   , 
y  x3 6
Symmetry with
respect to the R   0, 
4
y-axis.
2

f x
- 10 -5 5 10

10

8
Neither even D   ,  
y2 6
nor odd
 x3 function
R   2,  
4

x
- 10 -5 5 10

-2
 Function Graph Even/odd Doman
symmetry Range
f x

1.2

1.0
Even function
D   ,    0
0.8

y 1 Symmetry
x 0.6
with respect
0.4 to the R   0,  
y-axis.
0.2

f x
- 10 -5 5 10

0.5 Odd function

D   ,  
y  sin x x Symmetry
R   1, 1
-3 p -2 p -p p 2p 3p
with respect
- 0.5
to the origin.

f x
-1

Neither even D   , 

y  sin x nor odd
0.5
function
R   0, 1

f x
-3 p -2 p -p p 2p 3p

x
-3 p -2 p -p p 2p 3p

- 0.5

-1 Neither even D   , 

y2 nor odd
 sin  x  3 function
-2
R   3, 1
 Function Graph Even/odd Doman
symmetry Range
f x

Neither even D   , 4

nor odd
y  4 x
function
. R   0, 
1

0.5

f x
-3 p -2 p -p p 2p 3p

Neither even D   1, 1

nor odd
y  1  x2 0.5
function
. R   0, 1

f x
-1 - 0.5 0.5

0.5
Even function
D   ,  
y  cos x Symmetry
x
with respect
R   1, 1
-3 p -2 p -p p 2p 3p

to the
- 0.5 y-axis.

f x
-1

0.5
Even function
D   ,  
y  cos  x  Symmetry
x
with respect
R   1, 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4

to the
- 0.5 y-axis.

-1
Question: Sketch the graph of the function explicitly. Also, find the domain and range.
h x
0 , x  1 3.0

f  x    1  x2 , 1  x  1 2.5

x , x 1
 2.0
D   ,  
1.5

1.0
R   0, 
0.5

x
-2 -1 1 2 3

Question: Sketch the graph of the function explicitly. Also, find the domain and range.
h x
2 x  3 , x0 4
 2
f  x  x , 0 x2 3

1 , x2
 D   ,  
2

-2 2 4
x
R   , 4
-1

-2

-3

Question: Sketch the graph of the function explicitly. Also, find the domain and range.
h x
2 x  6 ,  3  x  0 6

f  x   6 , 0 x2
2 x  6 , 2  x  5 4

2
R   , 4
x
-2 2 4

-2

D   3, 0   0, 2    2, 5 R   0, 6  6   2, 4

  3, 5   2, 6

Calculus Early Transcendental functions, Stewart, 7th ed., page 36-38

Calculus Early Transcendental functions, Larson, page 27-28
Calculus Early Transcendental functions, Larson, page 27-28
21. Find the domain of the function f ( x)  x  1  x
Solution: The domain consists of all real number x where

x  0 and 1  x  0

i.e., x  0 and 1  x  x  1

Therefore, the domain will be  0, 1 .

22. Find the domain of the function f ( x)  x 2  3 x  2

Solution: The domain consists of all real number x where

x 2  3x  2  0
 x2  2x  x  2  0
 x  x  2   1 x  2   0
  x  2  x  1  0

Now  x  2 x 1  0 if either x  1  0 and x  2  0 i.e., x  1 and x  2 i.e., x  2

or x  1  0 and x  2  0 i.e., x  1 and x  2 i.e., x  1

Therefore the domain will be   ,1   2,   or   1,2

or, the set of all real numbers except 1, 2 .

 1
24. Find the domain of the function h( x) 
1
sin x 
2
1
Solution: The denominator will be zero if sin x  0
2

1  5 13 17
i.e., sin x   sin  sin  sin  sin 
2 6 6 6 6

 n  
 sin x  sin  n   1  where n    3,  2, 1,0,1, 2,3,
 6


 x  n   1
n
where n is an integer.
6

 n  
Therefore, the domain will be   n   1  where n is an integer.
 6

 n  
Or, the set of all real numbers except n   1  where n is an integer.
 6

1
The graph of the function h( x)  sin x  is given by
2
f x
0.5

x
-3 p -2 p -p p 2p 3p

- 0.5

-1
 Limit
If the values of f  x  can be made as close as we like to L by taking

values of x sufficiently close to a (but not necessarily equal to a) then

we write
lim f  x   L … (2.1)
x a

which is read “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L” or “f(x)

approaches L as x approaches a”.
The expression in Eq. (2.1) can also be written as f  x   L as x  a .

x3  2 x 2 x  x  2  x 2
2
Let us consider f  x     ; x2
3x  6 3 x  2  3

x2 4
Now lim f  x   lim 
x2 x2 3 3
f x
3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

x
-2 -1 1 2 3

x2
Thus the graph of f is the parabola y  with the point (2,4/3)
3
deleted as shown in the figure. It is geometrically evident that as x
gets closer to 2, f(x) gets closer to 4/3.
In general, if a function f is defined throughout an open interval
containing a real number a, except possibly at a itself we may ask the
following questions:
 1. As x gets closer to a (but x  a ) does the function value f(x) get
closer to some real number L?
2. Can we make the function value f(x) as close to L as desired by
choosing x sufficiently close to a (but x  a )?
If the answers to these questions are yes, we use the notation
lim f  x   L
x a

We always assume that x  a ; that is, the function value f(a) is

completely irrelevant. As we shall see, f(a) may be different from L,
may equal L, or may not exist, depending on the nature of the
function.

