HOLOGRAPHY

It is a technique by which recording of interference patterned formed by two coherent beams

coming from the same light source is done. The technique was developed by Dennis Gabor in
1948. In this process both the amplitude and phase part of light are recorded on light sensitive
medium (photographic plate, as for an example). The image obtained on photographic plate is
known as hologram. Leith & Upatnicks were the first to use laser for holography.

(a) (b)
Fig-6.1 Hologram: (a) Cambodia
Silver Coin and (b) 150$ Canada
Gold Coin.

6.1 Principle of holography

In holography two steps are followed to obtain a hologram, one is recording and the other is
reconstruction. In the first step recording is by recording the interference produced by object
beam (light reaches to photographic plate after gets scattered from the real object) and
reference beam (light directly reaches to photographic late).

6.2 Important properties of a hologram

1. In ordinary photograph individual part or information is stored in a particular region,
therefore loss of a part is irreparable. While in hologram each part contains all the
information about the whole object, therefore even from small portion of the
hologram the entire object image can be reconstructed.
2. In ordinary photograph only one object image can be stored in a particular region
while many images can be stored to the same place without affecting individual image
information.
3. Without the knowledge of reference beam wavefront one can not read or interpret the
information stored in the hologram.
4. Reconstruction of hologram can be done if the reference beam properties are known
only.

6.3 Types of holography

1. Reflection holography: In this case the reference beam and object beam meet to form
interference from opposite direction.
2. Volume holography: In this case interference is recorded throughout the thickness of
the photographic plate (photosensitive layer has some thickness). It is regarded as
three dimensional grating. Different and mutually incoherent laser beams may be used
to produce the hologram and when viewed a coloured image is seen.
3. White light reflection holography: In this case a coherent beam is used to construct
the image but during reconstruction process white light having wavefront similar to
original constructing wavefront is used. When view with white light a multicoloured
image is seen.
4. Rainbow holography: In this case a true color image is seen only at correct plane. In
different plane the colour of the image will be different.
 5. Acoustic holography: In this case hologram of an object is formed by two coherent
sound waves. This has application in locating the underwater submarine, internal
body organ etc.

6.4 Applications
(i) Security purpose, (ii) Data Storage, (iii) Sensors, (iii) Testing of materials, (iv) Medical

6.5 Recording or construction of hologram

In the construction process, a broad laser beam (using beam expander) is divided into two
beams, one as object beam and the other as reference beam. The reference laser beam directly
goes to the photographic plate while the object beam falls on to object and scattered by the
object. Part of the scattered beams from various parts of the object also falls onto the
photographic plate.
These scattered beams
and reference beam
(they are coherent)
interfere and form many
fringes in the form of
lines and swirls. The
developed negative of
this pattern is a
hologram. The figure
below describes the
process of construction
of a hologram.

Fig-6.2 Construction of hologram of a real object

6.6 Reconstruction of hologram

In this process the hologram is illuminated by a parallel beam of laser light. While most of
the light transmitted through it, some will be diffracted according to the fringe-image
recorded on to the hologram. Diffracted rays will form two images: one virtual and one real.
Virtual image will
appear at the place
where the real object
was present. The real
image will appear in
front of the hologram
and a photograph can be
taken. This type of
hologram is known as
transmission hologram.
Below the figure
illustrates the same.

Fig-6.3 Reconstruction
of a hologram of a real
object
6.7 Optical Fiber
It is a device through which light can propagates long distance carrying digital signal from
one end to the other by the principle of total internal reflection. It is very thin, of the order of
few hundred microns, cylindrical shape and having three parts; core, cladding and outer
jacket. Light will propagate within the
core. Core is usually made of glass,
and has refractive indices greater than
that of cladding which is made of
plastic material. The outer jacket is
preventive from atmospheric
interaction and damage.

Outer jacket
cladding

θ core
θc

Figure: 3D structure of an optical fiber consisting of core, cladding and outer jacket. Light
propagating through the core is also shown in the figure.

The message is first encoded into optical signal and then fed to optical fiber at the angle
greater than critical angle (θc) as shown in figure. The optical signal propagates through
optical core by multiple total internal reflections.

Modulated
electrical
signal Light signal

Figure: Light is fed to the optical fiber with the help of light emitting diode to which
modulated electrical signal is fed. The light emerging out from the other end is fed to a
receiver or photocell or light sensitive receiver.

Optical fiber (wire form) is fabricated from molten pure silica to which dopants like GeO2,
B2O3 and P2O5 to get required refractive index. Optical fiber is prevented by projective jacket
to prevent mechanical and chemical damage.

Precautions have been taken to reduce the loss or distortion of light signal during propagation
through the fiber.
Types of fiber:
Optical fiber can be classified into three categories based on the refractive index profile of the
core and the way light passes through it. The fiber optic types are: (i) Step index single mode
fiber (SMF), (ii) step index multimode fiber (MMF), and (iii) Graded index multimode fiber
(GRIN). They are briefly described below.

