Complete Notes On

Chemical Bond
By Touhid ME’22

With Help of Aktarun Nahar Madam

Guidance & Chat GPT

(All Ruet ME’s Previous Years Questions

Solution Are Included)
 Ionic Bond

#Define ionic bond with illustration of formation

Ans: An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond that involves the
electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, or between
two atoms with sharply different electronegativities³. Such a bond
forms when the valence (outermost) electrons of one atom are
transferred permanently to another atom, resulting in the formation
of positive and negative ions¹. The ionic bond is also called an
electrovalent bond².

An example of an ionic bond formation is the reaction between

sodium and chlorine to form sodium chloride. Sodium has one
valence electron, which it can lose to achieve the stable configuration
of neon. Chlorine has seven valence electrons, which means it needs
one more electron to achieve the stable configuration of argon. When
sodium and chlorine react, sodium transfers its valence electron to
chlorine, forming a sodium cation (Na+) and a chloride anion (Cl-).
The opposite charges of these ions attract each other and form an
ionic bond. The resulting compound, sodium chloride, is an ionic
compound.

#What is meant by an Ionic bond? What are the conditions

necessary for the formation of an ionic bond?(2020)
Ans: An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond formed by the
electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. These
ions are created by the transfer of valence electrons between two
atoms, usually a metal and a non-metal. ¹
The conditions necessary for the formation of an ionic bond are:

- One of the atoms must be a metal and the other must be a non-metal.
Metals tend to lose electrons and form positive ions (cations), while
non-metals tend to gain electrons and form negative ions (anions). ¹²
- The metal atom must have a low ionization energy, which means
that it can easily release its valence electrons. The non-metal atom
must have a high electron affinity, which means that it can readily
accept additional electrons. ²⁶
- The lattice energy of the compound formed must be high, which
means that the electrostatic attraction between the ions is strong
enough to overcome the repulsion between like-charged ions and the
energy required to separate the atoms. The lattice energy depends
on the size and charge of the ions. Smaller and more highly charged
ions tend to have higher lattice enformation

#Explain the factors affecting the ionic bond

Ans:The ionic bond is a type of chemical bond that involves the
electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, or between
two atoms with sharply different electronegativities³. The formation
of an ionic bond depends on three main factors:

- The ionization energy of the metal atom. This is the amount of

energy required to remove an electron from the outermost shell of
the atom. The lower the ionization energy, the easier it is for the
metal atom to lose an electron and form a positive ion (cation).
Metals generally have low ionization energies, which makes them
more likely to form ionic bonds¹².
- The electron affinity of the nonmetal atom. This is the amount of
energy released when an electron is added to the outermost shell of
the atom. The higher the electron affinity, the more favorable it is for
the nonmetal atom to gain an electron and form a negative ion
(anion). Nonmetals generally have high electron affinities, which
makes them more likely to form ionic bonds¹².
- The lattice energy of the ionic compound. This is the amount of
energy released when positive and negative ions are brought
together to form a crystal lattice. The higher the lattice energy, the
stronger the ionic bond. The lattice energy depends on the size and
charge of the ions. Smaller and more highly charged ions have higher
lattice energies, which makes them more likely to form ionic bonds¹³.

These factors influence the tendency and stability of ionic bond

formation. However, they are not absolute criteria, as there are
exceptions and variations depending on the specific elements and
compounds involved.