If the values of f  x  can be made as close as we like to L by taking

values of x sufficiently close to a (but greater than a) then we write

lim f  x   L … (2.2)
xa 

and the values of f  x  can be made as close as we like to L by taking

values of x sufficiently close to a (but less than a) then we write

lim f  x   L … (2.3)
xa 

Expression (2.2) is read “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the

right is L”. Similarly expression (2.3) is read “the limit of f(x) as x
approaches a from the left is L” or “f(x) approaches L as x approaches
a from the left”.
The limit in (2.1) is called a two-sided limit because it requires the
values of f(x) to get closer and closer to L as values of x are taken
from either side of x  a . In general, there is no guarantee that a
function f will have a two-sided limit at a given point a; that is the
values of f(x) may not get closer and closer to any single real number
L as x  a . In this case, we say that lim f  x  does not exist. The
x a

limit of a function f(x) to exist at a point a, the values of f(x) must

approach some real number L as x approaches a, and this number
must be the same regardless of whether x approaches a from the left
or right.
Theorem: Let a and b real numbers, and suppose that
lim f ( x)  L1 and lim g ( x)  L2 , Then
xa x a

(a) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)  L1  L2

xa xa x a

the limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.

(b) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)  L1  L2
xa xa xa

the limit of a difference is the difference of the limits.

(c) lim  f ( x) g ( x)  lim f ( x) lim g ( x)  L1 L2
x a xa x a

the limit of a product is the product of the limits.

 f ( x)  lim f ( x) L1
(d) lim   x a
 , L2  0
xa g ( x ) 
  lim
x a
g ( x) L2

the limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits, provided the

limit
of the denominator is not zero.
(e) lim n f  x   n lim f  x   n L1 , provided L1  0 if n is even
x a xa

the limit of an nth root is the nth root of the limit.

If f  x   k is a constant function in (c) we have

lim  k g ( x)  lim k lim g ( x)  k lim g ( x)  k L2

x a x a x a x a

a constant factor can be moved through a limit symbol.

3
Again, lim  f ( x )    lim f ( x )   L13
3

xa  xa 
this is the extension/application of (c).
Note: The above theorem is also true for one-sided limits as x  a  or x  a 
 Infinite limit
Consider the behavior of f ( x)  1 for values of x near 0. If x values
x
are taken closer and closer to 0 from the right, the values of
f ( x)  1 are positive and increase without bound; and as x values
x
are taken closer and closer to 0 from the left, the values of f ( x)  1
x
are negative and decrease without bound. We describing these
limiting behaviors by writing
lim f ( x)  lim 1    and lim f ( x)  lim 1  
x0 x0 x x0 x0 x
The expressions lim f ( x)    and lim f ( x)    denote that f(x)
x a xa

increases without bound as x approaches a from left and the right,

respectively. If both are true then we write lim f ( x)   .
x a

Example:
1
f ( x) 
 x  a
2

1
 lim f ( x )  lim  
 x  a
2
xa xa

1
lim f ( x )  lim  
 x  a
2
xa xa

Finally, lim f ( x)   
x a
 f x

x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4

Similarly, the expressions lim f ( x)   and lim f ( x)   denote

x a x a

that f(x) decreases without bound as x approaches a from left and the
right, respectively. If both are true then we write lim f ( x)    .
xa

Example:
1
f ( x)  
 x  a
2

1
 lim f ( x )  lim  
 x  a
2
xa xa

1
lim f ( x )  lim  
 x  a
2
xa x a

Finally, lim f ( x)  
xa
f x
x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4

-2

-4

-6

-8
 Limits at infinity
If the values of a variable x increase without bound, then we write
x   , and if the values of x decrease without bound, then we write
1 1
x    . For example lim  0 and lim  0
x  x x  x

If the values of f(x) eventually get as close as we like to a number L

as x increases without bound, then we write
lim f  x   L or f  x   L as x   
x 

Similarly, if the values of f(x) eventually get as close as we like to a

number L as x decreases without bound, then we write
lim f  x   L or f  x   L as x  
x 

f x

x
-4 -2 2 4

-1

-2
 Infinite limits at infinity
If the values f(x) increase without bound as x   or x    , then
we write lim f  x    or lim f  x   as appropriate
x  x

and if the values f(x) decrease without bound as x   or x    ,

then we write lim f  x     or lim f  x    as appropriate
x  x

Example:
lim x3 , lim x3   
x x 

lim x 4 , lim x 4  

x x 

The behavior of a function f(x) as x increases without bound or

decreases without bound is called the end behavior of the function.
1
For example, lim 0
x x
 Finding the Limiting Values

x3  8  x  2  x2  2 x  4
lim  lim  lim  x 2  2 x  4   12
x 2 x  2 x 2  x  2 x 2

t  2, t  0

Let g  t    t 2 , 0  t  2 . Find (i) lim g  t  , (ii) lim g  t  , (iii) lim g  t 
t 0 t 1 t 2
 2t , t  2


lim
x2  6x  5
 lim 2
x2  5x  x  5
 lim
 x  1 x  5  lim  x  5    4
x 1 x 2  3 x  4 x 1 x  4 x  x  4 x 1  x  4  x  1 x 1  x  4  5

lim
x4  1
 lim
 x 2  1 x 2  1
 lim
 x 2  1  x  1 x  1
x 1 x  1 x 1 x 1 x 1  x  1
 lim  x 2  1  x  1  4
x 1

1 1 1
lim  lim  lim 
x2 2  x x2   2  x  x2 x  2

x 2
 
lim 1  x  2  lim 1  lim x  2  1  0  1
x 2 x 2
 sin x cos x
lim  lim  lim cos x  1
x 0 x x 0 1 x 0

lim
1  cos x
 lim
1  cos x 1  cos x 
 lim
1  cos 2 x 
 lim
sin 2 x
x 0 x x 0 x 1  cos x  x 0 x 1  cos x  x 0 x 1  cos x 

 sin 2 x x   sin 2 x   x   0 
 lim  2    lim  lim   1 0
x 0
 x 1  cos x    x 0 x 2
  x 0 1  cos x
  1  1 

tan x  sin x 1   sin x   1 

lim  lim    lim   lim    1 1  1
x 0 x x 0
 x cos x  x0  x  x0  cos x 

sin 2 sin 2 sin 2

lim  2lim  2 lim 2
 0   0 2 2 0 2

sin 3  3 
 sin 3 3   sin 3   5 
lim  lim    lim  lim
  0 sin 5
 0 sin 5  0
 3 sin 5   0  3   
 5 
 
