Tertiary volcanism during extension in the Andean foothills
of central Chile (338159–338459S)
Jan Olov Nyström†
Swedish Museum of Natural History, SE-10405, Stockholm, Sweden
Mario Vergara‡
Diego Morata
Departamento de Geologı́a, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 13518 Santiago, Chile
Beatriz Levi
Kallforsv. 8, SE-12432 Bandhagen, Sweden
ABSTRACT
This lithologic and geochemical study
treats two Tertiary volcanic formations in
the Andean foothills of central Chile depos-
ited during and after an inferred culmina-
tion of crustal attenuation. The Abanico
and Farellones Formations, which are de-
scribed in their type localities just east of
Santiago, formed from volcanic arcs in con-
tinental basins during the Oligocene and
Early Miocene, respectively. Aphyric basic
lavas of tholeiitic affinity, acid pyroclastic
rocks, and lacustrine deposits constitute the
.3100-m-thick Abanico Formation. The
overlying .2100-m-thick Farellones For-
mation consists of calc-alkaline lavas (ba-
salts absent) with thick pyroclastic deposits
at the base.
Both formations have Nd-Sr isotope sig-
natures within the mantle array; the Aban-
ico rocks («Nd ø 15.7) plot closer to N-
MORB (normal mid-oceanic-ridge basalt)
than the Farellones rocks («Nd 5 13.9 to
15.1). The REE (rare earth element) pat-
terns indicate greater depth to the mantle
source and a smaller degree of partial melt-
ing with time. The Abanico lavas segregat-
ed within the stability field of spinel, where-
as the lavas of the upper Farellones
member show residual garnet in their
source. Geochemical changes with time are
systematic: the greatest contrast is between
the middle and upper Farellones members
in 1–2 m.y., e.g., for basaltic andesites, La/
Yb increases from 4.3 (Abanico) to 5.6, 6.0,
†
E-mail: mi-jan@nrm.se.
‡
E-mail: mariover@cec.uchile.cl.
GSA Bulletin; December 2003; v. 115; no. 12; p. 1523–1537; 14 figures; 2 tables; Data Repository item 2003179.
and 11.6 (lower, middle, and upper Farel-
lones members).
The bimodal composition of the Abanico
Formation and the lower Farellones mem-
ber indicates that volcanism took place dur-
ing episodes of extensional conditions. Ex-
tension with subsidence is independently
shown by the burial metamorphic pattern.
Voluminous pyroclastic flows, structural
relationships, and other evidence suggest
recurrent caldera collapse. The first exten-
sional episode ended with contraction and
folding of the Abanico rocks, and the sec-
ond episode resulted in uplift of the lower
and middle Farellones members, followed
by a more passive tectonic regime. Sequenc-
es showing many similarities with the
Abanico and Farellones Formations occur
along the Andean foothills of Chile. They
decrease in age from Late Cretaceous–
Paleocene at 238S to Early Miocene–late
Miocene at 358S and might be explained by
oblique subduction of oceanic ridge.
Keywords: Chile, Andes, Tertiary, volca-
nism, extension, geochemistry.
INTRODUCTION
The geologic structure of central Chile can
be described as an ;150-km-wide, north-
trending synclinorium whose western and
eastern flanks crop out in the Coast Range and
the Andean Range, respectively (Fig. 1). The
synclinorium consists of several stratigraphic-
structural units of Jurassic to Tertiary age sep-
arated by regional unconformities, and both
flanks overlie Paleozoic or Triassic basement
(Aguirre, 1985; Levi et al., 1988; SERNA-
For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org
q 2003 Geological Society of America
GEOMIN, 2002). Volcanic rocks with an ac-
cumulated thickness of 10–20 km totally
dominate the western Jurassic–Cretaceous se-
quences in the Coast Range, but are less abun-
dant in the 4–8-km-thick coeval eastern se-
quences of the Andean Range (Charrier and
Muñoz, 1994; Vergara et al., 1995; Vergara
and Nyström, 1996). The central part of the
synclinorium—comprising the Central Valley
graben and the Andean foothills—is occupied
by Tertiary volcanic rocks. The geologic rec-
ord shows that periods of extension and vol-
canism alternated with short periods of con-
traction (Charrier, 1973; Vergara et al., 1995;
Charrier et al., 2002).
On the basis of geochemistry and geologic
setting, Vergara et al. (1995) concluded that
the crust below the Coast Range between
328309 and 348S became progressively atten-
uated during Jurassic and Early Cretaceous
extension and island-arc volcanism, interrupt-
ed by Late Jurassic contraction. A back-arc
setting was proposed for coeval rocks in the
Andean Range (Charrier and Muñoz, 1994;
Vergara and Nyström, 1996). The depositional
environment alternated between marine and
continental and was continental from the Late
Cretaceous on. After folding and uplift at the
end of the middle Cretaceous, a new stage of
intense volcanism took place during the Oli-
gocene. Nd-Sr isotope data for volcanic rocks
from both the Coastal and Andean Ranges in
the same sector of central Chile define trends
toward and then away from N-MORB (normal
mid-oceanic-ridge basalt), interpreted to indi-
cate that the attenuation culminated during the
Oligocene with eruption of lavas of tholeiitic
affinity and was followed by calc-alkaline vol-
canism (Nyström et al., 1993).
1523
 NYSTRÖM et al.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the

geology and geochemistry of two Tertiary vol-
canic units that were deposited during and af-
ter the inferred culmination in crustal attenu-
ation and then to discuss their origin. These
units, the Abanico and Farellones Formations,
are situated in the foothills of the Andean
Range, 30–60 km west of the present volcanic
arc. The area treated in this study (338159–
338459S; Figs. 1–2) includes their type local-
ities just east of Santiago. The Abanico and
Farellones Formations belong to a discontin-
uous belt of Late Cretaceous–Tertiary rocks
that extends for ;1300 km along the Andean
foothills of northern and central Chile between
lat 238 and 358S. The different sequences
composing the belt consist of 2–6-km-thick
piles of volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks de-
posited in a series of continental basins. The
sequences are generally divided into two
units: a lower folded unit characterized by ba-
sic lavas and an upper subhorizontal unit with
lavas of less basic composition; pyroclastic
flows are common in both units.

THE ABANICO AND FARELLONES

FORMATIONS AT 338159–338459S

Jorge Muñoz Cristi (in Hoffstetter et al.,

1957) proposed the names Abanico and Far-
ellones Formations for the uppermost part of
the Porphyritic Formation, a term introduced
by Darwin (1846) for the pre-Quaternary se-
quences in central Chile. Both the Abanico
and Farellones Formations consist of interfin-
gering packages of continental volcanic and
volcaniclastic rocks. Lithologic characteris-
tics, such as proportion of basic and interme-
Figure 1. Location of the study area in central Chile. (A) Main physiographic features. diate lavas, pyroclastic flows, and volcaniclas-
The Central Valley is a graben that separates the Coast Range and the Andean Range tic deposits, can be followed north-south for
south of Santiago. The stars represent Quaternary volcanic complexes (shown in more tens of kilometers in both formations, in spite
detail in C) belonging to the SVZ (from 338S to 468S, referred to as the northern part of of lateral facies changes and intraformational
the SVZ [NSVZ] between 338S and 348309S and the central part of the SVZ [CSVZ] disconformities (Thiele, 1980; Thiele et al.,
between 378S and 418309S, separated by a transitional zone). (B) Schematic west-east pro- 1991; Vergara et al., 1993). Pyroclastic rocks
file from the Pacific Ocean to westernmost Argentina at the latitude of Santiago (vertical are abundant in the lower parts of both for-
exaggeration 5 2.5; modified from Levi et al., 1988). Pz—Paleozoic basement. The mations. Local presence of an angular uncon-
Mesozoic–Cenozoic sequences, which predominantly consist of volcanic and volcaniclastic formity at the base of the Farellones Forma-
rocks, are indicated by the following abbreviations: J—Jurassic, LK—Lower to middle tion and differences in structural style,
Cretaceous, UK—Upper Cretaceous, Tcv—Oligocene–lower Miocene rocks in the Central lithology, and color, reflecting contrasts in sec-
Valley graben, Tab—the Oligocene Abanico Formation, Tfa—the lower Miocene Farel- ondary minerals in altered parts, were the rea-
lones Formation, Tabe—Oligocene rocks usually referred to as the Abanico East For- sons for the division of the Tertiary volcanic
mation (not treated in this paper), and Q—Quaternary volcanic complexes. Regional un- pile into two formations. On the basis of li-
conformities and major faults are indicated with thick lines (normal faults delimit the thology, each formation was then subdivided
Central Valley graben, and reverse faults [designated r] occur in the High Andes of Ar- into members. Such subdivision involves gen-
gentina and contiguous parts of Chile). (C) Distribution of the Abanico and Farellones eralizations. To work out the problematic cor-
Formations in the western foothills of the Andean Range (modified from SERNAGEOM- relations in multisource volcanic fields, de-
IN, 2002; Vergara et al., 1988; Rivano et al., 1990). Rı́o Blanco–Los Bronces and El
tailed mapping is required. However, we think
Teniente are giant porphyry copper deposits.
that the subdivision into members is valid for
the area treated here.