#Explain the properties of ionic compounds

Ans: Ionic compounds, also known as salts, have several distinct properties12:
1. Formation: Ionic compounds are made up of charged particles, called
ions. They have a giant lattice structure with strong electrostatic forces
of attraction1.
2. Melting and Boiling Points: Ionic compounds have high melting and
boiling points due to the strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between the oppositely charged ions1. For example, the melting point of
NaCl is 801°C and its boiling point is 1,413°C1.
3. Enthalpies of Fusion and Vaporization: Ionic compounds usually have
higher enthalpies of fusion and vaporization than molecular
compounds2.
4. Physical State: At room temperature, ionic compounds are usually in the
solid state1.
 5. Hardness and Brittleness: Ionic crystals are hard because the positive
and negative ions are strongly attracted to each other and difficult to
separate. However, when pressure is applied to an ionic crystal then
ions of like charge may be forced closer to each other. The electrostatic
repulsion can be enough to split the crystal, which is why ionic solids
also are brittle2.
6. Conductivity: Ionic compounds can conduct electricity when they are
dissolved in water or melted to form a liquid. This is because these
processes allow ions to move from place to place1. However, ionic
compounds cannot conduct electricity in the solid state because their
ions are held in fixed positions and cannot move1.
7. Solubility: Many ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in
nonpolar solvents2.

Covalent Bond

#Define covalent bond with illustration of formation

Ans:A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond that involves the
sharing of electrons between two or more atoms. The atoms share
one or more pairs of electrons, which are called bonding pairs or
shared pairs. Covalent bonds are also known as molecular bonds,
because they form molecules³. Covalent bonds are different from
ionic bonds, which involve the transfer of electrons and the
formation of ions².

An example of a covalent bond formation is the reaction between

hydrogen and oxygen to form water. Hydrogen has one valence
electron, which it can share with another hydrogen atom to form a
covalent bond. Oxygen has six valence electrons, which means it
needs two more electrons to achieve the stable configuration of neon.
When two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom react, they share
their valence electrons to form two covalent bonds. The resulting
compound, water, is a covalent molecule.

#Explain the properties of covalent compounds

Ans:

Covalent compounds, also known as molecular compounds, have

several distinct properties12:
1. Formation: Covalent compounds contain atoms held together
by covalent bonds. These bonds form when the atoms share
electrons because they have similar electronegativity values1.
2. Melting and Boiling Points: Covalent compounds typically have
lower melting points and boiling points. This is because
covalent bonds are weaker than ionic bonds, and the molecules
can separate from each other when a lower amount of energy
is added to them1.
3. Enthalpies of Fusion and Vaporization: Covalent compounds
usually have lower enthalpies of fusion and vaporization than
ionic compounds1.
4. Physical State: Most covalent compounds are fairly soft and
flexible. They are not very rigid and tend to take form as gases,
liquids, and soft solids1.
5. Solubility: Covalent compounds usually don’t dissolve in water,
unless they are polar compounds. When they do dissolve, these
compounds don’t dissociate into ions1.
6. Conductivity: They are generally poor conductors of electricity
(non-electrolytes) because ions are needed to conduct
electricity in an aqueous solution1.
 7. Flammability: Covalent compounds tend to be more flammable
than ionic compounds. Many flammable substances contain
hydrogen and carbon atoms which can undergo combustion1.

#Explain the factors affecting the covalent bond

Ans: A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond that involves the
sharing of electrons between two or more atoms. The formation and
strength of a covalent bond depend on several factors, such as:

- The size of the atoms involved. Smaller atoms have better overlap
of their orbitals, which results in stronger and shorter bonds. Larger
atoms have more diffuse orbitals, which leads to weaker and longer
bonds¹².

- The number of bonds between the atoms. Multiple bonds (double

or triple) are stronger and shorter than single bonds, because they
involve more electrons being shared. For example, a carbon-carbon
triple bond is stronger and shorter than a carbon-carbon single
bond¹².

- The polarity of the bond. Polar bonds are generally stronger than
nonpolar bonds, because they have extra electrostatic attraction
between the partial charges on the atoms. For example, a carbon-
oxygen bond is stronger than a carbon-carbon bond, because oxygen
is more electronegative than carbon and pulls the electrons closer to
itself¹².

- The presence of neighboring lone pairs. Lone pairs are pairs of

electrons that are not involved in bonding. They can cause repulsion
with the bonding pairs, which weakens the covalent bond. For
example, a nitrogen-nitrogen bond is weaker than a carbon-carbon
bond, because nitrogen has lone pairs that repel the bonding pair².

