Reference:

MET REVIEW
Licensure Examination for Teachers Reviewer
TECHNOLOGY & LIVELIHOOD EDUCATION (TLE)
K-12 ORIENTED
Romeo S. Ebonite
Cherryfyn B. Barbacena
CARPENTRY/WOODWORKING
Competencies to be tested
 Theories related to construction
materials.
 Basics of wood technology.
 Different kinds of wood joint.
 Principles of measurement and layout.
 Correct technique in using tools for
carpentry.
 Proper procedure in constructing
woodwork.
CARPENTRY – It is the cutting, forming, and joining timber or
wood. It is generally know as woodworking.
Carpenter (builder) – is a skilled craftsperson who performs
carpentry. Carpenters work with wood to construct, install
and maintain buildings, furniture, and other objects.
Types and Occupations
Finish Carpenter – (joiner) is one who does finish carpentry;
that is, cabinetry, furniture making, fine woodworking,
model building, instrument making, parquetry, joinery,
or other carpentry where exact joints and minimal
margins of error are important.
Trim Carpentry – specializes in molding and trim, such as
door and window casings, mantels, base board, and other
types of ornamental work.
Cabinetmaker – is a carpenter who does fine and detailed
work, specializing in the making of cabinets made from
wood, wardrobes, dressers, storage chests, and other
furniture designed for storage.
Ship’s Carpenter – specialize in shipbuilding, maintenance,
and repair and carpentry specific to nautical needs;
usually the term refers to a carpenter who has a post on
a specific ship.
Scenic Carpenter – in film-making, TV, and the theater
builds and dismantles temporary scenery and sets.
Framer – is a carpenter that builds the structure or
framework of buildings.
Formwork Carpenter – creates the shuttering and false
work used in concrete construction
BASIC KNOWLEGDE ABOUT WOOD
 Wood is consisting of small cells. Cambium layers that
extend concentrically near the bark divide into wood in inner
part and into bark on the outer surface. The former cells form
light colored wood called the late wood. The combination of
early wood and late wood is called annual ring in the case
that growth cycle is one year.
The part closer to the bark is light-colored and contains
live cells, while the inner part is made of accumulated dead
cells and appears in a color unique to the wood. The former is
called sap wood that contains starch and many nutritious
substances, therefore is susceptible to the attacks by insects
and germs. Heartwood consists of the substances that is
insusceptible to the attacks by insects and germs, therefore
has high level of durability.
Softwood and Hardwood
Most woods have either needle-shaped leaves or broad
leaves. The former yields softwood and latter yields
hardwood . The number of hardwood is far larger than that of
softwood. In many cases, softwood is used for the structural
materials of architectures, while hardwood or interior
material.
 Wood changes its shape in the drying process according to place of
origin and the shape of wood. For this, reason, wood needs to be dried to the
appropriate level. In order to avoid troubles, hardwood for home furniture
should be dried until the water content becomes less that 6-12 %, softwood
for architecture process should be dried until the water content becomes less
than 20%.
Heat – since wood consists of tube-shaped tissues, it has a
property of poor heat conduction. Therefore, it is often
used as heat insulator in floor or wall materials of
architectures.
Sound – since wood has a property of amplifying small sounds,
it is used in musical instrument.
Mechanical Property of Wood
Strength – wood needs to have strength to the extent that it
can endure the weight of itself as well as wind and snow.
Strength posed on wood is received by it cell. Thickness of cell
wall varies from species, and the thicker the cell wall is the
higher specific gravity the wood would possess. Therefore, wood
with higher specific gravity has a greater strength and harder
surface. This is why high-specific-gravity wood needs to be used
for tables and chairs , as this kind of furniture requires both
strength and hardness.Bending strength reaches to the highest
level when a load is applied in a direction parallel to fiber
direction; however, the strength is significantly reduced as the
Distortion - when the wood is treated with neat by applying hot
stem, substances called lignin that adhere each wood cell get
softened and create gap between cells. This makes the wood to
be easily distorted is fixed or permanent and cannot be reversed
to the original state. This process is used in making bent wood
products.
Preparation of wood
1. Logging
2. Lumbering
3. Sawing

