CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
 1.1 PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Chemistry is the science that deals with the composition and properties of
matter.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter includes
things we can see and touch (such as water, earth, and trees), as well as
things we cannot (such as air).
Composition refers to the parts or components of a sample of matter and
their relative proportions. Pure water is made up of two simpler substances
– hydrogen and oxygen – present in a certain fixed proportion. A chemist
would say that the composition of water is 11.19% hydrogen and 88.81%
oxygen by mass. Hydrogen peroxide, a substance used in bleaches and a
ntiseptics, is also made up of hydrogen and oxygen, but it has a
different composition. Hydrogen peroxide is 5.93% hydrogen and 94.07%
oxygen by mass.
Properties are those qualities or attributes that we can use to distinguish
one sample of matter from others.
Physical Properties and Physical Changes
A physical property is one that a sample of matter displays without
changing its composition. Thus, we can distinguish between the reddish
brown solid, copper, and the yellow solid, sulfur, by the physical property of
color.
Another physical property of copper is that it can be hammered into a thin
sheet of foil. Solids having this ability are said to be malleable. Sulfur is not
malleable. If we strike a chunk of sulfur with a hammer, it crumbles into a
powder. Sulfur is brittle. Also, sulfur is a far poorer conductor of heat and
electricity than is copper.
 Sometimes a sample of matter undergoes a change in its physical
appearance. In such a physical change, some of the physical properties of
the sample may change, but its composition remains unchanged. When
liquid water freezes into solid water (ice), it certainly looks different. Density
(a physical property) of ice is different than that of liquid water. Yet the water
remains 11.19% hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen by mass.
Chemical Properties and Chemical Changes
In a chemical change, or chemical reaction, one or more kinds of matter
are converted to new kinds of matter with different compositions. The key to
identifying chemical change, then, comes in observing a change in
composition.
Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid solution to produce hydrogen gas and
a solution of zinc chloride in water. This reaction is one of zinc’s distinctive
chemical properties, just as the inability of gold to react with hydrochloric
acid is one of gold’s chemical properties.
 Sodium reacts not only with hydrochloric acid but also with water. In
some of their physical properties, zinc, gold, and sodium are similar. For
example, each is malleable and a good conductor of heat and electricity. In
most of their chemical properties, though, zinc, gold, and sodium are quite
different.
All measurable properties of matter fall into one of two additional categories:
extensive properties and intensive properties. The measured value of an
extensive property depends on how much matter is being considered.
Mass, which is the quantity of matter in a given sample of a substance, is an
extensive property. Volume, defined as length cubed, is another extensive
property. Values of the same extensive property can be added together.
The measured value of an intensive property does not depend on how
much matter is being considered. Density, defined as the mass of an object
divided by its volume, is an intensive property. So is temperature. Suppose
that we have two beakers each containing 100 mL of water at 25 °C. If we
combine them to give 200 mL of water in a larger beaker, the temperature of
the combined quantities of water will still be 25 °C, the same as it was in two
separate beakers. The density of the combined quantities of water will also
be the same as the original quantities. The temperature and the density of
water do not depend on the amount of water present. Unlike mass and
volume, temperature, density, and other intensive properties are not
additive.
 1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Substances and Mixtures