#Instead of being a covalent compound why graphite shows

electrical conductivity

Ans: Graphite, despite being a covalent compound, can conduct electricity

due to its unique structure123. In graphite, each carbon atom is covalently
bonded to three other carbon atoms1. This leaves the fourth electron of each
carbon atom unbound1. These unbound electrons are delocalized, meaning
they are free to move throughout the structure23.

This movement of electrons is what allows graphite to conduct electricity 123.

The presence of these free electrons makes graphite an excellent conductor
of electricity1. This is a unique property among covalent compounds and is
due to the specific arrangement of carbon atoms in graphite123.

Coordinate Covalent Bond

#Define coordinate bond with illustration of formation

Ans:A coordinate bond is a type of covalent bond in which both
electrons in the shared pair come from the same atom¹. It is also
called a dative bond or a dipolar bond². The atom that donates the
electron pair is called the donor, and the atom that accepts it is called
the acceptor. The coordinate bond is represented by an arrow
pointing from the donor to the acceptor².

An example of a coordinate bond formation is the reaction between

ammonia and boron trifluoride to form ammonia boron trifluoride.
Ammonia has a lone pair of electrons on its nitrogen atom, which it
can donate to the boron atom in boron trifluoride, which has an
empty orbital. The nitrogen atom acts as the donor, and the boron
atom acts as the acceptor. A coordinate bond is formed between
them, and the resulting compound is ammonia boron trifluoride.

# What is a co-ordinet covalent bond? How does it differ from a

normal covalent bond?(2020)
Ans: A co-ordinate covalent bond is a type of covalent bond in which
the shared pair of electrons comes from only one of the two atoms
involved in the bond. For example, ammonia (NH3) has a nitrogen
atom with a lone pair of electrons. These electrons can be shared
with an electron-deficient atom or ion, such as hydrogen ion (H+), to
form a co-ordinate covalent bond. The resulting compound is
ammonium ion (NH4+). ¹²

A normal covalent bond is a type of bond in which the shared pair of

electrons comes from both atoms involved in the bond. For example,
hydrogen (H2) has two hydrogen atoms, each with one electron.
These electrons are shared between the two atoms to form a covalent
bond. The resulting molecule is hydrogen gas (H2). ³

The main difference between a co-ordinate covalent bond and a

normal covalent bond is the source of the shared electrons. In a co-
ordinate covalent bond, one atom provides both electrons, while in a
normal covalent bond, each atom provides one electron. Another
difference is that a co-ordinate covalent bond is usually represented
by an arrow (→) pointing from the donor atom to the acceptor atom,
while a normal covalent bond is represented by a dash (-) between
the two atoms.
 Valence Bond Theory

#Write down the Postulates of Valence Bond Theory

Ans: o A covalent bond is formed only when half-filled orbitals of
two atoms overlap each other.
o Each overlapping atomic orbital should contain an unpaired
electron with an opposite spin.
o The overlapping atomic orbitals must have nearly the same i.e.
comparable energies.
o The electron spins are neutralized and electrons get paired up on
overlapping of atomic
orbitals.
o During the overlap of atomic orbitals, the electron density
increases in between the two
nuclei and therefore repulsion between the two nuclei of bonded
atoms decreases. This
results in the liberation of energy and an increase in the attractive
forces between atoms.
o A bond is formed at an equilibrium distance when the system has
minimum potential
energy and maximum stability.
o The strength of a covalent bond depends upon the extent of
overlap of orbitals between the
two atoms. Greater the extent of overlap between atomic orbitals
more is the energy
released and stronger is the bond formed.
o There are two types of covalent bonds based on the overlapping
pattern: sigma bonds and
pi bonds. The pi bond is formed by the overlapping of atomic
orbitals sideways, whereas
the sigma bond is created by the overlapping of atomic orbitals
along the axis of the
nucleus.
o The number of covalent bonds formed by an atom of an element is
equal to the number of
unpaired electrons present in the valence shell of the atom.
o Each atomic orbital (except-s-orbital) has a particular direction in
space. Hence covalent
bonds formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals possess directional
characteristics.
o The geometry of a molecule is decided by the directional
orientation of overlapping
orbitals, s-orbital is spherically symmetrical and overlaps in any
direction. But p, d, and f
orbitals have particular directions in space, hence the geometry and
bond angle depends
upon the orientation of overlapping orbitals. To minimize electronic
repulsion and to have
maximum symmetry the orbitals orient in such a way that they are
far apart from each
other.