   
1 1  1 3
 3 lim   3  3   5
5  0  sin 5  5  sin 5  5  1
 5   lim  
  0  5 

cos x  2 x  1  sin x  2 2
lim  lim 
x 0 3x x 0 3 3

4 tan x 4sec 2 x sec x 1

lim  lim  4 lim  4 lim 4
x
 1  sec x x sec x tan x

x
 tan x 
x  sin x
2 2 2 2

1
ln x x  2 lim 1  2  0   0
lim  lim
x  x x 1 x  x
2 x
 e3 x 3e3 x 9e3 x
lim 2  lim  lim 
x  x x  2 x x  2

e x  e x e x 1  e 2 x  1  e 2 x 1  0
lim  lim  lim  1
x  e x  e  x

x  e x 1  e 2 x
 x 1  e2 x 1  0

 2n 1   2n 1    2  n 1 
n 1
3  n 1  1 3  n 1  1 lim     1
n   3 
lim
2n 1  3n 1
 lim  3   lim  3   3   
n  2 n  3n n  2 n
 n  2 n
  2  n

3n  n  1  n  1 lim     1
3  3  n   3 
  

3
 0  1  3 2
[since as n   ,    0 ]
n

 0  1 3

x x
x x x divided by x^2
lim  lim  lim
x  x  x 
x x x x  x x x  x  x
x x x x2 x4
1 1
 lim  1
x 
1 1  1 1 0  0
x x3

3x  1 3 1
lim  lim x  3 0  3
x  2 x  5 x 
2 5 20 2
x

x 22 2 1 2 2
x2 x x x x 00
lim 2  lim  lim  0
x  x  2 x  1 x 
1  2 x 2  1 2 x 1  2 1 x  1 2 1  0  0
x x x
 6 3  13
6  t3 0 1 1
lim 3  lim t  
t  7t  3 t 
7 3 3 70 7
t

1 1
 2 2  3 5 3
 2 2  3 5 3
2  3 x  5 x 2
x x
lim 3  lim  x  
 lim x 
x  1  8x 2 x   1 8   x 1 2 8 
 x2   x 
1 1
 005 3
 5  3 3
5
    
 08   8  2

5x2  2 5 2 2 5 2 2
lim  lim x  lim x  50   5
x  x3 x  x3 x 
1  3 1  0
x
x

5x2  2 5 2 2 5 2 2
lim  lim x  lim x  50  5
x  x3 x  x3 x 
1 3 1 0
x
x

2 y 2
 1
2 y y y 0 1 1
lim  lim  lim  
y 
7  6 y2 y 
7  6 y2 y  7 06 6
2
6
y2 y

2 y 2
1
2 y y y 0 1 1
lim  lim  lim  
y 
7  6 y2 y 
7  6 y2 y  7 06 6
2
6
y2 y
  3 
lim
x 
 
x  3  x  lim 
2
x 
 x2  3  x2 
2

  lim  2
3  
  lim 
x 

 x  3  x  x  x  3  x  x  1  3 2  1 
 x 
 0 
 0
 1 0 1
 Continuity
A function f is said to be continuous at a point x=a if the following
conditions are satisfied
1. f (a) exists
2. If lim f  x  exists i.e., lim f  x   lim f  x 
xa xa xa

3. If f  a   lim f  x 
x a

Theorem:
 A polynomial function is continuous at every real number.
 A rational function q=f/g is continuous at every number except that
numbers c such that g(c)=0.
 A rational function has discontinuities at the points where the
denominator is zero.
 The function b x is continuous on its domain (-∞,∞).
 The function log b x is continuous on its domain (0,∞).
Theorem: If the functions f and g are continuous at c then
 f +g is continuous at c
 f -g is continuous at c
 f g is continuous at c
 f /g is continuous at c if g(c)≠0
Continuity on an interval: A function f is said to be continuous on a
closed interval [a,b] if the following conditions are satisfied
1. f is continuous on (a,b)
2. f is continuous from the right at a i.e., lim f  x   f  a 
xa

3. f is continuous from the left at b i.e., lim f  x   f  b 

x b
Question: If f  x   9  x 2 , sketch the graph of f and prove that f is

continuous in its domain [-3,3].

Solution: The domain of the given function is [-3,3]. We need to
investigate the continuity of f on the open interval (-3,3) and at the
two end points.
3

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

If 3  c  3 then

lim f  x   lim 9  x 2  lim  9  x 2   9  c   f c 

2
x c x c xc

Hence f is continuous at c i.e. f is continuous on the open interval (-

3,3).
All that remains to check the continuity of the function at the two end
points.

lim f  x   lim 9  x 2  0  f  3 
x 3 x 3

lim f  x   lim 9  x 2  0  f  3 
x 3 x 3

Thus f is continuous on the closed interval [-3,3].

 9  x2
Question: If f  x   4 , sketch the graph of f and prove
3x  5 x 2  1
that f is continuous in its domain [-3,3].

Solution: Let g  x   9  x 2 and h  x   3 x 4  5 x 2  1.