Methods and or manner of log sawing:

a) Plain or bastard sawing – cutting the legs entirely through the
diameter with a parallel cord tangential to the annual rings.
b) The quarter or rift sawing – is divided into four methods;
radial method, tangential method, quarter tangential, and
combined radial and tangential.
Seasoning of lumber:
Natural or Air Seasoning – method adopted for quick drying of
the wood.
Forced Air drying
Kiln drying
Radio frequency dielectric drying
Two types of lumber:
1. Soft wood – usually used in ordinary woodwork such as pine,
lauan, etc.
2. Hard wood – usually used in cabinet or furniture making such
as narra, molave, yakal, etc.
Lumber and Related Products
1. Veneer and plywood – are made of 3, 5, 7 or more veneer
slice that are laid one upon the other with the grain of each
at right angle to those of the sheets above or below it. They
are bonded together with glue or synthetic resins. Plywood
thickness varies from 3.2 mm (1/8 inch), 4.7 mm (3/6), 12
mm (1/2), 20 mm (3/4) with width of 4 feet and length of
1.80 m (6 feet) or 2.40 m (8 feet).
a) Soft plywood – most common for structural use.
b) Hardwood plywood – used for paneling and finishing
where usually only one face is with hardwood finish.
c) Exterior or marine plywood – is made for external used.
Two types of lumber:
1. Soft wood – usually used in ordinary woodwork such as pine,
lauan, etc.
2. Hard wood – usually used in cabinet or furniture making such
as narra, molave, yakal, etc.
Lumber and Related Products
1. Veneer and plywood – are made of 3, 5, 7 or more veneer
slice that are laid one upon the other with the grain of each
at right angle to those of the sheets above or below it. They
are bonded together with glue or synthetic resins. Plywood
thickness varies from 3.2 mm (1/8 inch), 4.7 mm (3/6), 12
mm (1/2), 20 mm (3/4) with width of 4 feet and length of
1.80 m (6 feet) or 2.40 m (8 feet).
a) Soft plywood – most common for structural use.
b) Hardwood plywood – used for paneling and finishing
where usually only one face is with hardwood finish.
c) Exterior or marine plywood – is made for external used.
2. Hardwood/Pressed wood or fiber board – is made from
woodchips which are exploded into fiber with high pressure
steam. The fibers are applied with adhesive, process and it
becomes a fiber.

3. Particle boards – manufactured from wood chips, curls,

fibers, flakes, strands, shavings slivers, etc. which are bound
together and pressed into sheets and other molded shapes.
4. Laminated Wood – logs are processed by sawmilling and
drying knots and cracks are removed, and the pieces are
connected by finger joints in fiber direction to create a wide and
long material. Laminated wood can be cut in preferred width or
length according to its purpose.
Defects of Wood:
Knot – is a branch or limb of a
tree that has been exposed as
the log is cut into lumber.
Check – is a lengthwise
separation of wood like a small
crack or split.
Split – is a lengthwise break or
big crack in the board.
Decay – is the rotting of wood.
Stain- is a discoloration of the
wood surface.
Wane – is a lack of wood on
the face of the piece.
Warp – is any variation from a
tree or plane surface. It
includes crack, bow, cup, wind
(twist) or any combination.
Joint – means the union of two or more smooth or even surface,
admitting two or more pieces of timber to a close fitting or junction.
Joinery – is the art of joint making. It may include fastening and or
shaping the pieces of wood so they fit together neatly and securely.
Common Tools used in constructing wood joints:
1. a saw with fairly fine teeth usually a back saw.
2. a variety of chisel.
3. brace and bit.
4. miter box.
5. woodworker’s bench hook.
Six Groups of Joints
1. T joints – one piece joined at right angles to the face or edge of
another forming a T-shape.
2. L joints – two pieces joined to form a corner.
3. X joints – the pieces crossed over or fixed into each other to form
a cross.
4. Edge (-to-edge) joints - edges that are joined to produce wide
surface.
5. Lengthening joints – two pieces joined end to end.
6. Three-way joints – three pieces of wood joined; eg. A chair
legs and rails.

Butt Joint – the end of one pieces is fastened to the surface or

edge of the other. It is used to make a simple box or to fasten
two pieces at right angles.
Lap Joint – is made when two pieces of wood must cross.