1524 Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003

 TERTIARY VOLCANISM IN CENTRAL CHILE

Abanico Formation

The type locality of this unit, the Cerro

Abanico area, includes the mountain with this
name and Cerro San Ramón (Fig. 2). Aguirre
(1960) first described the Abanico Formation
in a region situated 75 km north of our area;
he considered the formation to be the contin-
uation of the Cerro Abanico strata. There is
no type section of the Cerro Abanico area in
the literature with the exception of a schematic
lithologic profile in Vergara et al. (1993). In
many publications treating the 348–358S sec-
tor, where the proportion of sedimentary rocks
is higher, the alternative name Coya-Machalı́
Formation (Klohn, 1960) is used. A more
tightly folded volcanic sequence, not treated
in the present study, occurs in the High Andes
east of the Farellones Formation (the Abanico
East formation; Fig. 1B). Lithologically, it re-
sembles the Abanico Formation, although it
has a higher proportion of volcaniclastic rocks
(Drake et al., 1982; Charrier et al., 2002).
The Abanico Formation is characterized by
asymmetric, open concentric folds with wave-
lengths of the order of 10 km, north-striking
axes, and limbs dipping ;458 (Thiele, 1980).
A syncline with north-plunging axis is present
in the Cerro Abanico area. As a rule, the base
of the formation is unexposed owing to a cov-
er of alluvium and faulting. Major normal
faults (Thiele, 1980; Sellés, 1999a) separate
the Abanico Formation from the Central Val-
ley graben that contains volcanic rocks and
Oligocene–Miocene volcanic centers, including
eroded stratovolcanoes, plugs, and acid domes
(Vergara, 1985; Gana and Wall, 1997; López-
Escobar and Vergara, 1997; Sellés, 1999a) as
well as Quaternary alluvium (Fig. 1B).
The ;3100-m-thick Abanico Formation is
divided into two members: a lower one com-
posed of basic lavas, acid pyroclastic rocks,
and lacustrine sedimentary intercalations, and
Figure 2. Geologic sketch map of the study area that includes the type localities of the an upper one characterized by basic lavas
Abanico (Oligocene; dark pattern) and Farellones (lower Miocene; light pattern) For- (Fig. 3). The basic lavas are generally aphyric
mations east of Santiago, central Chile (white—alluvium, crosses—Tertiary granitoids). with autobrecciated tops, passing into flow
Modified from Thiele (1980), Beccar (1983), Villarroel (1990), Thiele et al. (1991), and breccias where autobrecciation is more exten-
Vergara et al. (1993). Santiago is situated at an altitude of ;600 m, and Farellones sive. The upper 400–500 m of the lower mem-
village at 2450 m above sea level. The numbers show the localities of the 26 samples ber is dominated by welded pyroclastic flows
analyzed chemically for this study. Only one unaltered sample from the Cerro Abanico (20–50 m thick) and fallout tuffs. Surge de-
area, a paleo–geothermal field, was analyzed; otherwise, the volcanic rocks here are the posits have also been recognized (Elgueta et
same as in their northern continuation in the Mapocho Valley. The structural relation- al., 2000). The sedimentary intercalations
ship at the contact between the Farellones and Abanico Formations is illustrated sche- occur as 1–20-m-thick beds of conglomer-
matically in cross section for three localities (A–C; the wavy line in A represents an ates and debris-flow deposits and as matrix-
unconformity). supported volcaniclastic sandstones at places
grading upward into claystones with mud-
cracks interpreted as lacustrine turbidites by
Vergara (1985) and Vergara et al. (1993). The
depositional environment was subaerial with
lacustrine interludes. Radiometric dating in-

Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003 1525

 NYSTRÖM et al.

dicates an early to late Oligocene age of the

formation (Fig. 3).

Farellones Formation

The type locality of the formation is situ-

ated 30 km northeast of Santiago (Fig. 2).
Klohn (1960) used the formation name infor-
mally for a sequence of lavas, pyroclastic de-
posits, and lacustrine sedimentary rocks oc-
curring in the Farellones area. The first
published descriptions of the formation were
made in areas more than 80 km from the type
locality during mapping in the northern
(Aguirre, 1960) and southern (Klohn, 1960)
continuations of the Farellones sequence. The
geology and stratigraphy in the type locality,
treated briefly by Thiele (1980) and Thiele et
al. (1991), were described by Beccar (1983).
Rivano et al. (1990) discussed the distribution
of the formation between 328 and 348S.
With the exception of the uppermost hori-
zontal member, the rocks of the Farellones
Formation are subhorizontal with gentle folds
of 5–8 km wavelength and north-striking axes.
The limbs generally dip less than 158 except
at contacts with the Abanico Formation where
strata of moderate to subvertical dip are found.
Thiele et al. (1991) showed that the contact
between the two formations in some places is
a distinct unconformity (Fig. 2A) and in other
places is marked by north-striking normal
faults or fault systems of subvertical dip to-
ward which the Farellones strata locally pinch
out and become tilted in flexure-like folds
(Figs. 2B–2C); in still other places the contact
appears conformable. Compared to a predom-
inance of dull green to reddish brown colors
for the Abanico rocks, bluish green and pink
pastel tints are common in the Farellones
Formation.
The Farellones Formation is ;2100 m thick
in the type locality. It is subdivided into three
members: a lower member with pyroclastic
rocks and lacustrine sedimentary intercala-
Figure 3. Generalized lithostratigraphic column for the Abanico and Farellones Forma- tions, a conformably overlying middle mem-
tions in their type localities east of Santiago, central Chile (location of type localities shown ber characterized by basaltic andesites, and an
in Fig. 2; subordinate rock types within parentheses), with approximate positions of the upper member with acid to basic lavas and
analyzed samples of this study and published radiometric data. All samples are from lava acid domes (Fig. 3). Co-ignimbrite lag-fall de-
flows except those marked with d—dike and p—pyroclastic material (from ash flows). The posits occur locally at the base of the lower
capital letters in parentheses specify composition: B—basalt; BA—basaltic andesite; A— member (Thiele et al., 1991). The breccias are
andesite; D—dacite; and R—rhyolite. Wavy horizontal line—unconformity; unbroken well exposed in the Mapocho and Maipo val-
line—conformable contact; and dashed line—fault. Lithology and subdivision into mem- leys, where they form up to 300–500-m-high
bers are based on Beccar et al. (1986), Vergara et al. (1988), Villarroel (1990), Thiele et cliffs composed of several 20–150-m-thick
al. (1991), Vergara et al. (1993), and this study. The minimum thickness of the Abanico sheets with intercalated tuffs and volcanogenic
Formation is ;3100 m (its base is covered by alluvium), and the thickness of the Farellones sedimentary rocks, cut by acid intrusions and
Formation is at least 2100 m (its top is an erosional surface). dikes. Half the volume or more of the poorly
sorted, matrix-supported breccias consist of
fragments of pumice and lavas. The ash-flow
sheets (20–50 m thick) are generally welded.