#Describe the importance & limitation of valence bond theory

Ans: Importance of Valence Bond Theory
Valence bond theory introduced five new concepts in chemical
bonding
o Delocalization of electrons over the two nuclei.
o Shielding effect of electrons.
o The essential covalent character of bond.
o The presence of partial ionic nature in a covalent bond.
o The concept of resonance and connection between resonance
energy and molecular
stability
Limitations of Valence bond theory
o Oxygen molecules should be diamagnetic according to this theory.
The two atoms in the
oxygen molecule should have closed electronic shells which would
give no unpaired
electrons to the molecule making it diamagnetic. However,
experimentally the molecule
is found to be para-magnetic having two unpaired electrons. Thus,
this theory fails to
explain.
o On the basis of this theory, the two Be-Cl bonds in BeC12 molecule
are of two types: (i) 2s
(Be)-3p (CI) bond and (ii) 2p (Be)-3p (Cl) bond. Both these bonds
are sigma-bonds. These
are different in energy and hence different in length from each
other. But experiments have
shown that in BeC12 molecule both Be-Cl bonds have the same
energy and same length
and hence are identical to each other.
o Valence bond theory does not explain the bonding in electron-
deficient molecules
like B2H6, in which the central atom possesses a fewer number of
electrons than required
for an octet of electrons.
o It is unable to explain carbon's tetravalency

Hybridization

#Define hybridization
Hybridization is a concept that explains how atoms form bonds with
each other. It involves the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals
to create new orbitals that have the same energy and shape. These
new orbitals are called hybrid orbitals, and they can overlap with
other orbitals to form strong covalent bonds.

# Explain NH4+ has higher HNH bond angle than NH3 (2021)
Ans: NH4+ has a higher HNH bond angle than NH3 because NH4+
has a different molecular geometry and hybridization than NH3.
NH4+ has a tetrahedral shape with sp3 hybridization, while NH3 has
a trigonal pyramidal shape with sp3 hybridization. The difference is
that NH4+ has four bonded pairs of electrons around the central
nitrogen atom, while NH3 has three bonded pairs and one lone pair.
The lone pair in NH3 exerts more repulsion on the bonded pairs than
the bonded pairs themselves, causing them to compress and reduce
the bond angle. In NH4+, there is no lone pair, so the repulsion is
equal among the bonded pairs, resulting in a larger bond angle. You
can see the Lewis structures and molecular geometries of NH4+ and
NH3 in this image⁴. The HNH bond angle in NH4+ is 109.5°, while the
HNH bond angle in NH3 is 107°²³.

#Name the all kind of hybridyzation with examples

Ans:here are the different types of hybridization with examples:

1. sp Hybridization: This type of hybridization involves the mixing
of one s and one p orbital resulting in two equivalent sp hybrid
orbitals1. An example of sp hybridization is the formation of the
acetylene molecule (C2H2)2.
2. sp² Hybridization: This involves the mixing of one s and two p
orbitals to produce three equivalent sp² hybrid orbitals1. An
example of a molecule with sp² hybridization is ethene (C2H4)1.
 3. sp³ Hybridization: This involves the mixing of one s and three p
orbitals to produce four equivalent sp³ hybrid orbitals1. An
example of a molecule with sp³ hybridization is methane (CH4)1.
4. sp³d Hybridization: This involves the mixing of one s, three p,
and one d orbital to produce five equivalent sp³d hybrid
orbitals1. An example of a molecule with sp³d hybridization is
phosphorus pentachloride (PCl5)1.
5. sp³d² Hybridization: This involves the mixing of one s, three p,
and two d orbitals to produce six equivalent sp³d² hybrid
orbitals1. An example of a molecule with sp³d² hybridization is
sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)1.
6. sp³d³ Hybridization: This involves the mixing of one s, three p,
and three d orbitals to produce seven equivalent sp³d³ hybrid
orbitals3. An example of a molecule with sp³d³ hybridization is
iodine heptafluoride (IF7)3