A substance is a form of matter that has a definite (constant) composition
and distinct properties. Examples are water, ammonia, table sugar
(sucrose), gold, and oxygen. Substances differ from one another in
composition and can be identified by their physical and chemical properties.
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the
substances retain their distinct identities. Some familiar examples are air,
sea water, and cement. Mixtures do not have constant composition.
Therefore, samples of air collected in different cities would probably differ in
composition because of differences in altitude, pollution, and so on.
All mixtures are classified as either homogeneous or heterogeneous. When
a spoonful of sugar dissolves in water we obtain a homogeneous mixture
in which the composition of the mixture is the same throughout. If sand is
mixed with iron filings, however, the sand grains and the iron filings remain
separate. This type of mixture is called a heterogeneous mixture because
the composition is not uniform.
Any mixture, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous, can be created and
then separated by physical means into pure components without changing
the identities of the components. Thus, sugar can be recovered from a water
solution by heating the solution and evaporating it to dryness. Condensing
the vapor will give us back the water component. To separate the iron-sand
mixture, we can use a magnet to remove the iron filings from the sand,
because sand is not attracted to the magnet. After separation, the
components of the mixture will have the same composition and properties
as they did to start with.
Elements and Compounds
Substances can be either elements or compounds. An element is a
substance that cannot be separated further into simpler substances by
chemical methods. To date, 118 elements have been positively identified.
Most of them occur naturally on Earth. The others have been created by
scientists via nuclear processes.
For convenience, chemists use symbols of one or two letters to represent
the elements. The first letter of a symbol is always capitalized, but any
following letters are not. There is a special tabular arrangement of elements
known as the periodic table. The periodic table is the chemist’s directory of
the elements and it will be used throughout most of this course.
Atoms of most elements can Etkileşim with one another to form compounds.
Hydrogen gas, for example, burns in oxygen gas to form water, which has
properties that are distinctly different from those of the starting materials.
Water is made up of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen. This
composition is independent of the source of water. Thus, water is a
compound, a substance composed of atoms of two or more elements
chemically united in fixed proportions. Unlike mixtures, compounds can be
separated only by chemical means into their pure components.
 1.3 MEASUREMENT OF MATTER

Chemistry is a quantitative science, which means that in many cases we

can measure a property of a substance and compare it with a standard
having a known value of the property. We express the measurement as the
product of a number and a unit. The unit indicates the standard against
which the measured quantity is being compared.
Today, a revised form of the metric system called the International System
of Units (abbreviated SI, from the French Systeme Internationale d’Unites)
is being used which was proposed in 1960.
Seven SI base quantities, their units and unit symbols are shown in
Table 1. (The last two, electric current and luminuous intensity will not be
discussed in this course).
 TABLE 1 SI Base Quantities

Physical Quantity Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
All other physical quantities have units that can be derived from the seven
base quantities. SI is a decimal system. Quantities differing from the base
unit by powers of ten are noted by the use of prefixes. For example, the
prefix kilo means “one thousand” (103) times the base unit; it is abbreviated
as k. Thus 1 kilometer = 1000 meters, or 1 km = 1000 m. Some common SI
prefixes are listed in Table 2.
 TABLE 2 SI Prefixes