1526 Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003


High up in the member, above intercalated ba-
saltic andesites, ash flows contain enclaves of
basic lava indicating magma mixing (Thiele et
al., 1991). Coarse, clast-supported conglom-
erates (well-rounded, 20–40 cm clasts) inter-
calated with porphyritic lavas high up in the
middle member are interpreted as torrential
flow deposits.
Available radiometric data from the study
area show that the middle and upper Farello-
nes members are Early Miocene (Fig. 3). The
upper Farellones member was earlier regarded
as a separate formation (the Colorado–La Par-
va Formation; Thiele, 1980) because of the
presence of an angular unconformity at its
base. The rocks of this member occur in sev-
eral separate areas, some of which are eroded
volcanic complexes, e.g., Cerro La Parva (Fig.
2) and Cerro El Plomo ;10 km farther north.
The horizontal strata at Cerro El Plomo are
situated up to 1500 m above those at Cerro
La Parva and indicate that the uppermost part
of the member does not crop out in the study
area.
The Central Valley
The Tertiary volcanic suites within the Cen-
tral Valley in the Santiago area (Sellés, 1999a;
Yáñez et al., 2002) lack continuity with the
Tertiary volcanic rocks east of this graben as
they are separated by a major system of nor-
mal faults. No lithologic comparison of coeval
rocks in the two belts has been reported,
though a genetic link between them has been
suggested by Vergara (1985). Vergara pro-
posed that some of the eroded volcanic com-
plexes in the Central Valley were feeders for
Abanico and Farellones lavas, which is sup-
ported by the present study. The oldest (Oli-
gocene) volcanic rocks in the Central Valley
consist mainly of welded tuffs overlain by
aphanitic basalts, coinciding in age and pe-
trography with the Abanico Formation de-
scribed here. Younger (Early Miocene) lavas
are porphyritic, less basic, and similar to the
basaltic andesites and andesites of the lower
and middle Farellones members. The youngest
rocks (up to middle Miocene) in the Central
Valley are mainly andesitic and dacitic stocks
that resemble the upper Farellones rocks.
GEOCHEMISTRY
A total of 150 samples was collected in the
investigated area. Based on studies of thin sec-
tions, complemented with X-ray diffraction
analysis, 26 representative samples of volca-
nic rocks with only a minimum of alteration
were selected for chemical analysis (Figs. 2–
Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003
TERTIARY VOLCANISM IN CENTRAL CHILE
3). The analytical procedure and results are
listed in Table 1. Basic lavas (basalts and ba-
saltic andesites) are overrepresented among
the samples except for the lower member of
the Abanico Formation. The basic lavas of this
member occur predominantly in its lower and
middle parts, which do not crop out in the
Mapocho valley but are well exposed in the
Cerro Abanico area. However, unaltered rocks
are difficult to find in the latter area because
it is a paleo–geothermal field (Vergara et al.,
1993).
The chemical analyses, combined with mi-
croscopic studies of all the collected samples,
show that there is an overall shift toward more
acid compositions with time. The Abanico la-
vas are basalts and basaltic andesites with sub-
ordinate andesites, and associated ash flows
are rhyolites having low SiO2 contents. In the
Farellones Formation, basalts are absent. The
lavas are basaltic andesites and dacites in the
lower member, whereas they range from ba-
saltic andesite to dacite in the middle member
and to rhyolite in the upper member. Farello-
nes ash flows are rhyolites of generally higher
SiO2 contents than those in the Abanico For-
mation. The volcanic rocks of the Abanico
Formation and the lower Farellones member
show a bimodal distribution in contrast to the
younger Farellones members.
The volcanic rocks of both formations de-
fine a medium-K to high-K calc-alkaline trend
on a K2O vs. silica diagram (Fig. 4). However,
on the AFM diagram (Fig. 5) the Abanico la-
vas show a tholeiitic trend and position,
whereas the lower and middle members of the
Farellones Formation plot in the calc-alkaline
field close to the Abanico rocks. The upper
Farellones member has a clear calc-alkaline
character. Thus, the AFM diagram suggests
a change with time from tholeiitic to calc-
alkaline compositions.
Changes with time are also seen in the var-
iation diagrams (Fig. 6). The Abanico samples
define one trend, the lower and middle mem-
bers of the Farellones Formation constitute a
second trend, and the upper member of this
unit defines a third, even more contrasting
trend. For example, the Al2O3, MgO, and Ni
values increase, and the FeO, TiO2 and Y val-
ues decrease with time in the basic to inter-
mediate lavas, and the three trends differ in
shape for several elements (e.g., Al2O3, TiO2,
P2O5, and Sr). Major element trend differences
support a shift from tholeiitic to calc-alkaline
sequences. Ratios between trace elements of
petrogenetic interest also support a systematic
change with time. For example, a Th/Yb vs.
Ta/Yb diagram shows that although all the ba-
sic rocks of this study plot as calc-alkaline
there are distinct differences between the units
(Fig. 7). The three age groups form well-
defined populations that together compose a
linear array where the oldest lavas (Abanico)
point toward the tholeiitic field and the youn-
gest (upper Farellones member) almost reach
the shoshonitic field. The seemingly more en-
riched nature of the Farellones lavas in the
diagram, especially those of the upper mem-
ber, is an artifact due to their low Yb values
(Table 1).
MORB-normalized multielement diagrams
of basic lavas, represented by basaltic andes-
ites as basalts are absent in the Farellones For-
mation, are given in Figure 8. Two character-
istics of volcanic arc lavas (Pearce, 1983) are
shown by the Farellones Formation and upper
member of the Abanico Formation: (1) There
is significant enrichment in the large ion lith-
ophile elements (LILEs) K, Rb, Sr, and Ba and
in Th, U, and Pb relative to high field strength
elements (HFSEs) such as Ta, Nb, Zr, Hf, Ti,
Y, and Yb and (2) there is a marked trough
defined by Ta-Nb. In each sample the nor-
malized values of Ta-Nb and Zr-Hf are quite
similar to each other and higher than corre-
sponding Y-Yb values. With time, the Ta-Nb
trough typical of subduction becomes deeper,
and a curve through Ta-Nb, Zr-Hf, and Y-Yb
changes from slightly (Abanico) to strongly
concave down (upper Farellones). The oldest
lavas generally have the highest values of
HFSEs and P, and the youngest lavas have the
lowest. The contrast is especially large be-
tween the middle and upper Farellones mem-
bers. The Abanico lavas are the least enriched
in LILEs, but otherwise, no temporal trend is
displayed by these elements.
All the analyzed samples are enriched in
light rare earth elements (LREEs) and show
concave-up patterns with respect to middle
and heavy REEs (MREEs-HREEs). Basaltic
andesites and andesites of the Abanico For-
mation are richer in REEs and have patterns
that are less concave up than successively
younger lavas of corresponding composition
(Fig. 9). The LREE/HREE and MREE/HREE
ratios increase with time owing to a decrease
in the HREEs. Also here, the contrast is larg-
est between the middle and upper Farellones
members. The REE patterns for volcanic rocks
of different SiO2 content in the Abanico For-
mation are subparallel though more concave
up for acid rocks, which show only a slight
negative Eu anomaly, and the REE contents
increase with SiO2 (Fig. 10A). In the Farel-
lones Formation (Figs. 10B–10D), basaltic an-
desites to dacites have subparallel REE pat-
terns, but the rhyolites have patterns that differ
both from those of coeval lavas and from the
1527
1528
TABLE 1. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF VOLCANIC ROCKS FROM THE TYPE LOCALITIES OF THE ABANICO AND FARELLONES FORMATIONS, CENTRAL CHILE AT ;33820’S

Abanico Formation (Oligocene) Farellones Formation (Early Miocene)