Middle Lap Cross Lap

End Lap Miter Half Lap

Rabbet Joint – the first pieces fits into a channel cut across the
end of edge of the second piece.
Dado Joint – is good for shelves, steps, bookcases, book racks,
chests and other types of cabinets.
Miter Joint – the corners are cut at an angle usually 45 degrees.
Mortise and Tenon Joint – is one of the strongest joint. It is
found on better quality chairs, tables and benches.
Dovetail Joint – is used on the corners of the best drawers and
chairs.
EDGE-TO-EDGE JOINT
-is used when it is necessary to
increase the width of lumber for
table tops or for wide shelving,
There are three methods of making
them:

GLUING, DOWELING, and LOOSE-TONGUE

or SPLINE JOINING.
SPLICING or LENGTHENING JOINT
- is the process of joining two pieces of
timber in their longitudinal direction in order
to transmit stresses from one member to the
other. There are three different ways:

LAPPING - Simple joining one member to the

other.
FISHING - Joining two ends with the use of two
side blocks which is sometimes called splice pads.

SCARFING – is cutting away the opposite of two

members then lap-joining to obtain a continuous
piece of uniform thickness.
MEASUREMENTS

- Presently, there are two major systems of

measurements used in the world. The inch
system, often called the English System of
measurement and the metric system of
measurements.
The English system originated in England and
the Metric system originated in France or
also called System International (SI).
THE INCH SYSTEM or the ENGLISH SYSTEM
The unit of length in the English System is the “inch”,
which maybe divided into fractional or decimal fraction divisions.
The fractional system is based on the binary system , or base 2.
the binary fractions commonly used in this system are ½ , ¼ ,
1/8 ,1/16 ,1/32 ,and 1/64.
The decimal-fraction system has based 10, so any number may be
written as a product of 10 and/or a fraction of 10.
Basically, in the English system, the INCH is divided into 16
graduations and the smallest graduation is read 1/16 .
1/16 3/16 5/16 7/16 9/16 11/16 13/16 15/16 1 1/16 1 3/16

1/8 3/8 5/8 3/7 1 1/8

0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1 1¼

Linear units in the English system

 To read measurement exceeding 1 inch say 2” and 4 smaller
graduations it is read and written as: 2 4/16 or 2 ¼ .

1 foot + 2 inches + 3 smaller graduations; it is read and written as 14 3/16

inches.

THE METRIC SYSTEM

Linear metric dimensions are expressed in multiples and submultiples of
the meter. The millimeter is used to express most metric dimensions. Fractions of
the millimeter are expressed in decimals & large dimensions are given in
meters(m) and millimeters(mm).

In the metric or SI measurement. The centimeter is divided into 10

millimeters as shown below:
 COMMON INCH/METRIC CONVERSION

Inch size Millimeter Centimeter Decimeter Meter(m)

(mm) (cm) (dm)

1 in. 25.4 2.54 0.254 0.0254

1 ft. 304.8 30.48 3.048 0.3048

1 yd. 914.4 914.4 9.144 0.9144

Measuring /Dimension of wood:
Lumbers are sold according to their dimensions where
thickness and width are measured in inches and the length is
measured in feet.
T” W” L’ where : T-Thickness
W-Width
L-Length
Prices of lumber sold are based on a unit called BOARD FOOT
which means a piece of wood 12 inches long,12 inches wide and 1
inch thick.(12” 12” 1”)
Formula: T” W” L’
12 Where : T”- Thickness in inch
W”- width in inch
L’- length in feet
12- constant
Lumbers maybe sold also in metric
dimensions. To compute the total board
meters in a piece of lumber, use the
following formula:
Bd.M= Tcm Wcm Lm
100
Where: Tcm=Thickness in centimeter
Wcm=Width in centimeters
Lm=Length in meters
100=Constant
Rough Lumber- are pieces of wood unsurfaced of
unplanned usually passes exact dimension in T,W,L.
Surfaced lumber- are lumber planed usually
lessened in actual size by about 3/8 of an inch.
S2s- Lumber that are planed or smooth on two sides.
S4s- Lumber that are planned or smooth on four
sides.