Multiple Prefix Multiple Prefix

1012 tera (T) 10-12 pico (p)
109 giga (G) 10-9 nano (n)
106 mega (M) 10-6 micro (µ)
103 kilo (k) 10-3 milli (m)
102 hecto (h) 10-2 centi (c)
101 deka (da) 10-1 deci (d)
Most measurements in chemistry are made in SI units. Sometimes we must
convert between SI units, as when converting kilometers to meters. At other
times we must convert measurements expressed in non-SI units into SI
units, or from SI units to non-SI units. In all these cases, we can use a
conversion factor or a series of conversion factors in a scheme called a
conversion pathway. Later in this chapter, we will apply conversion pathways
in a method of problem solving known as dimensional analysis.
Some Basic Quantities
Mass and Weight
Mass describes the quantity of matter in an object. In SI the unit of mass is
1 kilogram (kg), which is a fairly large unit for most applications in chemistry.
More commonly we use the unit gram (g).
Weight is the force that gravity exerts on an object. For an object, weight
changes due to change in acceleration of gravity; but the mass of the object
is constant.
In chemistry, the terms weight and mass are often used interchangeably, but
only mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. A common laboratory
device for measuring mass is called a “balance”. The process of measuring
mass, oddly, is called weighing.
Temperature
To establish a temperature scale, we arbitrarily set certain fixed points and
temperature increments called degrees. Two commonly used fixed points
are the temperature at which ice melts and the temperature at which water
boils, both at 1 atm, which are called normal melting point and normal
boiling point, respectively.
On the Celsius scale, the normal melting point of ice is 0 °C, the normal
boiling point of water is 100 °C, and the interval between is divided into 100
equal parts called Celsius degrees.
On the Fahrenheit temperature scale, the normal melting point of ice is 32
°F, the normal boiling point of water 212 °F, and the interval between is
divided into 180 equal parts called Fahrenheit degrees.
The SI temperature scale, called the Kelvin scale, assigns a value of
zero to the lowest possible temperature. The zero on the Kelvin scale is
denoted to 0 K and it comes at – 273.15 °C. (It may be taken as – 273 °C for
the sake of simplicity). We will discuss the Kelvin temperature scale in detail
in the chapter on Gases. For now, it is enough to know the following:
- The interval on the Kelvin scale, called a kelvin, is the same size as the
Celsius degree.
- When writing a Kelvin temperature, we do not use a degree symbol. That
is, we write 0 K or 300 K, not 0 °K or 300 °K.
- The Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale; there are no negative
Kelvin temperatures.
The following algebraic equations can be used for conversions from one
scale to another:
- Kelvin from Celsius 𝑇 𝐾 = 𝑡 ℃ + 273
9
- Fahrenheit from Celsius 𝑡 ℉ = 𝑡 ℃ + 32
5
5
- Celsius from Fahrenheit 𝑡 ℃ = 𝑡 ℉ − 32
9
Some Derived Quantities
Many measured properties are expressed as combinations of the
fundamental, or basic, quantities shown in Table 1. We refer to the units of
such properties as derived units.
For example, velocity is a distance divided by the time required to travel
that distance. The unit of velocity is length divided by time, such as m/s.
Force is mass times acceleration. The unit of force is kg.(m/s2).
An important measurement that uses derived units is volume. Volume has
the unit (length)3, and the SI unit of volume is the cubic meter (m3). More
commonly used volume units are the cubic centimeter (cm3) and the liter (L).
One liter is defined as a volume of 1000 cm3, which means that one milliliter
(1 mL) is equal to 1 cm3 . The liter is also equal to one cubic decimeter.
These conversions are summarized as follows:
1 m3 = (1 x 101 dm)3 = 1000 dm3 = 1000 L
1 L = 1 dm3 = (1 x 101 cm)3 = 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL
Another important measured quantity with derived units is density. The
equation for density is
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑑=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉

where d, m, and V denote density, mass, and volume, respectively.

The SI unit for density is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3). This unit is
awkwardly large for most chemical applications. Therefore, grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cm3) and its equivalent, grams per milliliter (g/mL), are more
commonly used for solid and liquid densities. Because gas densities are
often very low, we express them in units of grams per liter (g/L).
 1.4 UNCERTAINTIES IN SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS

All measurements are subject to some error. To some extent, measuring

instruments have built-in, or inherent, errors, called systematic errors.
(For example, a kitchen scale might consistently yield results that are 5 g
too high or a thermometer a reading that is 1 °C too low.)
Limitations in an experimenter’s skill or ability to read a scientific
instrument also lead to errors and give results that may be either too high
or too low. Such errors are called random errors.
Precision refers to how closely two or more measurements of the same
quantity agree with one another. The precision of a series of measurements
is high (or good) if each of a series of measurements deviates by only a
small amount from the average. Conversely, if there is wide deviation among
the measurements, the precision is poor (or low).
Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the accepted, or
actual, value. (A tight cluster of three darts near the edge of a dart board can
be considered precise but not accurate if the intention was to strike the
center of the board.)
To illustrate these ideas, consider measuring the mass of an object by using
the two balances shown in Figure 1. One of the balances is a single-pan
balance that gives the mass in grams with only one decimal place. The other
balance is a sophisticated analytical balance that gives the mass in grams
with four decimal places.
The accompanying table gives results obtained when the object is
weighed three times on each balance.
FIGURE 1 Measuring Mass of an Object by Using a Pan Balance and
an Analytical Balance
For the single-pan balance, the average of the measurements is 10.5 g, with
measurements ranging from 10.4 g to 10.6 g. For the analytical balance, the
average of the measurements is 10.4978 g, with measurements ranging
from 10.4977 g to 10.4979 g. The scatter in the data obtained with the
single-pan balance (±0.1 g) is greater than that obtained with the analytical
balance (±0.0001 g). Thus, the results obtained by using the single-pan
balance have lower (or poorer) precision than those obtained by using the
analytical balance.
 1.5 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Let us consider the measurements made on a single-pan balance: 10.4,