Lower member Upper member Lower member Middle member Upper member
Sample† RB-9 M-8 M-12 M-5 M-26 M-23 M-19 M-25 F-71 M-41 M-33 F-128 F-123 M-38 F-115 F-1 F-9 F-107 F-24 F-35 F-76 F-74 F-78 F-90 F-87 F-12
Type‡ B A R, p R, p B B BA A BA BA D, p R, p R, p R, p R, p BA BA BA BA D BA BA A A D R
SiO2 51.72 60.49 68.70
71.13 48.20 51.27 53.77 58.82 54.21 54.88 66.23 70.57 74.06 75.97 77.16 53.61 53.97 55.68 56.09 63.32 53.77 55.65 57.58 61.05 64.54 74.24
TiO2 1.59 1.26 0.67
0.69 1.42 1.58 1.73 1.38 1.33 1.14 0.68 0.45 0.15 0.14 0.31 1.06 0.92 1.38 1.12 0.94 1.10 1.08 0.99 0.82 0.75 0.25
Al2O3 16.68 16.39 15.13
14.56 20.06 17.62 15.13 15.51 17.43 17.40 15.50 14.48 15.06 12.92 12.27 18.04 17.22 16.71 17.77 16.72 18.17 17.81 17.86 17.41 16.89 13.56
Fe2O3 4.42 2.73 4.42
2.46 4.92 6.36 4.08 4.78 3.90 3.14 4.00 1.58 1.60 1.18 1.88 5.32 4.57 3.19 6.97 4.67 3.25 4.23 4.67 3.87 4.95 1.87
FeO 7.96 4.44 0.25
1.33 6.40 5.33 8.58 4.73 6.09 6.83 1.58 1.93 0.13 0.50 0.30 3.98 5.05 6.50 2.55 1.33 4.56 3.19 2.22 1.82 0.56 0.28
MnO 0.23 0.19 0.11
0.12 0.23 0.20 0.25 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.13 0.09 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.18 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.05
MgO 3.86 2.32 0.40
0.84 4.19 3.47 3.38 2.17 3.28 4.06 1.27 0.87 0.12 0.10 0.03 4.51 4.21 3.24 2.56 1.60 5.57 4.12 3.54 2.65 1.28 0.20
CaO 8.99 5.34 1.15
1.56 10.27 9.42 7.91 5.50 7.60 6.93 3.41 2.37 0.02 0.44 0.87 8.12 8.87 7.65 6.64 4.27 8.29 7.54 6.80 5.51 2.92 1.47
Na2O 3.63 4.45 5.65
5.23 3.41 3.18 3.59 4.02 3.70 4.15 4.52 4.50 2.98 3.67 3.53 3.33 3.37 3.97 3.99 4.51 3.88 3.93 4.25 4.11 3.57 2.85
K2O 0.55 1.99 3.33
1.92 0.58 1.19 1.11 2.44 1.86 1.12 2.51 3.13 5.76 5.01 3.58 1.49 1.34 1.16 1.84 2.17 1.09 2.15 1.83 2.48 4.31 5.19
P2O5 0.36 0.39 0.17
0.15 0.32 0.38 0.47 0.44 0.38 0.17 0.18 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.32 0.27 0.30 0.30 0.34 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.11 0.04
H2O1 2.51 1.31 0.92
2.52 2.88 1.48 0.90 1.48 1.80 1.84 2.73 2.46 1.70 0.88 0.79 1.87 1.78 1.70 1.61 1.96 1.59 2.20 1.56 1.54 2.18 2.25
CO2 0.51 0.07 0.05
0.13 0.07 0.17 0.04 0.17 0.12 0.09 0.08 0.84 0.11 0.07 0.19 0.20 0.56 0.10 0.18 0.08 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.14 0.17 0.64
Rb 11 37 50 35 12 24 10 48 38 14 59 55 142 148 112 21 33 29 45 52 23 42 44 66 84 142
Sr 511 345 135218 500 505 398 364 502 329 194 157 52 109 70 500 308 545 360 364 738 765 717 494 320 79
Ba 437 459 563411 220 312 327 521 458 291 519 494 778 790 603 505 259 340 388 484 341 396 491 498 517 590
Cs 0.41 0.20 0.14 0.57 0.62 2.10 1.49 0.30 0.45 1.49 0.67 0.59 0.43 1.62 1.37 1.49 1.22 3.87
V 319 117 57 27 292 342 262 127 261 270 97 84 8 6 ,10 243 235 240 190 80 224 222 183 131 97 22
Ni 1 19 4 3 9 1 1 20 25 4 4 3 64 34 48 18 18 2
Cr 3 22 1 1 4 3 2 72 99 6 1 1 119 84 112 30 24 1
Co 2 31 25 15 20 1 1 45 27 20 20 8 27 24 21 15 17 3
Sc 39.9 12.3 34.5 38.4 27.1 27.9 3.5 2.9 25.8 30.1 24.9 20.4 15.4 16.8 14.6 12.5 10.8 3.3
La 13.0 25.6 12.2 14.8 15.9 19.5 17.2 19.1 23.7 20.8 14.9 11.6 16.5 14.5 20.9 12.5 14.6 16.4 16.2 17.5 19.5
Ce 39.0 57.0 29.7 34.6 38.0 45.5 39.3 42.1 42.7 36.0 33.3 26.6 37.8 33.2 46.8 28.2 31.9 35.0 36.1 42.6 41.0
NYSTRÖM et al.

Nd 18.6 31.0 19.8 19.9 23.9 28.0 23.1 19.2 17.3 16.0 17.9 15.3 21.0 19.2 25.1 16.0 16.8 18.4 18.0 21.6 13.5
Sm 5.03 7.10 5.27 5.15 5.89 6.48 5.64 4.34 3.39 3.30 4.34 4.15 4.82 4.94 5.99 3.44 3.50 3.35 3.95 4.44 2.52
Eu 1.39 1.91 1.67 1.53 1.91 1.96 1.57 0.95 0.44 0.48 1.24 1.19 1.47 1.49 1.79 1.08 1.08 1.04 1.03 1.01 0.55
Gd 4.95 6.23 4.73 4.50 5.56 5.68 5.05 3.90 3.10 2.81 3.67 3.56 4.51 4.13 5.06 2.76 2.85 2.63 2.88 3.55 2.09
Tb 1.07 0.80 0.85 0.96 0.77 0.52 0.48 0.62 0.61 0.67 0.73 0.86 0.39 0.40 0.39 0.50 0.59 0.32
Dy 4.91 6.74 5.23 4.63 5.68 6.14 4.55 3.78 3.08 3.10 3.71 3.81 4.00 4.34 5.16 2.33 2.23 2.26 2.70 3.57 2.01
Er 2.84 4.02 2.83 2.66 3.59 3.57 2.84 2.31 2.04 1.96 2.09 2.17 2.39 2.64 2.91 1.21 1.16 1.20 1.55 1.91 1.16
Yb 2.70 4.70 2.96 2.75 3.69 3.88 3.08 2.73 2.61 2.59 2.24 2.47 2.24 2.76 2.98 1.17 1.16 1.11 1.71 2.06 1.54
Lu 0.58 0.70 0.48 0.38 0.57 0.61 0.48 0.42 0.41 0.42 0.32 0.36 0.33 0.44 0.53 0.21 0.17 0.18 0.27 0.35 0.23

Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003

Y 27.6 42.0 45.2 40.2 34.6 35.3 35.4 37.6 29.1 23.0 29.6 25.7 21.0 20.1 20.3 28.5 23.6 23.7 26.8 30.4 13.2 16.2 12.5 17.0 20.6 11.9
Zr 109 176 213 263 86 132 124 169 135 73 141 183 148 155 134 147 123 119 141 200 78 109 96 159 176 159
Hf 6.71 3.57 4.39 6.04 4.87 4.78 4.83 3.92 3.12 4.13 3.68 5.01 2.90 2.85 3.45 5.83 4.54 4.54
Nb 10.4 4.8 4.6 5.8 4.5 5.7 5.4 4.1 2.9 4.6 4.1 6.3 2.9 3.6 3.4 4.0 4.3 4.3
Ta 0.83 0.27 0.34 0.47 0.35 0.71 0.69 0.26 0.25 0.37 0.36 0.53 0.22 0.22 0.28 0.37 0.42 0.53
Pb 10.9 5.8 7.3 12.2 41.4 36.9 12.6 5.9 7.0 6.7 7.6 10.3 5.4 5.4 10.7 14.1 15.3 14.0
Th 5.48 2.11 2.15 3.89 4.45 14.40 13.00 3.33 3.23 3.21 4.48 5.98 2.22 3.11 3.87 6.37 7.13 14.20
U 1.54 0.58 0.72 1.17 1.29 2.53 3.78 0.98 1.08 0.99 1.34 1.79 0.63 0.95 1.37 2.06 2.02 3.09
Notes: Major elements and Sc were determined with ICP-AES (inductively coupled plasma–atomic-emission spectrometry) and wet-chemical methods (FeO, H2O1, and CO2); trace elements in 18 samples with
Hf-U data were determined with ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry) (with ICP-AES in 8 samples) at the Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques, Nancy, France. Major
elements are given in weight percent (recalculated as anhydrous) and trace elements in parts per million.
†
M—MAP, and F—FAR. See Figure 2 for sample locations.
‡
B—basalt, BA—basaltic andesite (53–57 wt% SiO2), A—andesite, D—dacite, R—rhyolite, and p—pyroclastic.
 TERTIARY VOLCANISM IN CENTRAL CHILE