Prices of Lumber ranges according to the

following:
1. Types of wood
2. Dimensions
3. Grades of lumber-
either sun dried , air dried, or kiln dried.
WOODWORKING METHODS
1. Planning
a. drawing and designing the project
b. identify bill of materials
c. list the procedures
d. List tools and machines needed
2. Cutting
3. Assembling
4. Sanding and finishing
Design a product
Designing process to follow:
1. Clarify the purpose, condition, and place of use.
2. Draw a conceptual picture
3. Decide what kinds of materials are required
4. Decide what kind of tools and equipment is
required for processing.
5. Prepare technical drawings and parts drawings
6. Make a prototype if impossible
Sawing
different types of saws must be used
when you cut along the fiber direction of the
Wood. A rip saw is used to cut along the fiber of
the wood. SAW SET is used to adjust the kerf of
teeth of the saw in order to reduce friction
between the saw blade and the wood , and to
discharge the saw dust easily.
A saw angle should be adjusted depending on
The kind of wood . The recommended angle
is 15-30 degrees for soft and thin wood and
30-45 degrees for hard and thick wood.
Hand Planning
after cutting wood by sawing, the surface
Need to be shaved or made smooth by a plane.
Adhesion and Joint

Adhesion
when making a large and flat product like
a table, you need to attach more than two
wooden boards side by side.
A bar clamp is required for this process.
A clamp should be set on both top and bottom
of the boards in a balance way.
Relationship between adhesive and materials

Wood
Wood • Polyvinyl acetate
resin adhesive
• Epoxy resin
adhesive
• Synthetic rubber
adhesive Metal
Metal • Epoxy resin • Epoxy resin adhesive
adhesive • Cyanoacrylate
• Synthetic rubber adhesive
Plastic plate
adhesive
Plastic • Polyvinyl acetate • Epoxy resin adhesive • Epoxy resin adhesive
plate resin adhesive • Cyanoacrylate • Cyanoacrylate
• Synthetic rubber adhesive adhesive
adhesive
CONSTRUCTION
Nails and screws are used when constructing
components.

Driving and pulling nails

there are two important things to consider
In driving or pulling nails, one is to drive and
remove nails without hurting yourself, and two
To drive and remove nails without damaging
the work and the hammer.
Miscellaneous Hardware

miscellaneous hardware
materials are indispensable in
carpentry work. most of them are
necessary to make the job essay,
sturdy, and neat looking.
Shelf support
These are hardware usually needed to hang
or suspend shelves on walls.
 aluminum shelf standard and bracket.
Bent metal Z-bracket
Utility bracket; and folding steel brackets.
Metal Plates and Framing Fasteners
These metal plates and fasteners are used to
strengthen weak wood joints.
•Mending plates are used to reinforce end-to-end butt
joints;
•T plates handle end-to-end joints.
•Flat corner irons strengthen corner joints by attaching the
face of the materials.
•Corner braces do the same but attach to end surface.
Door and Cabinet Hardware
These hardware are typically used in attaching
large doors and cabinet doors and fixtures. It also
include drawer slides and catches, knobs and pull.
Wood Coating or Finishing Process

Wood finishing is the process of enhancing the

appearance and durability of projects made of wood
through the application of suitable finishing materials
and proper techniques.
Preparing the Surface for Finishing

• cleaning
be sure that the surface to be finished are free from dirt, oil, wax or
pitch. You can swab-and dry the surface with turpentine or paint thinner,
lacquer and others.

• sanding
always a sanding block when a plane surface is involved. Use
sandpaper curved in your finger for curved surface. Start with medium sand
paper. Do not sand cross the grain.
Wood Finishing Materials:

1. Varnish – This is the most used clean finishing material. It is the

solution of tough resins.
2. shellac – This is the quick drying alcohol base resin derived from a
lac bug.
3. Penetrating Finish – this is intended to sink into the wood,
protecting it from most common hazards, darkening its color.
4. Fillers - this is basically pastes which fill in the open pores of the
wood.
5. lacquer – this material is quick drying composed of synthetic
resins in synthetic solvents.
6. bleaches - there are actual bleaches that lighten the wood ,
stains that are effectively lighter in color, there are non-darkening
prime coats.
7. opaque finishes – these are paints, enamels or pigmented
lacquers, and you use them when you want a solid color instead of
a wood pattern finish.
8. stains - stains are necessary to give the wood its accepted color.
COMMON CARPENTY TOOLS

Guiding and testing tools:

1. straight Edge – a tool used to guide pencils or scriber in making

straight line.
2. Square – is a 90 degree standard right angle tool
sometimes called trying square used for making and
testing work.
3. Level – used for both guiding and testing the work
to a vertical or horizontal position.

4. Plastic hose with water – is one the best and

accurate tool for guiding work in establishing a
horizontal level.

4. Sliding T-bevel – like a try square with sliding and

adjustable blade that could be set to any angle
other than 90 degree.
6. Angle Divider – is a double bevel square used to divide
an angle in a complicated work in one setting.