10.2, and 10.3 g. The reported result is best expressed as their average,
that is, 10.3 g.
A scientist would interpret these results to mean that the first two digits (1
and 0) are known with certainty and the last digit (3) is uncertain because it
was estimated. We could express the mass by writing 10.3±0.1 g. To a
scientist, the measurement 10.3 g is said to have three significant figures.
If we consider the average value obtained from the measurements on the
analytical balance, 10.4978 g, there are six significant figures. The number
of significant figures in a measured quantity gives an indication of the
capabilities of the measuring device and the precision of the measurements.
We will frequently need to determine the number of significant figures in
a numerical quantity. The rules for doing this will be given next.
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
1. Nonzero integers. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.
2. Zeros. There are three classes of zeros:
a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all the nonzero digits. These do
not count as significant figures. In the number 0.0025, the three zeros
simply indicate the position of the decimal point. This number has two
significant figures.
b. Captive zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. These always count
as significant figures. The number 1.008 has four significant figures.
c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number. They are
significant only if the number contains a decimal point. The number 100
has only one significant figure. The number one hundred written as
100. has three significant figures. There are two significant figures in
240; but there are three significant figures in 2.40.
3. Exact numbers. Many times calculations involve numbers that were not
obtained using measuring devices but were determined by counting: 3
apples, 8 molecules. Such numbers are called exact numbers. They can
be assumed to have an infinite number of significant figures. Exact
numbers also can arise from definitions. For example, one inch is defined
as exactly 2.54 centimeters. Thus, in the statement 1 in = 2.54 cm,
neither the 2.54 nor the 1 limits the number of significant figures when
used in a calculation.
Scientific Notation for Expressing Numbers
Chemists often deal with numbers that are extremely large or extremely
small. When working with very large and very small numbers, we use a
system called scientific notation (or exponential notation). Regardless of
their magnitude, all numbers can be expressed in the form
N x 10n
where N is a number between 1 and 10, and n (the exponent) is a positive
or negative integer (whole number). Any number expressed in this way is
said to be written in scientific notation.
Suppose that we are given a certain number and asked to express it in
scientific notation. Basically, this assignment calls for us to find n. We count
the number of places that the decimal point must be moved to give the
number N (which is between 1 and 10). If the decimal point has to be moved
to the left, then n is a positive integer; if it has to be moved to the right, n is a
negative integer. Examples:
- Express 568000000 in scientific notation:
568000000 = 5.68 x 108
- Express 0.0000049 in scientific notation:
0.0000049 = 4.9 x 10-6
Scientific notation has two important advantages: the number of significant
figures can be easily indicated, and fewer zeros are needed to write a very
large or very small number.
For example, the number 0.000070 is much more conveniently
represented as 7.0 x 10-5 . It is easily seen from the scientific notation that
this number has two significant figures.
Rules for Rounding off Numerical Results
In most calculations we will need to round off numerical results to obtain the
correct number of significant figures. In this operation, one digit (and the
digits beyond) should be removed. The following rules should be applied
when rounding off.
1. In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits through to the final result,
then round.
2. If the digit to be removed
a. is less than 5 (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4), the preceding digit stays the same.
For example, if 1.342 is rounded off to two significant figures, the digit 4
is removed. Since it is less than 5, the result is 1.3.
b. is equal to or greater than 5 (i.e., 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9), the preceding digit is
increased by 1. For example, if 0.2869 is rounded off to three significant
figures, the digit 9 is removed. Since it is greater than 5, the result is 0.287.
Although rounding is generally straightforward, one point requires special
emphasis. As an illustration, suppose that the number 5.348 needs to be
rounded off to two significant figures. In doing this, we look only at the first
number to the right of the 3. Then the digit to be removed is 4. Because 4 is
less than 5, the given number is rounded off to 5.3. It is incorrect to round off
sequentially. For example, do not round off the 4 to 5 to give 5.35 and then
round the 3 to 4 to give 5.4.
When rounding, use only the first number to the right of the last significant
figure.
Significant Figures in Numerical Calculations
- Multiplication or Division