with the exception of two Rb-rich ash flows

in the lower member of the Farellones For-
mation (Fig. 11A; ash flows are especially
sensitive to mobility of alkalies during alter-
ation). No clear trend with time is shown by
the Farellones Sr ratios. A temporal trend is
more evident in the Nd data. The «Nd values
for the Abanico Formation are very uniform
(15.6 to 15.8) and higher than the Farellones
values; the lower and middle Farellones mem-
bers group together (14.4 to 15.1), and the
values for the upper Farellones member are
Figure 4. K2O vs. SiO2 diagram for basic to intermediate lavas from the Abanico and even lower in spite of some overlap (13.9 to
Farellones Formations. Divisions between different series—averages of the boundary lines 14.6; Table 2; Fig. 11A). The volcanic rocks
given in Rickwood (1989). of both formations have Sr-Nd signatures
within the mantle array; the Abanico rocks
plot closer to N-MORB (Fig. 11B).
Slight correlations can be discerned be-
tween initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios and contents of
SiO2 and Sr for the Abanico lavas: the initial
ratio increases with SiO2 and decreases with
Sr (Table 2). The Farellones samples are un-
correlated in this respect. In addition, none of
the formations show distinct correlation be-
tween «Nd and SiO2 (Table 2).
Lead isotopes were determined in 11 sam-
ples of basic and intermediate lavas (Table 2).
The following ranges are obtained: 206Pb/204Pb
5 18.453–18.570, 207Pb/204Pb 5 15.548–
15.610, and 208Pb/204Pb 5 38.262–38.478. The
samples define a linear array from Pacific
MORB to river-mouth sediment values in a
208
Pb/204Pb vs. 207Pb/204Pb diagram (Fig. 12).
The Abanico lavas have a narrow range of ra-
tios, whereas the Farellones lavas show a wide
range. The rocks of the middle Farellones
member constitute the lower half of the array,
Figure 5. AFM diagram (A 5 Na2O 1 K2O, F 5 total Fe as FeO, M 5 MgO; in wt%) followed by those of the upper member. A ba-
for volcanic rocks from the Abanico and Farellones Formations; the tholeiitic–calc- saltic andesite in the lower member associated
alkaline boundary line is after Irvine and Baragar (1971). The dashed lines are the trends with rhyolitic ash flows plots in the uppermost
for Quaternary lavas from the northern and central parts of the SVZ (Fig. 1): NSVZ— part of the array; both rocks are very rich in
the volcanic complexes shown in Figure 1C (data from López-Escobar et al., 1985; Hickey Pb (Table 1). The Abanico lavas occupy an
et al., 1986; Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988; and seven unpublished analyses of the authors) intermediate position. No systematic temporal
and CSVZ—Llaima, Villarica, and Puyehue between 388309 and 408309S (data from Hick- trend can be discerned.
ey et al., 1986; Gerlach et al., 1988; López-Escobar et al., 1995).1
DISCUSSION

Recurrent Caldera Formation

Abanico rhyolite (Fig. 10A). In contrast to all
the other rocks, the Farellones rhyolites (an
ash flow and a lava) have distinct, negative Eu
anomalies; they are relatively poor in REEs,
except La-Ce, and show strongly concave-up
patterns.
1
GSA Data Repository item 2003179, seven un-
published analyses of the authors, is available on
the Web at http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/
ft2003.htm. Requests may also be sent to editing@
geosociety.org.
ISOTOPE DATA
Sr and Nd isotope ratios were determined
for all the 18 samples analyzed with ICP-MS
(inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrom-
etry) (Table 1), and the analytical procedure
and results are given in Table 2. The initial
87
Sr/86Sr ratios of the volcanic rocks of both
formations are low and fall within a quite nar-
row range (0.7034–0.7039; Table 2). The
Abanico samples have slightly lower initial
87
Sr/86Sr ratios than the Farellones samples
The voluminous pyroclastic flows (400–
500 m total thickness) in the lower member
of the Abanico Formation suggest caldera-
forming eruptions. A history involving cal-
deras is supported by the intercalation of la-
custrine deposits in the pyroclastic sequence,
and the lateral changes in secondary-mineral
assemblages reflecting steep temperature gra-
dients in paleo–geothermal fields. The occur-
rence of yugawaralite and wairakite in the
Cerro Abanico area is typical of intracaldera

Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003 1529

 NYSTRÖM et al.

Figure 7. Th/Yb vs. Ta/Yb for basic lavas

from the Abanico and Farellones Forma-
tions. All boundaries between tholeiitic
(TH), calc-alkaline (CA), and shoshonitic
(SH) compositions as well as directions for
subduction-zone enrichment (s), crustal
contamination (c), within-plate enrichment
(w), and fractional crystallization (f), after
Pearce (1983). MORB-WPB array—basalts
from nonsubduction settings (mid-oceanic-
ridge basalts and within-plate basalts). Leg-
end is given in Figure 5; see also Figure 5
and Tormey et al. (1991) for sources of data
for the Quaternary rocks (the NSVZ field
is based solely on basaltic andesites because
basalts are absent in this segment).

deposits of tuff or even ash occur within some

of the structures. Elgueta et al. (1999, 2000)
inferred caldera structures between Rı́o Colo-
rado and Rı́o Maipo. High lateral paleo–ther-
mal gradients defined by mineral associations
typically reported from intracaldera geother-
mal fields occur locally at the faulted basal
contact of the lower Farellones member (Levi
Figure 6. Variation diagrams for selected oxides and elements vs. silica in volcanic rocks et al., 1989; Thiele et al., 1991).
from the Abanico and Farellones Formations (oxides in wt% and elements in ppm). The The structural relationships at the contact
dashed lines are the trends for Quaternary lavas from the northern and central parts of between the Farellones and Abanico Forma-
the SVZ (NSVZ and CSVZ, respectively; see Fig. 5 for sources of data). tions, described as ‘‘a paradox’’ by Godoy et
al. (1996) because the relationships vary from
unconformable to seemingly conformable to
geothermal fields. Vergara et al. (1993) in- in). The extensive, thick pile (;700 m) of py- structural (Thiele et al., 1991; Charrier et al.,
ferred a caldera structure here, whose western roclastic flows and fallout tuffs with interca- 2002), support a history involving calderas.
margin coincides with the normal faults sep- lated lacustrine deposits and basic lavas that Such variation is exactly what should be ex-
arating the Abanico Formation from the Cen- compose the lower member indicates recurrent pected in caldera settings, where structures of
tral Valley. caldera formation. Circular, 5–10-km-diameter a dual fault/unconformity nature are observed
More evidence for calderas is found in the structures reported by Thiele et al. (1991) are (e.g., Lipman, 1984; Lipman et al., 1996). Un-
Farellones Formation. The co-ignimbrite lag- situated in the western part of the Farellones conformities with the lower Farellones mem-
fall deposits at the base of its lower member Formation close to its contact with the Aban- ber deposited on Abanico rocks could reflect
(Thiele et al., 1991; Elgueta et al., 1999, 2000) ico Formation. They are in part bordered by outflow deposition of the former (Fig. 2A).
is a near-vent facies. Such deposits typically steep walls exposing sections through the vol- Co-ignimbrite lag-fall deposits and welded
form along caldera-collapse fracture systems canic sequence; in other places, subvolcanic ash-flow sheets in the lower Farellones mem-
(Cas and Wright, 1987, and references there- intrusions are emplaced at their margin. Thick ber separated from Abanico rocks by normal

1530 Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003

 TERTIARY VOLCANISM IN CENTRAL CHILE

Figure 8. MORB-normalized multielement diagrams for representative samples of basaltic

andesites from the Abanico and Farellones Formations. Normalization factors for N-
MORB after Pearce and Parkinson (1993); SiO2 contents (wt%) of the samples in paren-
theses; the y-axis is expanded to separate the samples.