#Discuss sp3d hybridyzation of phosphorus with example

Ans: The concept of sp3d hybridization is an extension of the

valence bond theory, and it helps us to understand the formation of
bonds, bond energies, and bond lengths1.
Let’s take the example of phosphorus pentachloride (PCl5)1. In
PCl5, phosphorus (P) is the central atom. It has five valence
electrons in its outer shell. When it forms bonds with five chlorine
(Cl) atoms, one of the electrons in the 3s orbital of phosphorus is
promoted to the higher 3d orbital so that it has five unpaired
electrons2. These five orbitals (one s, three p, and one d) hybridize
to form five sp3d hybrid orbitals12.
These five sp3d orbitals of phosphorus overlap with p orbitals of
chlorine atoms3. The p orbitals are singly occupied. Together they
form 5 P–Cl sigma bonds3. The geometry of the molecule is trigonal
bipyramidal3, which means there are three equatorial P-Cl bonds at
120° angles in the plane and two axial P-Cl bonds at 180° angle
perpendicular to the plane.
So, in summary, sp3d hybridization involves the mixing of one s
orbital, three p orbitals, and one d orbital to form five equivalent
sp3d hybrid orbitals.

Vander Waals Force

#Explain the van der waals force of atrraction

Ans: The van der Waals force is a type of intermolecular force,

which is a force between molecules. Unlike ionic or covalent bonds,
these attractions do not result from a chemical electronic bond;
they are comparatively weak and therefore more susceptible to
disturbance. Van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular forces
that arise from the interactions between uncharged atoms or
molecules1. They are dependent on the distance between atoms or
molecules and rapidly vanish when the distance between the
interacting molecules increases1.

#Explain the four types of vander waals froce

Ans: There are four types of van der Waals forces:
1. dipole-dipole attraction force : Dipole-dipole forces, also
known as dipole-dipole interactions, are the electrostatic
forces between two permanent polar molecules1. These forces
occur when the positive end of one polar molecule is attracted
to the negative end of another2. This results in the two
molecules coming closer together, adding to the stability of the
substance1.
For example, consider a polar molecule such as hydrogen chloride
(HCl). In the HCl molecule, the more electronegative Cl atom bears
the partial negative charge, whereas the less electronegative H atom
bears the partial positive charge3. An attractive force between HCl
molecules results from the attraction between the positive end of
one HCl molecule and the negative end of another3. This attractive
force is what we call a dipole-dipole attraction3.
2. Ion-dipole attraction force: An ion-dipole interaction is the
intermolecular force of attraction between a charged ion
(cation or anion) and a molecule1. It is commonly found in
solutions where ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents1.
For example, consider a solution of table salt (NaCl) in water. When
sodium chloride dissolves in water, it undergoes dissociation to
form Na+ and Cl- ions1. Water is a polar solvent, so it produces a
dipole. The positive sodium ion will be attracted to the slightly
negative oxygen atoms in the water molecule, while the negative
chloride ion is attracted to the slightly positive hydrogen atoms1.1.
3. Dipole-induced dipole attraction force: A dipole-induced
dipole attraction is a weak attraction that results when a
polar molecule induces a dipole in an atom or in a nonpolar
molecule by disrupting the electron configuration in the
nonpolar species1. This interaction occurs when a polar
molecule causes a temporary dipole in a nonpolar molecule2.
For example, consider a polar molecule like water (H2O) near a
nonpolar molecule like oxygen (O2). The partial negative charge on
the oxygen atom of the water molecule can repel the electrons in
the oxygen molecule, inducing a temporary dipole. This results in a
weak attraction between the water and oxygen molecules2.
4. Instantaneus dipole-induced dipole attraction force:
Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces, also known
as London dispersion forces, are a type of intermolecular
 force that occurs between atoms and molecules that are
normally electrically symmetric1. These forces are part of the
van der Waals forces1.