7. Miter Box - is a device used as guide of the hand saw

in cutting objects to form a miter joint.
8. Plumb bob – is a metal tool used to check or obtain a
vertical line. The word plumb means perpendicular to
horizontal line.
MARKING TOOLS:

1. CHALK LINE AND REEL – used for marking a very

rough work.
2. Lead pencil – with round head is also used for marking
rough work.

3. scratch awl – is used for marking a semi-rough work.

4. Scriber – is used for marking fine work. It is made of
hard-end steel with a sharp point designed to mark
fine lines.
5. Compass – a tool used to inscribe an arc or circle.

6. Divider – is used in dividing distance into equal

part such as an arc and circumference including
straight line.
Measuring tools or “rule”:

1. two foot four folding rule – used in measuring

short distances.
2. Extension rule – is used for measuring inside distances
such as doors windows, cabinets, etc.

3. Zigzag rule – is available in 4 feet and 6 feet long

commonly used by carpenters for rough layout.
4. Push-pull tape – is used to measure longer distances
available from one meter to 50 meter long.

5. Slide caliper rule – is a special tool used to measure outside

diameter of cylindrical objects.
6. Marking Gauge – is a tool most appropriate in
making lines parallel with the edges of the wood.
HOLDING TOOLS:

1. Horse or trestle – used to support or sustain the

working operation such as sawing, chiseling and
planning.

2. Clamps – used in tightly pressing piece of wood or

metal together in making tenon, mortise, and other
joints.
3. Vise – is a table tool used to hold a piece of
material rigidly secured in place to absorb severe
blows.
Toothed Cutting Tools:

1. saw – the most important of the toothed cutting tools.

2. Files – are metal tools of different shapes and sizes used for
abrading, reducing or smooth cutting metal, wood, or other
materials.
A rasp file – are very coarse files.

3. Chisel – paring chisel, firming chisel, slick, gouge.

Smooth facing tools:

Planes Spoke shave

Boring Tools:

1. Brad awl – is small tool used for punching

2. gimlet – is a tools used for boring holes by hand pressure.
3. auger – is used for boring holes with a diameter range ½
to 2 inches.
4. Twist drill – is used for drilling small holes.
5. Hollow auger – is used for external boring or turning.
6. spoke pointer – cuts a conical hole.
7. counter sink – used for enlarging a conical hole at the
surface of the wood.

Fastening Tools:

1. claw hammer
2.Wrenches
3.Screw drivers
SHARPENING TOOLS:

1. grind stone – is a flat disc solid stone usually made of

sandstone mounted on a shaft for sharpening, shaping or
polishing metal by turning.
2. Oil stone - is used after the grinding operation to achieve
a smooth and keen edge of the tools.

Machines and other equipment:

1. Circular saw- is a steel disc provided with teeth designed

to revolve on a shaft at high speed.
2. Radial arm saw – is a power driven rotary cutting tool.
3. portable electric saw - a power driven rotary cutting tool
provided with toothed circular blade.
4. Portable Electric Drill - is a motorized rotary
driving tool. Used as driving unit for sanding,
polishing and grinding as well as for circular and
jigsaw.
5. Drill Press - power driven rotary tool used for
driving bits, plug cutters, and many auxiliary
attachment.
6. Portable Electric Saber Saw - is classified as a
power driven reciprocating cutting tool.
7. Band Saw - is a power driven endless toothed
hand cutting tool.
8. Single Surface Planer - is a power driven
rotating edge cutting tool.
9. Portable Sanders- is a power driven
abrading tool.
10. Portable Hand Router- is a power driven
rotary shaping tool used to cut moldings,
rout cut grains inlay and cut dovetails.
11. Wood Lathe - used to rotate the material for shaping
sanding or polishing.
a. Gouge - is used in roughing out cylinders and in turning
concave surfaces on spindles. The blade is concave-convex in
cross section with a rounded beveled cutting edge.
b. Skew Chisel- is a flat turning chisel used in smoothing
cylinders, rounding edges and n making V and shoulder cuts.
It can be used for shearing or scraping wood.
c. The Round Nose- is a flat scraping chisel used in roughing
and shaping concave surfaces.
d. Square Nose - is a flat scraping chisel used to make flat
straight cuts. It appears like stadanrd wood chisel in shape
but has a thicker and longer blade.
e. Diamond point- is a flat scraping chisel used to
make V cuts. The point cutting edge is beveled at 30
degrees.

f. Parting Tool - si a craping chisel to make deep

narrow cuts and deep cuts for sizing when shaping
profiles.
 MAINTENANCE OF WOODWORKING/ CARPENTRY
TOOLS AND MACHINES
Maintenance is a big factor in keeping the tools and
machines always in good working condition. Quality of the
work done as well as safety in operation depends upon the
condition of the tools and machines.