For multiplication or division, the number of significant figures in the result

should be the same as the number in the least precise measurement (i.e.,
the one having the least number of significant figures) used in the
calculation.
Examples:
* 14.78 x 12.11 x 5.05 = 903.87829 (Given by calculator)
(4 SFs) (4 SFs) (3 SFs)

The result should have 3 SFs. The result rounded off to 3 SFs is 904.
*
(3 SFs) (2 SFs)

2.07 𝑥 1.4 𝑥 10−2

= 0.11592 (Given by calculator)
0.250

(3 SFs)

The result should have 2 SFs. The result rounded off to 2 SFs is 0.12.
- Addition or Subtraction
For addition or subtraction, the result has the same number of digits beyond
the decimal point as the quantity carrying the smallest number of such digits.
Examples:
* 12.07 + 18.0 + 1.013 = 31.083 (Given by calculator)
(2 digits) (1 digit) (3 digits) ---------------- beyond the decimal point

The result should have 1 digit beyond the decimal point. So the corrected
result will be 31.1. (Note that it has been rounded off so as to contain 1 digit
beyond the decimal point.)
• 3.7 x 10 -3 + 4.92 x 10 -4 – 1.54 x 10 -3 =
Exponents should be the same in addition-subtraction operations. So
3.7 x 10 -3 + 0.492 x 10 -3 – 1.54 x 10 -3 =
(3.7 + 0.492 – 1.54) x 10 -3 = 2.652 x 10 -3 (Given by calculator)
1 digit 3 digits 2 digits ---------------- beyond the decimal point

The result should have 1 digit beyond the decimal point. So the corrected result will
be 2.7 x 10 -3. (Note that it has been rounded off so as to contain 1 digit beyond the
decimal point.)
 1.6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

It is often necessary to convert a given result from one system of units to

another. The best way to do this is by a method called the unit factor
method, or more commonly dimensional analysis.
Dimensional analysis is based on the relationship between different
units that express the same physical quantity.
For example, by definition
1 in = 2.54 cm (exactly)
This equivalence enables us to write a conversion factor as follows:
1 𝑖𝑛
2.54 𝑐𝑚
Because both the numerator and the denominator express the same length,
this fraction is equal to 1. Similarly, we can write the conversion factor as
2.54 𝑐𝑚
1 𝑖𝑛
which is also equal to 1.
As in these examples, a fraction which is equal to 1 is called a unit factor.
Such factors are useful for changing units. Multiplying any expression by a
unit factor will not change its value; but in this way, we will be able to convert
one unit to another.
In general, to apply dimensional analysis we use the relationship
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
and the units cancel as follows:
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
Example
A rod is 50.80 cm long. Express this length in inches.
1 𝑖𝑛
50.80 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 = 20.00 𝑖𝑛
2.54 𝑐𝑚

Note that the centimeter units cancel to give inches for the result. Note also
that the result has four significant figures, as required by the number 50.80.
Recall that the 1 and 2.54 in the conversion factor are exact numbers by
definition and they are assumed to have infinite number of significant
figures.
Example
A pencil is 7.00 in long. What is its length in centimeters?
2.54 𝑐𝑚
7.00 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 17.8 𝑐𝑚
1 𝑖𝑛