#Describe the factors affecting the vander waals force of

attraction
Ans: The strength of Van Der Waals forces between two atoms or
molecules is affected by several factors1:
1. Nature of the Atoms or Molecules: The type of atoms or
molecules involved can influence the strength of the Van der
Waals forces. For instance, larger atoms or molecules tend to
have stronger dispersion forces because they have more
electrons that can move around, creating temporary dipoles2.
2. Distance Between the Atoms or Molecules: Van der Waals
forces are dependent on the distance between the interacting
particles3. They are short-range forces, and their magnitude is
high when the atoms/molecules in question are close to each
other4. When the distance between the atoms is greater than
0.6 nanometers, the forces are extremely weak and cannot be
observed. When the distance between the atoms ranges from
0.6 to 0.4 nanometers, the forces are attractive. If the
interatomic distance is smaller than 0.4 nanometers, the forces
are repulsive in nature4.
3. Polarity of the Molecules: The polarity of the molecules can
also affect the strength of certain types of Van der Waals forces.
For example, polar molecules will have stronger dipole-dipole
interactions3.
4. Nature of the Surrounding Environment: The surrounding
environment can also influence these forces1. For example, in a
solution, the type of solvent can affect the strength of these
interactions.
 5. Temperature: They are not dependent on temperature except
for dipole-dipole interactions34.

H bond

# Define intra-molecular and intermolecular hydrogen bond

with example (2021)
Ans: A hydrogen bond is a special type of attraction that occurs
between a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to a highly
electronegative atom (such as N, O, or F) and another electronegative
atom with a lone pair of electrons. Hydrogen bonds can be either
intermolecular or intramolecular.

Intermolecular hydrogen bonds are those that occur between two or

more molecules. For example, in water, each oxygen atom can form
two hydrogen bonds with the hydrogen atoms of two neighboring
water molecules, as shown in the figure below¹. Intermolecular
hydrogen bonds are responsible for many physical properties of
substances, such as high boiling point, surface tension, and solubility.
Intramolecular hydrogen bonds are those that occur within a single
molecule. For example, in salicylic acid, the hydrogen atom of the
hydroxyl group can form a hydrogen bond with the oxygen atom of
the carboxyl group, as shown in the figure below². Intramolecular
hydrogen bonds reduce the ability of molecules to form
intermolecular hydrogen bonds, and thus lower their boiling point
and solubility.

#Explain the defference in melting point & boiling point of p-

nitrophenol & o-nitrophenol
Ans: The melting and boiling points of p-nitrophenol and o-nitrophenol are
as follows:

 p-Nitrophenol:
o Melting point: 113 to 114 °C (235 to 237 °F; 386 to 387 K)
o Boiling point: 279 °C (534 °F; 552 K)
 o-Nitrophenol:
o Melting point: Approximately 45°C
o Boiling point: Lower than that of p-nitrophenol

The difference in these properties is due to the types of hydrogen bonding

present in each compound. In o-nitrophenol, there is intramolecular
hydrogen bonding, which does not facilitate the formation of a network of
molecules. This results in a lower boiling point compared to p-nitrophenol,
which has intermolecular hydrogen bonding that leads to a molecular
association, increasing the boiling point.