1. Always use the right tools for the right job.

2. Clean the tools and equipment after using the keep them
in their right places.
3. Apply lubricants or oil on the metal parts of the tools to
prevent rusting and stuck-up.
4. Keep all edge cutting tools keen or sharp
5.Never used tools with broken handles. Fix it at once if there
is such.
6. Check all electrical cords, and switches for breaks to
prevent electric shock or damage to electrical parts due to
short circuit.
 TOOL SHARPENING
1. Dull plane irons and chisels- use a whetstone to
sharpen or hone the beveled edge of the plane iron
and chisels. Maintain the factory-set angle of 30
degree. After honing the angled side, turn the iron or
chisel over, lay it flat on the whetstone and move it in
a circular motion to remove burrs that may have form
on the flat side.
2. Sharpening Crosscut Saw and Ripsaw - Clamp the
saw in bench vise so the blades teeth are about 1/8
inch above the scraps, and the run a flat file across
the points of the teeth until you've made small "
plateaus" on the tips.
 * For Crosscut saw - seat the triangular file
against the bevel of the tooth at a 60 degree
angle to the saw and file until you' ve removed
half of the neighboring plateaus and then
reverse the process for the other half.

* For Ripsaw- the same procedure as with

crosscut saw except that the triangulr file is set
90 degreeangle to the saw.
3. Sharpening s Twist Drill Bit - it requires a bench grinder with
a tool rest to help you maintain the precise 50 degree angle
with the grinding wheel.
4. Sharpening a Spade Bit- it is done by just touching up the
shoulders with a flat file holding it at an angle of the bevel
about 8 degree.

PROCEDURES IN CONTRUCTING WOODWORK

THE WOOD FLOR SYSTEM

* Girder- is a principalbeam extending from wall to wall. It is

the major horizontal support member upon which the floor
system is laid.
* Floor Joist- are those parts of the floor system placed on the
girders where the floor board are fastened usually at a distance
from 30-40 centimetres rigidly secured bridging to prevent from
wagging sideways.
* Still - is that part of the side of the house that rest horizontally
upon the foundation. It is a wood member fastened with anchor
belts to the foundation wall.
*Header- is a short transverse joist that supports the end of the
cut-off joist at a stair well hole.
* Trimmer- is a supporting joist which carries an end portion of
a header
* Flooring- refers to the tongue and groove board which is the
most common of wood flooring materials.
THE ROOF SYSTEM

Shed or Lean-to-Roof - is considered the simplest form of

roof consisting of one single slope.
Gable or Pitch Roof - it is the most common type and
economical form of roof made of triangular sections consisting
of two slopes meeting at the centre of the ridge forming a
gable.
Hip Roof- is also common form used in modern houses having
straight sides all sloping toward the centre of the building
terminating at the ridge.
Hip & Valley Roof- is a combination of the hip roof and an
intersecting gable roof forming a T or L shaped building.
Pyramid Roof - is a modification of the hip roof wherein the
four straight sides are sloping towards the centre terminating at
a point.
 Gambrel Roof- is a modification of the gable roof
with each side having two slopes'
Dome- is a hemispherical form of roof usually used
on observatory buildings.

Types of Roof Frame

1. Rafters Type
2. Truss Type
3. Laminated Type
Rafters

Common Rafters- are rafters extended at right angle

from the plate or girts to the ridge.
Hip Rafters- are rafters diagonally laid from the
corner of a plate or right to the ridge.
Valley Rafters- is any rafter which does not extend
from the plate or girt to the ridge.
Jack Rafters- the frame between hip rafters and girts
are called hip jack. The frame between the ridge and
the valley rafters are called valley jack and those
frames between the hip and the valley rafters are
called cripple jack.
Octagonal Rafters- are rafters placed on octagonal
shaped plate at the central apex or ridge pole.
Truss
It is a built-up frame commonly employed on a long span
roof unsupported by intermediate columns or partitions. Truss is
a series of triangles used to distribute load and stiffen the
structure spacing which offers flexibility for the interior as well as
strength and rigidity.