Here the inch units cancel, leaving centimeters, as requested. Note that the
result has three significant figures, as required by the number 7.00. Again,
2.54 and 1 in the conversion factor are exact numbers by definition and they
are assumed to have infinite number of significant figures.
Example
A rectangular solid measures 1.10 m by 5.6 cm by 2.1 dm. Express its
volume (a) in cubic meters; (b) in liters; (c) in cubic inches.
(a)
1𝑚 1𝑚
𝑉 = 1.10 𝑚 5.6 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 2.1 𝑑𝑚 𝑥 = 0.012936 𝑚3
100 𝑐𝑚 10 𝑑𝑚

(from calculator)

Rounding off to two significant figures gives V = 0.013 m3.

(b)
10 𝑑𝑚 1 𝑑𝑚
𝑉 = 1.10 𝑚 𝑥 5.6 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 2.1 𝑑𝑚 = 12.936 𝑑𝑚3
1𝑚 10 𝑐𝑚
(from calculator)

Rounding off to two significant figures gives V = 13 dm3 or V = 13 L.

(c)
100 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑖𝑛 10 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑖𝑛
𝑉 = 1.10 𝑚 𝑥 𝑥 5.6 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 2.1 𝑑𝑚 𝑥 𝑥
1𝑚 2.54 𝑐𝑚 2.54 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑑𝑚 2.54 𝑐𝑚
V = 789.4031536 in3 (from calculator)

Rounding off to two significant figures gives V = 790 in3 (or 7.9 x 102 in3).
 1.7 THE MOLE CONCEPT

The SI quantity that describes an amount of substance by relating it to a

number of particles of that substance is called the mole (abbreviated mol).
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of
elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or other particles) as there are
atoms in exactly 12 g of the carbon-12 isotope.
The actual number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12 is determined
experimentally. This number is called Avogadro’s number (NA ), in honor of
the Italian scientist Amadeo Avogadro. The currently accepted value is
NA ≅ 6.022 x 1023 mol-1
The relationship between the number of moles (n) of a substance and the
number of elementary entities (for example atoms) (N) is given by
𝑁
𝑛=
𝑁𝐴
In almost all quantitative work in chemistry, we need to calculate the number
of moles in a given mass of substance. The relationship between mass and
number of moles of a substance can be expressed as follows:
“The mole is defined such that a sample of an element with a mass equal to
the element’s atomic mass expressed in grams contains 1 mole of atoms.”
Atomic masses of the elements are given in periodic table (Figure 2).
Each box in the periodic table corresponds to a certain element which is
represented by its symbol. In each box, the decimal number below the
symbol is the atomic mass of the element.
FIGURE 2 Periodic Table of the Elements
By using periodic table, we can write the following:
1 mol of Fe weighs 55.85 g
1 mol of C weighs 12.01 g
1 mol of O weighs 16.00 g
1 mol of H weighs 1.008 g
These numbers are also called molar masses of these elements. Thus, the
molar mass (MM) of a substance is the mass in grams of one mole of the
substance. (The term molecular weight is also used for this quantity). The
unit for molar mass is g/mol.
Molar mass concept can equally be applied to substances composed of
molecules. In such cases molecular masses are calculated from atomic
masses. Examples:
for H2O, molecular mass is 2(1.008) + 16.00 = 18.02
for O2, molecular mass is 2(16.00) = 32.00

Then,
1 mol of H2O weighs 18.02 g
1 mol of O2 weighs 32.00 g
So,
molar mass of H2O is 18.02 g/mol
molar mass of O2 is 32.00 g/mol
The relationship between the number of moles (n) and mass (m) of a
substance is given by
𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑀
EXAMPLE
Determine
a) the number of moles of C2H5OH
b) the number of molecules of C2H5OH
c) the number of hydrogen atoms
in a 7.56 g of C2H5OH sample.
(a)
(𝑀𝑀)𝐶2𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 = 2 12.01 + 6 1.008 + 16.00 = 46.07 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
7.56 𝑔
𝑛𝐶2 𝐻5𝑂𝐻 = = 0.164 𝑚𝑜𝑙
46.07 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