# Explain why water has maximum density at 4 degree

temperature (2020)
Ans: Water has maximum density at 4 degree Celsius because of the
unique structure and behavior of its molecules. Water molecules are
made of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms, which are held
together by covalent bonds. The oxygen atom has a slightly negative
charge, while the hydrogen atoms have a slightly positive charge.
This makes water a polar molecule, meaning that it has opposite
charges on different ends. ¹

Water molecules are attracted to each other by hydrogen bonds,

which are weak electrostatic forces between the positive hydrogen
of one molecule and the negative oxygen of another molecule.
Hydrogen bonds are not as strong as covalent bonds, but they are
important for the properties of water. ¹
When water is in solid form (ice), the molecules are arranged in a
regular crystal lattice, where each molecule forms four hydrogen
bonds with its neighbors. This creates a lot of empty space between
the molecules, making ice less dense than liquid water. That is why
ice floats on water. ¹²

When water is in liquid form, the molecules are constantly moving

and colliding with each other. The hydrogen bonds are constantly
breaking and reforming, creating a dynamic and flexible structure.
The molecules are closer together than in ice, making liquid water
more dense than ice. ¹²

When water is heated above 4 degree Celsius, the molecules move

faster and have more kinetic energy. This makes them vibrate and
push each other apart, reducing the number and strength of
hydrogen bonds. The molecules become further apart, making liquid
water less dense as temperature increases. ¹²

Molecular Orbital & Bond Order

#Justify the order of bond lengths for the following species vary
in the order of O2+<O2<O2- and choose the paramagnetic
species among them (2021)
Ans: The order of bond lengths for the following species vary in the
order of O2+<O2<O2- because the bond order is inversely
proportional to the bond length. The bond order is the number of
bonding pairs of electrons between two atoms. The higher the bond
order, the stronger and shorter the bond. The bond order can be
calculated by using the molecular orbital theory or by drawing the
Lewis structure and counting the number of bonds and unpaired
electrons. ¹²

Using the molecular orbital theory, the bond order is given by:

Bond Order = (½)* (total no. of bonding electrons – total no. of anti
bonding electrons)

For O2+, there are 15 electrons, 10 in bonding orbitals and 5 in anti

bonding orbitals. Therefore, the bond order is (½)*(10-5) = 2.5

For O2, there are 16 electrons, 10 in bonding orbitals and 6 in anti

bonding orbitals. Therefore, the bond order is (½)*(10-6) = 2

For O2-, there are 17 electrons, 10 in bonding orbitals and 7 in anti

bonding orbitals. Therefore, the bond order is (½)*(10-7) = 1.5

Since O2+ has the highest bond order, it has the shortest bond length.
O2- has the lowest bond order, so it has the longest bond length.

The paramagnetic species among them are those that have unpaired
electrons in their molecular orbitals. Paramagnetic substances are
weakly attracted by a magnetic field and form induced magnetic
fields in the direction of the applied field. ³⁶
Using the molecular orbital diagram for oxygen, we can see that O2+
has one unpaired electron in the π*2p orbital. O2 has two unpaired
electrons, one in each π*2p orbital. O2- has no unpaired electrons, as
all the π*2p orbitals are filled.

Therefore, O2+ and O2 are paramagnetic, while O2- is diamagnetic.

#Draw the molecular orbitals of NO- & CO and find the value of
bond order(2017)
Ans: For NO-, the molecular orbital electronic configuration is as follows1:

 σ1s²
 σ*1s²
 σ2s²
 σ*2s²
 π2px²
 π2py²
 σ2pz²
 π*2px¹

This configuration shows that there are 10 electrons in bonding MOs and 5
electrons in anti-bonding MOs1. Therefore, the bond order of NO- can be
calculated using the formula:

Bond Order=1/2
(Number of electrons in bonding MOs−Number of electrons in anti-
bonding MOs)

Substituting the values, we get:

Bond Order of NO-=1/2(10−5)=2.5

The molecular orbital electronic configuration of CO is as follows:

 σ1s²
 σ*1s²
  σ2s²
 σ*2s²
 π2px²
 π2py²
 σ2pz²

This configuration shows that there are 10 electrons in bonding MOs and 4
electrons in anti-bonding MOs. Therefore, the bond order of CO can be
calculated using the formula:

Bond Order=21/2(Number of electrons in bonding MOs−Number of electron

s in anti-bonding MOs)

Substituting the values, we get:

Bond Order of CO=1/2(10−4)=3