Figure 9. Chondrite-normalized REE pat-

faults probably represent proximity to caldera
margins (Fig. 2B). Tuff deposits and lacustrine
strata in the lower Farellones member that are
tilted and pinch out toward faults at the con-
tact with the Abanico Formation suggest la-
custrine intracaldera deposition during subsi-
dence (Fig. 2C). Reverse faulting reported by
Jaros and Zelman (1969) and Godoy et al.
(1996, 1999) can complicate the contact rela-
tionship. Resurgence in a caldera setting (Lip-
man, 1984) can also give rise to reverse faults.
Episodes of Extension
The bimodal composition of the volcanic
rocks of the Abanico Formation and the lower
Farellones member indicate that volcanism
took place under extensional conditions. Re-
current caldera collapse is consistent with ex-
tension. Extension with subsidence is inde-
pendently shown by the imprint of burial
metamorphism (cf. Frey and Robinson, 1999).
The metamorphic grade increases with strati-
graphic depth in the Abanico and Farellones
Formations, though with breaks between the
two formations and between the middle and
upper Farellones members (Levi et al., 1989).
Structural studies and facies analysis in the
Maipo Valley south of Rı́o Colorado give ev-
idence for deposition of the Abanico Forma-
tion in a subsiding extensional basin (Aguirre,
1999; Zurita, 1999; Charrier et al., 2002).
These authors inferred a high subsidence rate
from the thermal state of organic material. The
thermal maturity indicates a high to very high
heat flow during burial (Charrier et al., 2002).
Nyström et al. (1993) concluded from the geo-
chemistry of the Abanico lavas that they
erupted onto thin crust during extension,
which is supported by a considerable degree
of partial melting during their formation (see
next section).
The extensional regime that prevailed dur-
ing the Oligocene Abanico Formation volca-
nism in the study area was terminated by an
episode of contraction and deformation, ex-
pressed by the folding of the sequence (Thiele,
1980). Small or no measurable differences in
age between the uppermost Abanico Forma-
tion and the lower Farellones member report-
ed south (348309S; Charrier et al., 2002) and
north (;338S; Fuentes et al., 2002) of the
study area indicate that the contractional epi-
sode was of short duration and took place ear-
lier in the north. Thermal maturity data sug-
gests uplift (Charrier et al., 2002).
A return to extensional conditions during
the Early Miocene was expressed by vigorous
volcanism that deposited the thick piles of py-
roclastic rocks and lavas of the lower and mid-
terns for representative samples of (A) ba-
saltic andesites and (B) andesites from the
Abanico and Farellones Formations (nor-
malization factors after Boynton, 1984).
SiO2 contents (wt%) of the samples in
parentheses.
dle Farellones members. The almost continu-
ous north-south outcrops of the Abanico and
Farellones Formations suggest volcanic arcs
within grabens. Subsidence in these basins
was controlled by extensional fault systems
(Jordan et al., 2001). The Miocene extension
was probably milder than the extension during
the Oligocene. Gentle folding of the lower and
middle Farellones members indicate a second
episode of contraction. The coarse conglom-
erates in the middle member, and an exhu-
mation episode between 19.6 and 16.2 Ma af-
fecting the La Obra granitoid pluton south of
Cerro Abanico (Fig. 2; Kurtz et al., 1997), are
consistent with uplift. The upper Farellones
member formed during a passive tectonic re-
gime or mild contraction. East of the study
area, in the Argentinean Andes, the coeval
rocks record thrusting and uplift (Giambiagi
and Ramos, 2002).
The burial-metamorphic pattern supports
the outlined changes in tectonic conditions.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003 1531

 NYSTRÖM et al.

TABLE 2. Sr, Nd, AND Pb ISOTOPE DATA FOR VOLCANIC ROCKS FROM THE ABANICO AND
FARELLONES FORMATIONS AT ;338209S

Sample Rock Age Rb Sr Sm Nd Sr/86Sr

87
Nd/144Nd
143
Initial «Nd Pb
206
Pb
207
Pb
208

type† (Ma) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Sr/86Sr

87
Pb
204
Pb
204
Pb
204

Farellones Formation
Upper member
FAR-76 BA 16.6 23 738 3.44 16.0 0.70376 0.512838 0.70374 14.0
FAR-74 BA 16.6 42 765 3.50 16.8 0.70385 0.512832 0.70381 13.9 18.565 15.601 38.463
FAR-78 A 17.3 44 717 3.35 18.4 0.70385 0.512844 0.70381 14.2 18.570 15.576 38.389
FAR-90 A 17.3 66 494 3.95 18.0 0.70378 0.512869 0.70369 14.6 18.513 15.590 38.407
FAR-87 D 17.3 84 320 4.44 21.6 0.70389 0.512842 0.70371 14.1
FAR-12 R 18.4 142 79 2.52 13.5 0.70501 0.512864 0.70370 14.6
Middle member
FAR-1 BA 19.1 21 500 4.34 17.9 0.70385 0.512862 0.70382 14.5 18.552 15.571 38.367
FAR-9 BA 19.1 33 308 4.15 15.3 0.70395 0.512862 0.70387 14.5
FAR-24 BA 21.6 45 360 4.94 19.2 0.70400 0.512878 0.70389 14.8 18.484 15.553 38.291
FAR-35 D 21.6 52 364 5.99 25.1 0.70375 0.512856 0.70363 14.4 18.453 15.548 38.262
FAR-107 BA 21.6 29 545 4.82 21.0 0.70369 0.512888 0.70364 15.0 18.471 15.560 38.299
Lower member
FAR-123 R, p 22.0‡ 142 52 3.39 17.3 0.70576 0.512882 0.70337 15.0
FAR-71 BA 22.0‡ 38 502 5.64 23.1 0.70388 0.512862 0.70381 14.5 18.541 15.610 38.478
MAP-38 R, p 22.0‡ 148 109 3.30 16.0 0.70470 0.512887 0.70351 15.1
Abanico Formation
Upper member
MAP-25 A 25.0‡ 48 364 6.48 28.0 0.70373 0.512918 0.70360 15.6 18.467 15.585 38.365
MAP-23 B 25.0‡ 24 505 5.15 19.9 0.70355 0.512923 0.70350 15.7 18.492 15.582 38.358
MAP-19 BA 25.0 ‡
10 398 5.89 23.9 0.70357 0.512927 0.70355 15.8 18.459 15.581 38.334
Lower member
MAP-5 R, p 25.4 35 218 7.10 31.0 0.70375 0.512916 0.70359 15.6
Notes: Isotopic ratios determined on a Finnegan MAT 261 multicollector mass spectrometer at the Swedish
Museum of Natural History. Sr ratios were fractionation corrected to 86Sr/88Sr 5 0.1194; eight determinations of
the NBS 987 standard gave a mean of 0.710244 6 0.000042 (2s). Nd ratios (fractionation corrected to 146Nd/
144
Nd 5 0.7219) are reported relative to a value of 0.511854 for the La Jolla standard; 14 runs of the standard
gave a mean of 0.511753 6 0.000026 (2s). Individual runs of Sr and Nd commonly had a precision better than
0.00001 (2sm). Typical 2s errors for Pb are 60.20%; Pb ratios were corrected for mass discrimination on the
basis of repeated measurements of the NBS 981 standard at conditions similar to those during sample runs.
†
B—basalt, BA—basaltic andesite, A—andesite, D—dacite, R—rhyolite, and p—pyroclastic.
‡
Estimated age (no radiometric data available).