(b)
23 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑁𝐶2𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 = 0.164 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 6.022 𝑥 10 = 9.88 𝑥 1022 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙
(c)
In 1 C2H5OH molecule → 6 (H) atoms
In 9.88 x 1022 C2H5OH molecules → ? (H) atoms
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
? = NH = 6 x 9.88 x 1022 (H) atoms = 5.93 x 1023 (H) atoms
 1.8 CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

Generally speaking, two fundamental kinds of chemical bonds hold

together the atoms in a compound. Covalent bonds, which involve a
sharing of electrons between atoms, give rise to molecular compounds.
Ionic bonds, which involve a transfer of electrons from one atom to another,
give rise to ionic compounds.
Molecular Compounds
A molecular compound is made up of discrete units called molecules,
which typically consist of a small number of nonmetal atoms held together
by covalent bonds.
Molecular compounds are represented by chemical formulas, symbolic
representations that, at minimum, indicate
- the elements present
- the relative number of atoms of each element
In the formula for water, the constituent elements are denoted by their
symbols. The relative numbers of atoms are indicated by subscripts. Where
no subscript is written, the number 1 is understood.
H2O
There are two elements: (H) and (O). There are 2 (H) atoms and 1 (O) atom
per molecule.
A few other examples are NH3, C2H4, SO2. (Note that these compounds
are formed by nonmetal atoms). All of these formulas represent distinct
entities – molecules. Thus, we can refer to these as molecular compounds.
An empirical formula is the simplest formula for a compound; it shows the
types of atoms present and their relative numbers. The subscripts in an
empirical formula are reduced to their simplest whole-number ratio. For
example, CH2 is the empirical formula for a compound whose molecules
have the formula C3H6. Generally, the empirical formula does not tell us a
great deal about a compound. Propylene (C3H6) and ethylene (C2H4), which
are different compounds, have the same empirical formulas.
A molecular formula is based on an actual molecule of a compound. It
indicates the number of atoms of each element in one molecule of the
compound. The molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6. It tells us that in
one molecule of glucose there are 6 (C) atoms, 12 (H) atoms, and 6 (O)
atoms.
In some cases, the empirical and molecular formulas are identical such as
C3H8 for propane. In other cases, the molecular formula is an integer
multiple of empirical formula. For example, for propylene, the molecular
formula (C3H6) is three times its empirical formula (CH2). This is shown in
the following general form:
(molecular formula) = x (empirical formula) where x is an integer.
Empirical and molecular formulas tell us the combining ratio of the atoms in
the compound, but they show nothing about how the atoms are attached to
each other. Other types of formulas (structural formula, condensed structural
formula, line-angle formula), however, do convey this information. Such
formulas will not be discussed here.
Ionic Compounds
Chemical combination of a metal and a nonmetal usually results in an ionic
compound. An ionic compound is made up of positive and negative ions
joined together by electrostatic forces of attraction. The atoms of metallic
elements tend to lose one or more electrons when they combine with
nonmetal atoms, and the nonmetal atoms tend to gain one or more
electrons.
As a result of this electron transfer, the metal atom becomes a positive
ion, or cation, and the nonmetal atom becomes a negative ion, or anion.
We can usually deduce the charge on a main-group cation or anion from the
group of the periodic table to which the element belongs. Thus, the periodic
table can help us to write the formulas of ionic compounds.
In the formation of sodium chloride, each sodium atom gives up one