From the above example g(x) is continuous on the closed interval [-

3,3].
Since h(x) is a polynomial function, it is continuous everywhere.
Moreover, h(c)≠0 for every number c in [-3,3].
Hence by theorem (a rational function q=f/g is continuous at every
number except that numbers c such that g(c)=0) the quotient

9  x2
f  x  4 is continuous on [-3,3].
3x  5 x 2  1
3

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
 tan 1 x  ln x
Question: Where is the function f  x   continuous?
x2  4
Solution: The function will be continuous at all points where the
numerator and the denominator are both continuous and the
denominator is nonzero. Since tan 1 x is continuous everywhere and
ln x is continuous if x  0 , the numerator is continuous if x  0
(why?).
The denominator ( x2  4 ) being a polynomial, is continuous
everywhere.
Therefore, the function f(x) will be continuous at all points where
x  0 and the denominator is nonzero.
Thus f(x) is continuous on the intervals (0,2)and (2,∞).
2

1 2 3 4

-1

-2

If 3  c  3 then
lim f  x   lim 9  x 2  lim  9  x 2   9  c   f c 
2
x c x c xc

Hence f is continuous at c i.e. f is continuous on the open interval (-

3,3).
All that remains to check the continuity of the function at the two end
points.
lim f  x   lim 9  x 2  0  f  3 
x 3 x 3

lim f  x   lim 9  x 2  0  f  3 
x 3 x 3
Thus f is continuous on the closed interval [-3,3]
1. Discuss the concept of limit. Find the limit (if it exists)
 1   1.8x  1.8 x 
i) lim   ii) lim  x 
x 0  1
 x  1.8  1.8 x
 1  e5x   

5cos( x  1), x  1

iii) Let h( x)   a, x 1
 x  b, x 1

If h(x) is continuous everywhere, find the values of a and b.
2. Define continuity of a function at a point and on a closed interval. Suppose
that

 x  3, x  2
4

f ( x)   2 and g ( x)   x  1 / ( x 2  x  2)
 x  9, x  2

Are f and g continuous everywhere? Justify your conclusions.

3. Where are the following functions continuous?
 3 x 2  sin x
 , x0
4x 1
i) f ( x)   ii) g ( x)   tan 1 ( x)
3 , (2 x  1)
x0
 4

9  x2
4. If g ( x)  . Prove that g is continuous on [-3,3].
3x 4  5 x 2  1
5. Define differentiability of a function at a point and on a closed interval.
Check the differentiability of the function, f ( x)  x  1 at x  1 .

6. Determine the points, if any, at which the given function is discontinuous

f ( x)   x 2  9 x  18 
1
i) f ( x)  x3  4 x 2  7 ii)

x 1  sin x
iii) f ( x) 
sin 2 x  x , x  0
iv) f ( x)  
1 , x0
 2
7. Determine whether the given function is continuous on the indicated intervals
i) f ( x)  x 2  1 a) [-1, 4], conts b) [5, ∞), conts

ii) 1 a) (0, 4], conts b) [1, 9], conts

f ( x) 
x
iii) f ( x )  tan x a) [0, π], not conts b) [-π/2, π/2], not conts
iv) x a) [-4, -3], conts b) (-∞, ∞), not conts
f ( x) 
x 8
3

v) x a) (-∞, ∞), not conts b) [π/2, 3π/2], not conts

f ( x) 
2  sec x
 Differentiation
Derivatives: The function f defined by the formula
f  x  h  f  x
f   lim is called the derivative of f with respect to
h0 h
x . The term derivative is used because the function f  is derived
from the function f by a limiting process. The domain of f  consists
of all x in the domain of f for which the limit exists. The process of
finding a derivative is called differentiation.

Differentiable: A function f is said to be differentiable at x0 if the

f  x0  h   f  x0 
limit f   x0   lim exists. If f is differentiable at
h0 h
each point of the open interval  a, b  then we say that it is

differentiable on  a, b  .

We define the left –hand derivative and right-hand derivative by

f  x  h  f  x
Lf   x   f   x   lim and
h0 h
f  x  h  f  x
Rf   x   f   x   lim , respectively.
h0 h
These are called one-sided derivatives.
Geometrically, f   x  is the limit of the slopes of the secant line as x

approaches from the left and f   x  is the limit of the slopes of the
secant line as x approaches from the right.
In general, we will say that f is differentiable on an interval of the

form  a, b  if is differentiable at all points inside the interval  a, b 

and the appropriate one-sided derivative exists at each included
endpoint.

The equation of any straight line passing through the point

P  x0 , f  x0   can be represented by y  f  x0   m  x  x0 

………………….(1)
Therefore the tangent line can be represented by
y  f  x0   mtan  x  x0  …………..…...(2)

Consider a point Q  x, f  x   on the curve that is distinct from P, and

compute the slope mPQ of the secant line through P and Q.

f  x   f  x0 
mPQ  …………..…...(3)
x  x0
If we let x approach x0 , then the point Q will move along the curve
and approach the point P. If the secant line through P and Q
approaches a limiting position as x  x0 then we will regard that
position to be the
position of the tangent line at P. If the slope mPQ of the secant line

through P and Q approaches a limit as x  x0 , then we regard that

limit to be the slope mtan of the tangent line a P. i.e. lim mPQ  mtan .
x  x0

Therefore, the tangent line to the curve y  f  x  at the point

 x , f  x   is the line with equation y  f  x   m  x  x 

0 0 0 tan 0

f  x   f  x0 
where mtan  lim …………...(4)
x  x0 x  x0
There is an alternative way of expressing (4) by denoting h  x  x0 as
follows
f  x0  h   f  x0 
mtan  lim .
h0 h

Example: Find an equation for the tangent line to the parabola y  x 2

at the point P(1,1).

Example: Find an equation for the tangent line to the curve at the
given point.
2
(a) y  at (2,1)
x
(b) y  x at x0  1, x0  4, x0  9 .
Let us consider s  f  t  where f is the position function of a particle.