Figure 10. Chondrite-normalized REE pat-
terns for representative samples of lavas of
different silica content and two rhyolitic
ash flows, indicated with p after the sample
number, from the Abanico and Farellones
Formations. SiO2 contents (wt%) of the
samples in parentheses.
The breaks in secondary-mineral assemblages
at unconformities between the Abanico For-
mation and the lower Farellones member, and
between the middle and upper Farellones
members (Levi et al., 1989), coincide with the
alternation between extension and contraction.
The episodes of extension and contraction al-
ready outlined herein are not necessarily ap-
plicable outside the study area. Different tec-
tonic regimes occurred synchronously in
different parts of the active margin according
to Charrier et al. (2002), who suggested that
contractional and extensional conditions fluc-
tuated on a rather local geographic scale (cf.
Kay and Mpodozis, 2002). Jordan et al. (2001)
proposed that extension was a necessary condi-
tion to the subsequent building of the modern
Andes mountains, because the active-margin
lithosphere was weakened by intervals of ex-
tension followed by contraction, folding, and
uplift.
Source and Evolution of Magmas
The geochemical and isotopic results of this
study fit a stratigraphic subdivision of the in-
vestigated rocks into three units deposited in
successive volcanic arcs: (1) the Abanico For-
mation, (2) the lower and middle members of
the Farellones Formation, which together oc-
cupy an intermediate position in most dia-
grams, and (3) the upper Farellones member.
The different geochemical and isotopic sig-
natures of the three volcanic suites indicate
changes in the depths at which the magmas
formed and segregated, degrees of partial
melting, and crystallization histories.
The positions of the samples in Figure 7
indicate that the mantle sources were enriched
relative to N-MORB, consistent with the Nd-
Sr isotope data (Fig. 11). The enriched nature
of the mantle beneath both formations is also
seen in a diagram for mantle-derived elements
that shows that the Abanico lavas were gen-
erated from a slightly more enriched source
than the upper Farellones lavas (Fig. 13). We
suggest that the partial melting producing the
Abanico lavas is responsible for the subse-
quent depletion.
The REE patterns of the Abanico lavas with
a flat slope for the HREEs (Fig. 9) indicate
that the magmas segregated within the stabil-
ity field of spinel. A spinel lherzolite mantle
source is also likely for the lavas of the lower
and middle Farellones members. However, the
low HREE values characterizing the basaltic
andesites of the upper Farellones member
(which have even lower LREE contents than
corresponding Abanico lavas) result in high
La/Yb ratios (Fig. 14) and require residual
garnet in their source. The influence of resid-

1532 Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003

 TERTIARY VOLCANISM IN CENTRAL CHILE

Figure 12. Plot of 208Pb/204Pb vs. 207Pb/204Pb for lavas from the Abanico and Farellones
Formations. The NSVZ and CSVZ fields (northern and central parts of the SVZ, respec-
tively) are based on data sources given in Figure 5 and Harmon et al. (1984). The Pacific
MORB field is from Hickey et al. (1986). The values for river-mouth sediments from Rı́o
Aconcagua and Rı́o Maipo (locations of rivers in Fig. 1C) and the values for upper crust
are based on data in Hildreth and Moorbath (1988).

Figure 11. «Nd vs. initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios for
(A) lavas and ash flows (indicated with p)
from the Abanico and Farellones Forma-
tions. In (B) the Abanico and Farellones
Formations are compared with fields for
Cretaceous and Quaternary lavas (NSVZ—
northern part of SVZ) at the same latitude;
the field for CSVZ (central part of SVZ)
lavas is given for comparison. Data sources:
SVZ lavas—Figure 5 and Futa and Stern
(1988), Lower and middle Cretaceous lavas
from the Coast Range—Vergara et al.
(1995), and the High Andes—Vergara and
Nyström (1996). Lavas from the Central
Valley at the latitude of Santiago—Vatin-
Perignon et al. (1996) and López-Escobar
and Vergara (1997)—plot in the same area
as the Abanico lavas.
ual garnet is supported by the weak negative
Sc anomaly displayed by the Farellones lavas
(Fig. 13).
Despite the differences related to residual
garnet between upper Farellones rocks and
older units, the basic lavas in the various units
show an overall chemical similarity that points
to a quite homogeneous mantle source. The
degree of partial melting was considerable for
the monotonous, thick sequence of aphyric ba-
salts and basaltic andesites that dominate the
Abanico Formation, but smaller for the upper
member of the Farellones Formation (Fig. 8).
The Abanico values for Y-Yb are somewhat
higher than the values for N-MORB that are
based on 15% partial melting. Considerable
partial melting would consume the garnet in
the mantle source of the upper Farellones la-
vas and be inconsistent with their REE
patterns.
Source contamination by fluids and by
melts from the subducting slab (Pearce and
Peate, 1995) is the favored explanation for the
enrichment in LILEs and in Ce, Sm, P, and
Th, respectively, and is shown by the basaltic
andesites of both formations (Fig. 8). Within-
plate contribution of Ce and P cannot be ex-
cluded. The rather high contents of Pb, Th,
and U in the lower Farellones member (Table
1) might be a crustal contribution or attributed
to subducted sediments. The 208Pb/204Pb vs.
207
Pb/204Pb diagram shows how the samples of
both formations define a good mixing line be-
tween the fertile end member of Pacific
MORB and river-mouth sediments and lavas
from the northern part of the Southern Vol-
canic Zone (SVZ; Fig. 12). Hildreth and
Moorbath (1988) attributed the isotopic en-
richment in the SVZ to a northward-increasing
contamination of mantle-derived magmas by
crustal material. The nature of the contami-
nating material and the mechanism of contam-
ination are open to discussion (Stern, 1991;
Tormey et al., 1991), but whatever the process
might have been in the SVZ, the contamina-
tion was less for the middle Farellones and
Abanico rocks than for rocks in the northern
part of the SVZ farther east.
The parallel REE patterns of the entire basic
to acid range of Abanico rocks and their pro-
gressive enrichment in REEs with increasing
SiO2 (Fig. 10A) indicate that they are related
by crystal fractionation. This conclusion is
supported by the uniform Nd-Sr and Pb iso-
tope data for the rocks (Figs. 11A, 12) that
suggest a minimal crustal contribution. The
REE patterns of the Farellones rocks (Figs.
10B–10D) also suggest crystal fractionation as
a major control for their composition. The
concave-up patterns show that amphibole was
a fractionating phase, in agreement with its
occurrence as phenocrysts in the andesites, es-
pecially in the upper member. The negative Eu
anomalies of the Farellones rhyolites are due
to plagioclase fractionation. The limited Nd-
Sr isotopic contrast seen in the basic to acid
volcanic rocks of the Farellones Formation
(Fig. 11A) is consistent with a relationship by

Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003 1533


Figure 13. Fertile MORB mantle (FMM)
normalized diagrams for mantle-derived el-
ements in basic lavas from the Abanico
Formation and the upper member of the
Farellones Formation. Normalization fac-
tors from Pearce and Parkinson (1993).
SiO2 contents (wt%) of the samples in
parentheses.
Figure 14. La/Yb ratios vs. age for basaltic
andesites of the Abanico and Farellones
Formations (this study) compared with
those for the Quaternary volcanic arc at the
same latitude (NSVZ—northern part of
SVZ), and farther south (CSVZ—central
part of SVZ); average and one standard de-
viation shown by dot and vertical line, re-
spectively; number of samples in parenthe-
ses. See Figure 5 for sources of SVZ data.
crystal fractionation. Melting of crust that is
isotopically similar to the mantle melts could
have contributed to the voluminous Farellones
rhyolites. Subduction erosion of forearc con-
tinental crust (Stern, 1991; Kay and Mpodoz-
is, 2002) is also a possible mechanism. The
absence of a negative Eu anomaly in the Far-
ellones rocks of intermediate composition and
the curvilinear variation diagrams (Fig. 6) ar-
gue against magma mixing as the major con-
trol for their formation.
All the sampled rocks record evolved mag-
1534 Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003
NYSTRÖM et al.
mas; even the most primitive of the analyzed
samples reflects evolution prior to eruption.
The variation diagrams (Fig. 6) show that such
evolution must have involved large-scale early
fractionation of olivine in order to attain the
low Mg and Ni contents of the basic Abanico
lavas. Early removal of clinopyroxene or Cr-
rich spinel is also indicated by the low Cr
values (Fig. 13). The Fe-Ti enrichment in the
basaltic range, without fractionation of mag-
netite, is characteristic of tholeiitic differenti-
ation (cf. Fig. 5). The lack of magnetite frac-
tionation suggests parental magmas of low
oxygen fugacity, consistent with only limited
contamination during passage through the
crust.
The evolution of the magmas of the upper
Farellones member, derived from a more de-
pleted mantle source than the Abanico mag-
mas, followed a different path (Fig. 6). Frac-
tionation of olivine also took place in the
parental magmas of the upper Farellones
member prior to eruption, although on a
smaller scale. Relatively high Cr and Ni val-
ues are indicative of less fractionation than in
the Abanico case (Fig. 13). The variation di-
agrams and petrography show that titano-
magnetite crystallized together with olivine,
pyroxene, and plagioclase in the basaltic an-
desites of the upper Farellones member. The
rocks define a calc-alkaline trend without Fe
enrichment. Compared with the Abanico la-
vas, higher oxygen fugacities that increase
with time can be inferred for the Farellones
magmas on the basis of the Fe2O3/FeO ratio
for unaltered basaltic andesites of comparable
SiO2 content (;54 wt%): Abanico 5 0.48,
lower Farellones 5 0.64, middle Farellones 5
0.91, and upper Farellones 5 1.32. A similar
trend of increasing oxygen fugacity with time
was reported by Garrido et al. (2002) for Ter-
tiary intrusive rocks in central Chile.
The geochemical trends with time for the
Tertiary rocks in the Central Valley (Sellés,
1999a; Yáñez et al., 2002) and for the Aban-
ico and Farellones Formations are similar. The
Oligocene tholeiitic basalts in the Central Val-
ley are enriched in incompatible elements,
have a La/Yb ratio of 2.1–3.3, and are similar
to the Abanico lavas although they include
more primitive compositions. The Early Mio-
cene lavas (La/Yb 5 3.9–4.8) and the younger
stocks of mainly andesitic to dacitic compo-
sition (La/Yb 5 7.7–26.7) are calc-alkaline
and chemically resemble the lower to middle
and upper Farellones rocks, respectively. The
youngest rocks show evidence of residual gar-
net in their source region in contrast to the
older lavas (Sellés, 1999a; Yáñez et al., 2002).
Similarity with the Southern Volcanic
Zone and Crustal Thickness
Several authors have pointed out similari-
ties between the temporal development of Ter-
tiary volcanic sequences in central Chile and
south to north changes in lavas from the SVZ
(López-Escobar et al., 1991; Kay and Kurtz,
1995; Stern and Skewes, 1995; Kay et al.,
1999). As shown in the present study, there
are many similarities between the Abanico
Formation and rocks of the central part of the
SVZ, and the upper Farellones member some-
what resembles rocks of the northern part of
the zone. A conspicuous similarity is the over-
all shift toward less basic compositions with
time for the Tertiary rocks and northward
within the SVZ. Examples of other similarities
are illustrated in variation diagrams (Fig. 6;
similar evolutionary paths), the AFM diagram
(Fig. 5; tholeiitic vs. calc-alkaline trend), and
diagrams of trace elements of petrogenetic in-
terest (e.g., Fig. 14). However, there are also
dissimilarities, for example, ratios involving
Ta and Nb.
Hildreth and Moorbath (1988) regarded the
geochemical changes in the SVZ to be due to
a northward increase in crustal thickness. Ac-
cording to Kay and Kurtz (1995) and Kay et
al. (1999), the match of trace element patterns,
particularly the REEs, between volcanic rocks
in the El Teniente region south of our area and
SVZ lavas is quite good. On the basis of this
similarity, those authors concluded that the
crust thickened dramatically during the Mio-
cene as a consequence of horizontal failure of
ductile, magma-injected lower crust. Plotting
our data in the Ce/Sm vs. crustal-thickness di-
agram of Hawkesworth et al. (1994) gives an
increase in thickness from ;30 km for the
Abanico Formation to ;35 km for lower and
middle members of the Farellones Formation.
No estimate can be made for the upper Far-
ellones lavas because their Ce/Yb ratios (;26)
place them in the category of high Ce/Yb arcs
of Hawkesworth et al. (1994) in which too
much scatter makes a correlation meaningless.
There is a fair agreement between the crustal-
thickness estimates of Kay and Kurtz (1995)
and Kay et al. (1999) and our somewhat lower
values for the older units, taking into account
the younger ages in the south and differences
in lithology that do not allow a direct corre-
lation. The Abanico volcanic rocks erupted in
an arc underlain by thin crust that was sub-
sequently thickened during the episode of con-
traction and deformation marking the end of
the Abanico deposition. However, we attribute
the doubling of the La/Yb ratio from the mid-
dle to the upper Farellones member (Fig. 14)

in 1–2 m.y. (Fig. 3) mainly to factors other
than crustal thickening.
The Farellones lavas erupted from volcanic
complexes situated just east of the Abanico
arc where the crust probably was thicker. It is
not known how thick the crust was during the
Early Miocene when the middle and upper
Farellones volcanism took place, but at pres-
ent the crust increases from 36–40 km beneath
the Central Valley to 65–70 km beneath the
volcanic arc at the latitude of Santiago, on the
basis of flexural analyses of the Bouguer
anomaly (Tassara, 1997). Part of the apparent
increase in crustal thickness might therefore
reflect an eastward shift in magmatic activity,
but there is no compelling evidence for such
a shift between the deposition of the middle
Farellones member and the deposition of the
upper Farellones member.
The smaller degree of partial melting of the
mantle, at greater depth, inferred for the upper
Farellones member compared to older units
might account for the doubling of the La/Yb
ratio. Skewes et al. (2002) attributed a similar
doubling in La/Yb in Early Miocene–Pliocene
basic lavas and intrusive rocks of the El Ten-
iente region to a decrease in the degree of par-
tial melting of the mantle as the subduction
angle decreased prior to eastward arc migra-
tion. This mechanism can also account for the
igneous evolution in the Central Valley west
of our area, where Abanico-like volcanic
rocks were deposited, followed by emplace-
ment of lavas and stocks chemically similar to
the rocks in the Farellones members. The
young generation of stocks in the Central Val-
ley has high La/Yb ratios that cannot be re-
lated to crustal thickening because of these
stocks’ temporal proximity with previous thin-
crust conditions (Sellés, 1999b).
Southward Younging
The Oligocene to Early Miocene develop-
ment east of Santiago is not unique. A similar
history (Thiele et al., 1991) also took place in
the Andean foothills of northern and central
Chile between 238S and 358S with deposition
of sequences that resemble the lithologic pro-
gression shown by the Abanico to Farellones
Formations. In fact, the sequences were cor-
related with these formations on the basis of
lithologic and structural similarities, before ra-
diometric dating established that the sequenc-
es were deposited in different basins of suc-
cessively younger age toward the south: from
Late Cretaceous–Paleocene in northern Chile
at ;238S (Marinovic et al., 1995) to Paleo-
cene–Eocene at 258–278S (Puig et al., 1988;
Cornejo et al., 1997) to Oligocene–Miocene at
Geological Society of America Bulletin, December 2003
TERTIARY VOLCANISM IN CENTRAL CHILE
328309–348S (Munizaga and Vicente, 1982;
Beccar et al., 1986; Vergara et al., 1999;
Aguirre et al., 2000), and Early–late Miocene
at 348–358S (Kay and Kurtz, 1995). Some fea-
tures in common are bimodal volcanism dur-
ing extension followed by andesites-dacites,
caldera-forming eruptions yielding thick py-
roclastic piles, contacts of controversial nature
within the sequences, late-stage emplacement
of porphyry copper deposits, and increasing
La/Yb ratios with time.
The earlier initiation of extension and vol-
canism in the north than in the south coincid-
ed with a temporal shift in Nd-Sr isotope sig-
nature. Nyström et al. (1993) reported that
magmatic rocks with Nd-Sr values closest to
those of N-MORB were emplaced during the
Late Cretaceous in northern Chile and during
the Oligocene in central Chile. Stern and
Skewes (1995) and Skewes et al. (2002) docu-
mented southward younging of late Miocene–
Pliocene porphyry copper deposits and of the
time, at each latitude, of similar geochemical-
isotopic changes in the 308–348S sector of the
Tertiary volcanic belt. They related the young-
ing to the southward migration of the locus of
the subducting Juan Fernandez Ridge. The
Juan Fernandez Ridge was still to the north
when the volcanic rocks of the present study
formed (Yáñez et al., 2001, 2002). However,
oblique subduction of another ridge or thick-
ened region of oceanic crust might account
for the southward younging of the Late
Cretaceous–Tertiary volcanic sequences along
the Andean foothills.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Discussions with Viorica Morogan substantially
improved the petrogenetic interpretation. We thank
Luis Aguirre, Teresa Jordan, Susan Kay, Nancy Mc-
Millan, Rodney Metcalf, and Orlando Rivera for
constructive criticism of earlier versions of the man-
uscript and Nelson Muñoz and Gonzalo Yáñez for
advice. Economic support from the Swedish Agen-
cy for Research Cooperation with Developing
Countries (SAREC) grant SWE-90/006 (to Levi and
Nyström) and Fondo de Ciencia y Tecnologı́a
(FONDECYT) grant 1990050 (to Vergara) is
acknowledged.
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