electron to become a sodium ion, 𝑁𝑎+ (𝑁𝑎 is in group 1A) , and each
chlorine atom gains one electron to become a chloride ion, 𝐶𝓁− (𝐶𝓁 is in
group 7A). For sodium chloride to be electrically neutral, there must be one
𝑁𝑎+ ion for each 𝐶𝓁− ion. Thus, the formula of sodium chloride is 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝓁 and
its solid state structure is shown in Figure 2.
FIGURE 2 Portion of an ionic crystal and a formula unit of NaCℓ
We observe that each 𝑁𝑎+ ion in sodium chloride is surrounded by six 𝐶𝓁−
ions, and vice versa, and we cannot say that any one of these six 𝐶𝓁− ions
belongs exclusively to a given 𝑁𝑎+ ion. Yet, the ratio of 𝐶𝓁− to 𝑁𝑎+ ions in
sodium chloride is 1 : 1, and so we arbitrarily select a combination of one
𝑁𝑎+ ion and one 𝐶𝓁− ion as a formula unit. The formula unit of an ionic
compound is the smallest electrically neutral collection of ions.
The ratio of atoms (ions) in the formula unit is the same as in the chemical
formula. Because it is buried in a vast network of ions, called a crystal, a
formula unit of an ionic compound does not exist as a distinct entity. Thus, it
is inappropriate to call a formula unit of sodium chloride a molecule.
The situation with magnesium chloride is similar. In the formation of
magnesium chloride, magnesium atoms lose two electrons to become
magnesium ions, 𝑀𝑔2+ (𝑀𝑔 is in group 2A). To satisfy electrical neutrality,
there must be two 𝐶𝓁− ions, each with a charge of – 1, for every 𝑀𝑔2+ ion.
The formula of magnesium chloride is 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝓁2 . One formula unit of 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝓁2 is
composed of one 𝑀𝑔2+ ion and two 𝐶𝓁− ions.
The formulas of ionic compounds are written with smallest integers, i.e., in
simplest form. For example, magnesium oxide consists of 𝑀𝑔2+ and 𝑂2−
ions (𝑂 is in group 6A). The formula of magnesium oxide is 𝑀𝑔𝑂; not
𝑀𝑔2 𝑂2 .
The ions 𝑁𝑎+ , 𝑀𝑔2+ , 𝐶𝓁− , and 𝑂2− are monoatomic, meaning that each
consists of a single ionized atom. By contrast, a polyatomic ion is made up
of two or more atoms. Nitrate (𝑁𝑂3− ), sulfate (𝑆𝑂42− ), and ammonium (𝑁𝐻4+ )
are a few examples. The formulas of ionic compounds containing polyatomic
ions are written in a similar way. Examples:
calcium nitrate : 𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂3 )2
ammonium sulfate : (𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝑆𝑂4
Example
Indigo, the dye for blue jeans, has a percent composition by mass of
73.27% C, 3.84% H, 10.68% N, and the remainder as oxygen (O).
a) Determine its empirical formula.
b) If the molar mass of the compound is 262.3 g/mol, determine its
molecular formula.
Solution
a)
% (O) = 100.00 – (73.27 + 3.84 + 10.68) = 12.21
Let us base our calculations on 100.00 g sample of compound and
determine the number of moles of each element in that sample:
73.27 𝑔
𝑛𝐶 = = 6.100 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
12.01 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

3.84 𝑔
𝑛𝐻 = = 3.81 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
1.008 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
 10.68 𝑔
𝑛𝑁 = = 0.7623 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁
14.01 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

12.21 𝑔
𝑛𝑂 = = 0.7631 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
16.00 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

To convert these results into integers, we divide all four numbers by the
smallest one (i.e., 0.7623).
The relative number of moles of elements in the molecule
nC = 6.100 / 0.7623 = 8.000
nH = 3.81 / 0.7623 = 5.00
nN = 0.7623 / 0.7623 = 1.000
nO = 0.7631 / 0.7623 = 1.000
The empirical formula of the compound is C8H5NO.
b)
Molar mass of empirical formula:
8 (12.01) + 5 (1.008) + 14.01 + 16.00 = 131.13 g/mol
(Molar mass) = x (Molar mass of empirical formula)
where x is an integer.
262.3 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑥= =2
131.13 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

So, the molecular formula of the compound is C16H10N2O2.