Step index single mode or monomode fiber (SMF):

In this type of fiber the core diameter is fabricated to about a few times smaller than the
wavelength of light to be propagated through it to minimize modal dispersion (about to zero
level) by reducing number of modes to one only in the fiber and to increase the capacity of
carrying the information. The typical diameter of single mode core is of the order of 10
micron. SMF is used for long distance communication with larger bandwidth. Numerical
aperture is very small; therefore, acceptance angle is also very small. Light propagates along
the axis (blue line). Light coupling is difficult.

SMF core is usually made of germanium doped silicon. The cladding material is silica doped
with phosphorous oxide (P2O5). The diameter of cladding is of the order of 125 micron.

In order to get single mode the core must satisfy the condition

d < (0.766 λ/NA)

where, NA = numerical aperture of the fiber core = [n2core - n2clad]0.5

Outer jacket or sheath

Cladding: ncd

Cladding: ncd
Core: ncr Outer jacket or sheath

Propagation through SMF

Cross sectional view Light propagates along the axis (blue line)
Acceptance angle is small (two red lines)

ncd ncr Why ‘step index’ name so?

Ans: Index profile is like a step.
Clad
Core ncr > ncd
 Amplitude Amplitude

Input Output
pulse pulse

Time Time
Figure: Input and output pulse profile. Dispersion due to the difference of arrival time of
different rays is completely absent. Pulse distortion is reduced to zero level.

Step index multimode fiber (MMF):

In this type of fiber the core diameter is fabricated to about 20-100 microns, while cladding
diameter of about 100-200 microns. The refractive indices difference between core and
cladding is large so that critical angle is small, and hence many optical paths are available for
light propagation. Acceptance angle is large. MMF is used for short distance
communication (< 200 meter), where high power signal must be transmitted. As there are
large number of light paths, a narrow pulse at input end gets broaden at the output end over
time. Thus the output pulse is an attenuated pulse and dispersed over wide period of time.
Light coupling is easy. MMF core is usually made of glass with plastic cladding. Dispersion
reduces the information carrying capacity of the MMF.

In order to get multi mode the core must satisfy the condition
d > (0.766 λ/NA) where NA = [n2core - n2clad]0.5

Outer jacket or sheath

Cladding: ncd

Cladding: ncd
Core: ncr Outer jacket or sheath

Propagation through MMF

Cross sectional view Light propagates many total internal
reflections
Acceptance angle is large.
ncd ncr Why ‘step index’ name so?
Clad Ans: Index profile is like a step.
Core ncr > ncd
 Amplitude Amplitude

Input Output
pulse pulse

Time Time

Figure: Input and output pulse profile. Dispersion due to the difference of arrival time of
different rays is present.

Number of modes in multimode fiber: N = 0.5 [πd (NA)/λ]2 , d = 2a = diameter of core

Graded index multimode fiber (GRIN):

In this type of fiber the core refractive index falls gradually in a nearly parabolic manner as
one moves away from core axis towards core-cladding interface. The light pulses launched at
different angles travel through the core at different speed as their optical paths are different
and the velocity of individual ray is also different. The ray whose optical path is longer has
greater velocity than the ray whose path is smaller and velocity is also less. This due to the
fact that larger the refractive index of the medium the less is the velocity. Hence all the rays
launch at the input end can be transmitted to the other end at equal time. Thus the modal
dispersion is greatly reduced.

d > (0.766 λ/NA) where NA = [µ 2cr - µ 2cd]0.5

Outer jacket or sheath

x Cladding: ncd

Cladding: ncd

Core: ncr Outer jacket or sheath

Refractive index of the core follows the relation:

ncr (x) = ncr (0) [1-2δ(x/a)p]0.5 where, δ = [ncr (0)- ncd]/ ncr (0)
p= 2 typically for 850 nm λ.
Number of modes: N = 0.5 [p/(p+2)][πd (NA)/λ]2

Amplitude Amplitude

Input Output
pulse pulse

Time Time

Figure: Input and output pulse profile. Modal dispersion due to the different optical path is
drastically reduced.

Acceptance angle and acceptance cone of an optical fiber:

The maximum entrance angle subtended by an incident light ray with the fiber axis at the
entry point for which the light ray suffers total internal reflection at the core-cladding
boundary is called acceptance angle. θc is the critical angle and θac is acceptance angle. The
dimensional angle of the acceptance angle is called acceptance cone.

Maximum acceptance angle = 90o - θc

Acceptance cone Outer jacket or sheath

θc Cladding: ncd

θac Cladding: ncd

θi Outer jacket or sheath

nair sin θac = ncr sin (90o- θc) [ assume light is launched from air medium]
or, sin θac = ncr cos θc where, nair = 1
ncr sin θc = ncd
Hence, cos θc = [1-(ncd/ncr)2]0.5

therefore, sin θac = ncr [1-(ncd/ncr)2]0.5 = [n2cr - n2cd]0.5

OR, θac = sin-1 [n2cr - n2cd]0.5

Numerical aperture of an optical fiber:
The sine of acceptance angle is called numerical aperture (NA). It is a number defining the
light gathering capacity of a fiber.