The graph of the function is the position versus time curve.

changein position f  t0  h   f  t0 
mave   ……………..(1)
time elapsed h
The instantaneous velocity vinst of a particle at time t 0 to be the limit
as h  0 of its average velocity u ave over time intervals between t 0
and t0  h .
f  t0  h   f  t0 
Thus vinst  lim uave  lim ……………….…..(2)
h0 h0 h
Geometrically, the average velocity u ave between t  t0 and t  t0  h

is the slope of the secant line through points P  t0 , f  t0   and

Q  t0  h, f  t0  h   on the position versus time curve, and the

instantaneous velocity vinst at time t 0 is the slope of the tangent line to

the position versus time curve at the point P  t0 , f  t0   .

Velocity (2) can be viewed as rate of change i.e. the rate of change of
position with respect to time.
If y  f  x  then we define the average rate of change of y with

f  x1   f  x0 
respect to x over the interval  x0 , x1  to be rave  and
x1  x0
we define the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x0
f  x1   f  x0 
to be rinst  lim rave  lim .
x1  x0 x1  x0 x1  x0
Question: Suppose that s  f  t   1  5t  2t 2 is the position function

of a particle, where s is in meters and t is in seconds. Find the average

velocity of the particle over the time interval [0,2]. What is the
instantaneous velocity at t=1? What is the instantaneous rate of
change of position of the particle at time t=1?

Question: A sandbag is dropped from a hot-air balloon that is

hovering at a height of 512 ft above the ground. If air resistance is
disregarded, then the distance from the ground to the sandbag after t
seconds is given by s  t   16t 2  512 . Find the velocity of the

sandbag at
(a) t=a sec, (b) t=2 sec, (c) the instant it strikes the ground.

Question: A spherical balloon is inflated so that its volume is

increasing at the rate of 3 ft3/min. How fast is the diameter of the
balloon increasing when the radius is 1 ft?

Question: Suppose that x and y are differentiable functions of t and

are related by the equation y=x3. Find dy/dx at time t=1 if x=2 and
dx/dt=4 at time t=1.

Question: A spherical balloon is to be deflated so that its radius

decreases at a constant rate of 15 cm/min. At what rate must air be
removed when the radius is 9 cm?
Question: What is related rates? A spherical balloon is to be deflated
so that its radius decreases at a constant rate of 15 cm/min. At what
rate must air be removed when the volume is 972 cm3 ?

Question: Oil spilled from a ruptured tanker spreads in a circle whose

area increases at a constant rate of 6 mi2/h. How fast is the radius of
the spill increasing when the area is 9 mi2?

Question: A point P is moving along the line whose equation is y  2 x

. How fast is the distance P and the point  3, 0  changing at the instant
when P is at  3, 6  if x decreasing at the rate of 2 units/s at that instant?
Answer the question with help of a graph. Ans: -4 units/s

The length of a rectangle increasing at a rate of 8 cm/s and its width is

increasing at a rate of 3 cm/s. When the length is 20 cm and the width is 10 cm,
how fast is the area of the rectangle increasing? Stewart Page 131, No. 4.

Page 129, Example 3: A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone
with base radius 2 m and height 4 m. If water is being pumped into the tank at a
rate of 2 m _min, find the rate at which the water level is rising when the water
is 3 m deep.
 Differentiability Checking
A function f is said to be differentiable at x0 if the limit

f  x0  h   f  x0 
f   x0   lim exists. If f is differentiable at each
h0 h
point of the open interval  a, b  then we say that it is differentiable
on  a, b  .

Question: Prove that f  x   x is not differentiable at x  0 .

Solution: To check whether the unction is differentiable at x  0 we proceed as follows:

f  0  h  f  0
f   0   lim
h 0 h
h 0 h
 lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h

h h h h
Now lim   1 and lim   1
h 0 h h h 0 h h
Since these one-sided limits (derivatives) are not equal, the given function is not
differentiable at x  0 .
Anton 2.1, Page 154, No. 47: Show that the following function is continuous and
differentiable at x  1 . Sketch the graph of f.

 x 2  1, x  1
f  x  
 2 x, x 1
Solution: To check whether the given function is continuous at x  1 we proceed as follows:
f 1  12  1  2 i.e., the function is defined at x  1 .
lim f  x   lim  x 2  1  2
x 1 x 1

lim f  x   lim  2 x   2
x 1 x 1

Hence lim f  x   2
x 1

Thus the limit exists at x  1 .

Since f 1  lim f  x   2 , the given function is continuous at x  1 .
x 1

To check whether the given function is differentiable at x  1 we proceed as follows:

f 1  h   f 1
f  1  lim … (1)
h 0 h
f 1  h   f 1 1  h   1  2
2

Now f  1  lim  lim

h 0 h h 0 h
1  2h  h 2  1 h 2  h
 lim  lim 2
h 0 h h 0 h
f 1  h   f 1 2 1  h   2
Now f  1  lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h
2h
 lim 2
h 0 h

Since these one-sided limits (derivatives) are equal, the given function is differentiable at
x  1.
h  x
6

x
-1 1 2 3
Anton 2.1, Page 154, No. 48: Show that the following function is continuous but not
differentiable at x  1 . Sketch the graph of f.

 x 2  2, x  1
f  x  
 x  2, x  1
Solution: To check whether the given function is continuous at x  1 we proceed as follows:

f 1  12  2  3 i.e., the function is defined at x  1 .

lim f  x   lim  x 2  2   3
x 1 x 1

lim f  x   lim  x  2   3
x 1 x 1

Hence lim f  x   3
x 1

Thus the limit exists at x  1 .