Girts- Is the structural member that supports the rafters or truss

of a building.

Collar Beam- It is the ties between rafters on opposite sides of

the roof.

Purlins- It is the structural member placed on top of the rafters

or top chord of a truss that support the roofing materials.
TIMBER FRAMING FASTENERS
Types of Timber Fasteners
1. Nails
2. Bolts
3. lag screw
4. Wood screw
5. Drift bolts and dowels

Nails- are either rectangular in shape directly cut from a metal

strip or with circular cross section which were cut directly from
wire called common wire nails.
Classification of nails with respect to service
1. Common nails
2. flooring nails
3 Finishing nails
4. Roofing nails
5. Boat, etc..
If nails are driven parallel with the grain, the lateral resistance
is decreased by 25 to 30%.

Bolts- is the most popular hardware material for fastening

timber joints under light or heavy stresses.

Classification of Roof Framing Bolts

1. Common, Ordinary or Machine Bolts
2.Drift bolts
3.Dowels
4.Strap bolts
5.U-bolts
6.Eye bolts
Drift Bolts- are round or square iron or steel with or
without thread or point of specified length.

Dowel- it is thicker and shorter than drifts bolt. It has

no thread or point and only prevents lateral
displacement of the connected parts.it is either iron or
wood pin extended but not through the members of
the structure to be connected.

Advantages of Dowels
1. It does not provides a rigid joint
2. It is totally damaged if repair calls for defective
member.
3. It is difficult to replace
 Lag Screw - is used to fasten large pieces of timber
under heavy stresses.
Wood Screw - is used to avoid splitting and injury to
the wood and to obtain better fitting and ease of
disassembling when necessary.
Wooden Key- is made of a piece of hard wood
rectangular cross section and inserted between tow
lapping pieces of lumber to prevent sliding of the
adjacent member.
Shear Pin- is made of wood steel bars or G.I pipe.
Plate Washer- is used under the head and nuts of
the bolts to prevents the heads and nuts from
damaging the timber when tightening the bolts.
 THE STAIRS
STAIRS- the steps wherein to ascend or descend from one
story of a building or house to another .

Common Parts of a Stairs

1. Rise- The height of a flight of stairs from landing to landing.
The height between successive treads or stairs.
2. Riser- The Vertical face of a stair step
3. Run- the horizontal distance from the first to the last riser
stair flight
4. Landing- is that horizontal floor as resting place in a flight.
5. Well- the place occupied by the flight of the stairs.
6. Well hole- the opening in the floor at the top of the flight of
stairs.
7. Stair headroom- the clear vertical height measured from
the nosing of a stair tread to any overhead construction.
8. Tread- The horizontal part of a step including the nosing.
9. Step- Stair unit which consist of one tread and one stair
10. Winders- Steps not parallel with each other.

Laying Out of Stairs

1. Determine the clear height of the rise in meter. Normally,
the rise per step is 17 to 18 centimetres and the minimum
tread width is 25 centimetres.
2. Divide theories height in meters by 17 or 18 to determine
the number of steps.
3. If the result found in step 2 is say 11.5, it simply means
that you will have 11.5 steps which are not right.
4. adjust 11,5 to a whole number 11 or 12 to be your trial
divisor.
5. Divide the rise by the 11 or 12 to determine the height per
rise of each step.
6. Choose the number of step which not be less than 17 cm. or
more than 19 cm. for an ideal stair.

It is important for the planner of a staircase to make first a

scaled cross sectional drawing of the proposed stair before
making the final on site layout. The number of steps should be
determined first in the drafting table to avoid adjustments of the
run during the construction.
Laying out of the Stringer
After determining the number of tread and the hieght per
rise of the steps, follows the actual making on the stringer.
This could be done effectively and accurately by the use of the
steel square.
The length of the stringer could be determined by either
the use of the Pythagorean formula or by actual measurement.

Formula; L= (Rise)2 + (run)2

Where;
L= is the length of the stringer
Rise= the height of the flight os the stringer
Run= The horizontal distance from the first to the last riser of
stair flight
Types of Stringer

1. Cut stringer- commonly used in most modern and

contemporary house design

2. Cleated stringer- is used for the rough work

3. Rabbeted Stringer- is adopted pn fine work and

is usually made at the mill. The riser and treads are
held in the rabbets by widgets in by glue.