Mathematically, NA = sin θac = [n2cr - n2cd]0.5.

High NA increases the efficiency of the light coupling. However, it also increases the
dispersion.

Let us define the relative refractive index difference

∆ = [ncr - ncd]/ncr = [ncr - ncd][ ncr + ncd]/ncr[ncr + ncd] = [n2cr - n2cd]/2n2cr

Here it is approximated that the difference between refractive indices is very small, therefore
Therefore, [ncr + ncd] ≈ 2ncr

Hence, ∆ = NA2/2n2cr ………………………………………………….(1)

OR, NA = [2∆ n2cr]0.5 ……………………………………………..(2)

Number of modes, V-number and cut-off parameters of fibers:

The number of modes supported by an optical fiber can be calculated in terms of cut-off
parameter defined as V-number or V-parameter, and is given by

V = π*d*(NA)/λ = (πd/λ)[ n2cr - n2cd]0.5

Hence, number of modes, N = (½)V2……………………………………….(3)

For GRIN: N = (1/4)V2 …………………………………..(4)
Out of all the modes only those modes will be propagated for which cut-off frequency is less
than the V-number.

Attenuation and signal losses in optical fiber:

Reduction in amplitude (or power) of a signal as it is guided through an optical fiber is
termed as attenuation. This may occur due to scattering of light at the imperfection,
impurities, bumps presents within the core materials and variation in core surface, loss at
interface.
Further losses occur due to bending, connections, splicing, terminal.
There are also major losses due to
1. Absorption by core and cladding materials.
2. Rayleigh scattering loss
3. Waveguiding scattering loss
4. Bending loss

Loss in dB = -(10/L) [log (Pout/Pin)], L is distance in KM.

Propagation mechanism in optical fibers:
In an optical fiber light is being propagated within the core by virtue of total internal
reflection. If a light pulse reaches at core-clad boundary at an angle less than the critical angle
(< θc) light will not be confined within the optical fiber core (figure-left). However, when
light reaches the core-clad boundary at the critical angle (= θc) the light pulse can travel
through the optical fiber along the interface (figure-middle). When light pulse strikes the
core-clad boundary at an angle greater than critical angle (> θc) light will suffer total internal
reflection (TIR). Light pulse will face multiple TIR on the either side of the core-clad
boundaries and will be guided within the core. Finally the light pulse will reach the other end
of the fiber.

If light is being launched from the air medium then we can write the condition of critical
angle as

ncr sin θc = ncd sin 90o = ncd

Hence, θc = sin-1 [ncd/ncr]

< θc = θc > θc

Light is not Light travels at Light is guided

confined within the core-clad within the core
the core boundary by total internal
reflection

Communication in optical fiber:

Light pulse reaching the core-clad boundary at an angle greater than critical angle (θc = sin-1
ncd/ncr) will suffer multiple TIR by which light will be guided through the core and reach to
the other end of the fiber. If light source is not exactly a point source then the emitted light
may have many rays which have different directions entering the optical fiber. As the rays
travel through the core by multiple TIR the light pulse spreads in time. This happens when
the refractive index profile of fiber core and clad is a step like. The rays within the core will
follow zig-zag paths resulting in transit time dispersion. If the dispersion is large the
emergent light pulse will be so broad that the emergent beam at the output end will overlap
and will be indistinguishable. The modal dispersion can be overcome by adapting graded
index core where refractive index of the core varies roughly as parabolic way as one moves
away from the core where refractive index is maximum. The refractive index difference at the
core-clad boundary is small in this type of fiber. Light rays entering core at different direction
will take different light path and their velocity will be different. The velocity of ray which is
closer to the core will have less velocity compared to a ray which travels through the lesser
refractive index region. This causes no time difference in reaching at the other end of the
fiber. Hence the modal dispersion due to transit time is greatly minimized.

> θc > θc

Light is guided Light pulse

within the core spreads out as it
by total internal propagates
reflection through the
fiber core
A block diagram of fiber optic communication is shown below:

electrical signal in Transmitter Optical fiber

(light pulse)

electrical signal out Receiver Optical amplifier

Home assignment:1
1. Difference between SMF and MMF
2. Difference between MMF and GRIN

Home assignment:2
1. Advantages of optical fiber over coaxial cable
2. Disadvantage of optical fiber

Home assignment:3
Applications of optical fibers
Numerical:
Calculate the loss in dB for a light pulse having input power of 100 mW and output power of
40 mW.

Ans:
Loss in dB is defined as dB = - 10 log10[Pout/Pin]
= - 10 log 10[40/100]
= 3.98 dB

Numerical:
A communication system uses a 10 KM fiber having a loss of 2.3 dB/KM. Calculate output
power if at the entrance end input power is 800 micro-watt.

Ans:
Loss per KM in dB can be written as

dB = - (10/L)log [Pout/Pin]

2.3 = - (10/10) log [Pout/800] where, Pout in micro watt

Or, log [Pout/800] = -2.3

Pout = 800*10 -2.3 = 0.005*800 = 4 micro watt