Since f 1  lim f  x   3 , the given function is continuous at x  1 .
x 1

To check whether the given function is differentiable at x  1 we proceed as follows:

f 1  h   f 1
f  1  lim … (1)
h 0 h
f 1  h   f 1 1  h   2  3
2

Now f  1  lim  lim

h 0 h h0 h
1  2h  h 2  1 h 2  h
 lim  lim 2
h0 h h0 h
f 1  h   f 1 1  h  2   3
Now f  1  lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h
h
 lim  1
h 0 h

Since these one-sided limits (derivatives) are not equal, the given function is differentiable at
x  1.
h  x

x
-1 1 2
Question: Show that the function f  x   1  3 x is continuous but not differentiable at

x  1 .

Solution: Given, f  x   1  3 x

1  3 x , 1  3 x  0 1  3 x , x  1

 f  x    
  
 1  x , 1  x  0  1  x , x  1
3 3 3

f  1  1  (1)  0

x 1 x 1
 
lim f  x   lim 1  3 x  1  (1)  0

lim f  x   lim  1  x   1   1  0

3
x 1 x 1

Since f  1  lim f  x  the function is continuous at x  1 .

x 1

 1  23  1
 x , x  1
3  3 , x  1
Now f   x    . Therefore f   1  
 1 , x  1
2
 1 x  3 , x  1
 3  3

1 1
Since Lf   1   and Rf   1  , the function is not differentiable at x  1 .
3 3
3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

-5 5
 Successive Differentiation and Leibniz Theorem

The derivative of a function f(x) is in general a function of x. This new function (1st
derivative) may have a derivative, which is called the second derivative of f(x). Similarly the
derivative of the second derivative is called the third derivative, and so on for the nth
derivative.

If y  f  x  the successive derivatives can be expressed in the following ways

Order Notations
dy
1st y1 Df  x  f  x y
dx

2nd d2y
y2 D2 f  x  f   x  y
dx 2
3rd d3y
y3 D3 f  x  f   x  y
dx3
d4y y
4th y4 D4 f  x  f   x 
dx 4
dny y
nth yn Dn f  x  f   x 
dx n

Exercise 1: Find the nth derivative of e x .

or, Find the successive derivative of e x .
or, If y  e x then find yn .

or, If y  e x then prove that yn  y .

Solution: Let/Given y  e x
We obtain the successive derivative of e x as follows
y1  e x
y2  e x
y3  e x
 yn  e x i.e., yn  y
Exercise 2: Find the nth derivative of ea x where a is a constant.
Solution: Let/Given y  e a x
We obtain the successive derivative of ea x as follows
y1  a e a x
y2  a 2 e ax
y3  a 3e ax
 yn  a n e ax i.e., yn  a n y

Exercise 3: Find the nth derivative of xn .

Solution: Let/Given y  x n
We obtain the successive derivative of xn as follows
y1  n x n 1
y2  n  n  1 x n 2
y3  n  n  1 n  2  x n 3
 yn  n  n  1 n  2   n   n  1  x n  n
 n  n  1 n  2 1
 n  n  1 n  2   3  2 1
 yn  n !

Exercise 4: Find the nth derivative of  ax  b  .

m

Solution: Let/Given y   ax  b 
m

We obtain the successive derivative of y   ax  b  as follows

m

y1  m  ax  b  a  a m  ax  b 
m 1 m 1

y2  a m  m  1  ax  b  a  a 2 m  m  1  ax  b 
m2 m2

y3  a 3 m  m  1 m  2  ax  b 
m 3

 yn  a n m  m  1 m  2   m   n  1   ax  b 
mn

 a n m  m  1 m  2   m  n  1 ax  b 
mn
Exercise 5: Find the successive derivative of sin x .
Solution: Let/Given y  sin x
We obtain the successive derivative of sin x as follows
 
y1  cos x  sin   x 
 2 
  
y2   sin x  sin  2  x 
 2 
  
y3   cos x  sin  3  x 
 2 
  
 yn  sin  n  x 
 2 

Exercise 6: Find the successive derivative of cos x .

Solution: Let/Given y  cos x
We obtain the successive derivative of y  cos x as follows
 
y1   sin x  cos   x 
2 
  
y2   cos x  cos  2  x 
 2 
  
y3  sin x  cos  3  x 
 2 
 n 
 yn  cos   x
 2 

Exercise 7: Find the successive derivative of sin  ax  b  .

Solution: Let/Given y  sin  ax  b 

We obtain the successive derivative of y  sin  ax  b  as follows
 
y1  a cos  ax  b   a sin   ax  b 
2 
  
y2   a 2 sin  ax  b   a 2 sin  2  ax  b 
 2 
  
y3   a 3 cos  ax  b   a 3 sin  3  ax  b 
 2 
  
 yn  a n sin  n  ax  b 
 2 
Exercise 8: Find the successive derivative of cos  ax  b  .

Solution: Let/Given y  cos  ax  b 

We obtain the successive derivative of y  cos  ax  b  as follows
 
y1   a sin  ax  b   a cos   ax  b 
 2 
  
y2   a 2 cos  ax  b   a 2 cos  2  ax  b 
 2 
  
y3  a 3 sin  ax  b   a 3 cos  3  ax  b 
 2 
  
 yn  a n cos  n  ax  b 
 2 

Exercise 9: Find the successive derivative of sin 3 x .

Solution: Let/Given y  sin 3 x
Since sin 3x  3sin x  4sin 3 x , y   3sin x  sin 3x  4
We obtain the successive derivative of y   3sin x  sin 3x  4 as follows
1    
y1   3cos x  3cos 3x  4   3sin   x   3sin   3 x  
4 2  2 
1      
y2   3sin x  32 cos 3x  4   3sin  2  x   32 sin  2  3 x  
4  2   2 
1      
y3   3cos x  33 sin 3x  4   3sin  3  x   33 sin  3  3 x  
4  2   2 
1      
 yn   3sin  n  x   3n sin  n  3 x  
4  2   2 
Exercise 10: Find the successive derivative of sin 3x cos 2 x .
Solution: Let/Given y  sin 3x cos 2 x
Since 2 sin 3x cos 2 x  sin 5 x  sin x , y   sin 5 x  sin x  2
We obtain the successive derivative of y   sin 5 x  sin x  2 as follows
1    
y1   5cos 5 x  cos x  2   5sin   5 x   sin   x  
2 2  2 
1      
y2   52 sin 5 x  sin x  4   52 sin  2  5 x   sin  2  x  
2  2   2 
1      
y3   53 cos 5 x  cos x  4   53 sin  3  5 x   sin  3  x  
2  2   2 
1      
 yn   5n sin  n  5 x   sin  n  x  
2  2   2 
Exercise 11: Find the successive derivative of cos x cos 2 x .
Solution: Let/Given y  cos x cos 2 x
Hints: Since 2 cos x cos 2 x  cos3x  cos x , y   cos 3x  cos x  2
1      
Answer: yn   3n cos  n  3 x   cos  n  x  
2  2   2 
Exercise 12: If y  log  x  a  then find yn .

Solution: Given y  log  x  a 

We obtain the successive derivative of y  log  x  a  as follows
1
y1 
xa
1
y2 
 x  a
2

1 2 
y3 
 x  a
3

1 2  3
y4 
 x  a
4

 1  n  1 !
n 1

 yn 
 x  a
n

1
Exercise 13: If y  then find yn .
xa
1
Solution: Given y 
xa
We obtain the successive derivative of y as follows
1
y1 
 x  a
2

1 2 
y2 
 x  a
3

1 2  3
y3 
 x  a
4

 1 n !
n

 yn 
 x  a
n 1
 1
Exercise 14: If y  then find yn .
1  5x  6 x2
1 1 1 1
Solution: Given y    
1  5 x  6 x 1  3x  2 x  6 x
2 2
1  3x   2 x 1  3x  1  2 x 1  3x 
3 2
 
1  3x 1  2 x
We obtain the successive derivative of y as follows
3  1 3 2  1 2 
y1  
1  3x  1  2 x 
2 2

3  1 2  3 2  1 2  2 

2 2

y2  
1  3x  1  2 x 
3 3

3  1 2  3 3 2  1 2  3 2 

3 3

y3  
1  3x  1  2 x 
4 4

3  1  3 n ! 2  1  2 

n n n n

 yn  
1  3x  1  2 x 
n 1 n 1

3  1  1  3 n ! 2  1  1  2 

n n n n n n

 
1  3x  1  2 x 
n 1 n 1

 1 3n 1 n !  1 2n 1
2n 2n

 
1  3x  1  2 x 
n 1 n 1

3n 1 n ! 2n 1 n !
[Since  1  1 for any natural number n]
2n
 
1  3x  1  2 x 
n 1 n 1

1
Exercise 15: If y   cos x cos 2 x then find yn .
1  5x  6 x2
Hints: Exercise 14 and 11
3n 1 n ! 2n 1 n ! 1      
Answer: yn     3n cos  n  3x   cos  n  x  
1  3x  1  2 x 
n 1 n 1
2  2   2 
 1
Exercise 16: If y  then find yn .
x  a2
2

1 1 1  1 1 
Solution: Given y    
x a 2 2
 x  ia  x  ia  2ia  x  ia x  ia 


1
We obtain the successive derivative of y  2 as follows
x  a2
1  1 1 
y1    
2ia   x  ia 2  x  ia 2 

1  1 2  1 2  
y2    
2ia   x  ia 3  x  ia 3 

1  1 2  3 1 2  3  1   1 3!  1 3! 

3 3

y3        
2ia   x  ia 4  x  ia   2ia   x  ia   x  ia  
4 4 4

 1 n!  
n
1 1
 yn    
2ia   x  ia  n 1
 x  ia  
n 1
 Leibniz Theorem

Statement: If u  x  and v  x  are n times differentiable functions, then the nth derivative of

their product is given by

dn d nu n d n 1u dv n d n  2u d 2 v d nr u d r v d nv
 
u v  v  C1  C 2    n
C r    u
dx n dx n dx n 1 dx dx n  2 dx 2 dx n  r dx r dx n
i.e.,  u v n  un v  nC1 un 1 v1  nC2un 2 v2    nCr un  r vr    u vn … (1)

Proof: Let y  u v
The successive derivative of y is obtained as follows
y1  u1 v  u v1

y2  u2 v  u1 v1  u1 v1  u v2  u2 v  2u1 v1  u v2
 u2 v  2C1u21 v1  u v2

y3  u3 v  u2 v1  2u2 v1  2u1 v2  u1 v2  u v3  u3 v  3u2 v1  3u1 v2  u v3

 u3 v  3C1u31 v1   3C2u3 2 v2  u v3

Thus, the theorem is true for n  1, 2,and 3 .

Let us assume that the theorem is true for n  m . And hence
 u v m  um v  mC1 um1 v1  mC2um2 v2    mCr umr vr    u vm … (2)

Differentiating Eq. (2) with respect to x we have

 u v m1  um1 v  um v1  mC1 um v1  mC1 um1 v2  mC2um1 v2  mC2um2 v3  
 mCr um  r 1 vr  mCr um  r v1    u vm 1  u1 vm
 um 1 v   mC1  1 um v1   mC1  mC2  um 1 v2  mC2um  2 v3  
 mCr um  r 1 vr  mCr um  r v1    u vm 1  u1 vm
  u v m 1  um 1 v  m 1C1 um 11 v1  m 1C2um 1 2 v2   m 1Cr um 1 r vr    u vm 1

Thus the theorem is true for n  m  1 .

Hence, the theorem (1) is proved by method of induction.
Exercise 17: If y  x 3 sin x then find y3 .

Solution: Given y  x 3 sin x

Let u  x   x3 and v  x   sin x

We recall the Leibniz theorem

 u v n  un v  nC1 un1 v1  nC2un2 v2    nCr unr vr    u vn
Applying Leibniz theorem we have

x 3
sin x    x3   sin x   3C1  x3 
3 3 31
 sin x 1  3C2  x3 32  sin x 2  x3  sin x 3
3!
 3!  sin x   3  3  2 x1   cos x    3x 2    sin x   x3   cos x 
2! 3  2 

 6sin x  18 x cos x  9 x 2 sin x  x3 cos x

d n 1 n n!
n 1 
Exercise 18: Show that x ln x   .
dx x
Solution: Let y  x n ln x … (1)
n!
then we have to show that yn 1 
x
Differentiating (1) with respect to x we have
xn xn n n xn n
y1   nx ln x    x ln x  
n 1
 y
x x x x x
 xy1  x n  ny … (2)

Differentiating (2) n times by applying Leibniz theorem we have

xyn 1  nC1 1 yn  n ! nyn
 xyn 1  nyn  n ! nyn
 xyn 1  n !
n!
 yn 1 
x
d n 1 n n!
n 1 
 x ln x  
dx x
Exercise 19: If y  cos  m sin 1 x  then show that

(i) 1  x 2  y2  xy1  m 2 y  0

(ii) 1  x 2  yn  2   2n  1 x yn 1   m 2  n 2  yn  0

Solution: Given y  cos  m sin 1 x  … (1)

Differentiating (1) with respect to x we have

m
y1   sin  m sin 1 x 
1  x2
 1  x 2 y1   m sin  m sin 1 x 

 1  x 2  y12  m 2 sin 2  m sin 1 x   m 2 1  cos 2  m sin 1 x  

 1  x 2  y12  m 2 1  y 2  … (2)

Differentiating (2) with respect to x we have

1  x  2 y y  2 xy  m  2 y y 
2
1 2 1
2 2
1

 1  x  y  xy   m y
2
2 1
2

 1  x 2  y2  xy1  m 2 y  0 … (3)

Differentiating (3) n times by applying Leibniz theorem we have

1  x  y
2
n2  nC1  2 x  yn 1  nC2  2  yn  xyn 1  nC1 1 yn  m 2 yn  0
n!
 1  x  y
2
 2 n x yn 1  2 yn  xyn 1  nyn  m 2 yn  0
2! n  2  !
n2

n  n  1 n  2  !
 1  x 2  yn  2   2 n  1 x yn 1  yn  nyn  m 2 yn  0
 n  2 !
 1  x 2  yn  2   2 n  1 x yn 1   n 2  n  yn  nyn  m 2 yn  0
 1  x 2  yn  2   2 n  1 x yn 1   n 2  n  n  m 2  yn  0
 1  x 2  yn  2   2 n  1 x yn 1   n 2  m 2  yn  0

 1  x 2  yn  2   2 n  1 x yn 1   m 2  n 2  yn  0
Exercise 20: If y  a sin 1 x  b cos 1 x then prove that

1  x  y
2
n2   2n  1 x yn 1  n 2 yn  0

Solution: Given y  a sin 1 x  b cos 1 x … (1)

Differentiating (1) with respect to x we have
a b a b
y1   
1  x2 1  x2 1  x2
 1  x 2 y1  a  b

 1  x 2  y12   a  b  … (2)
2

Differentiating (2) with respect to x we have

1  x  2 y y  2 xy
2
1 2 1
2
0
 1  x  y  xy  0
2
2 1

 1  x 2  y2  xy1  0 … (3)

Differentiating (3) n times by applying Leibniz theorem we have

1  x  y
2
n2  nC1  2 x  yn 1  nC2  2  yn  xyn 1  nC1 1 yn  0
n!
 1  x  y
2
 2 n x yn 1  2 yn  xyn 1  nyn  0
2! n  2  !
n2

n  n  1 n  2  !
 1  x 2  yn  2   2 n  1 x yn 1  yn  nyn  0
 n  2 !
 1  x 2  yn  2   2 n  1 x yn 1   n 2  n  yn  nyn  0
 1  x 2  yn  2   2 n  1 x yn 1   n 2  n  n  yn  0
 1  x 2  yn  2   2 n  1 x yn 1  n 2 yn  0

 1  x 2  yn  2   2 n  1 x yn 1  n 2 yn  0
Exercise 21: If y  a sin  ln x   b cos  ln x  then prove that

x 2 ym  2   2m  1 x ym 1   m 2  1 ym  0

Solution: Given y  a sin  ln x   b cos  ln x  … (1)

Differentiating (1) with respect to x we have

a b
y1  cos  ln x   sin  ln x 
x x
 x y1  a cos  ln x   b sin  ln x 

 x y1  a cos  ln x   b sin  ln x  … (2)

Differentiating (2) with respect to x we have

a b
x y2  y1   sin  ln x   cos  ln x 
x x
 x y2  x y1   a sin  ln x   b cos  ln x 
2

 x 2 y2  x y1   y

 x 2 y2  x y1  y  0 … (3)

Differentiating (3) m times by applying Leibniz theorem we have

x 2 ym  2  mC1  2 x  ym 1  mC2  2  ym  xym 1  mC1 1 ym  ym  0
m!
 x 2 ym  2  2 m x ym 1  2 ym  xym 1  mym  ym  0
2! m  2  !
 x 2 ym  2   2 m  1 x ym 1  m  m  1 ym  mym  ym  0
 x 2 ym  2   2 m  1 x ym 1   m 2  m  m  1 ym  0
 x 2 ym  2   2 m  1 x ym 1   m 2  1 ym  0

 x 2 ym  2   2 m  1 x ym 1   m 2  1 ym  0