Developing Hydraulic

Troubieshooting Sidiis

Editor:

Linda Warner

Graphic Design:

Robert A. Ravelo

7PC Training Systams 750 Lake cook Road Buffalo Grove, Illinois 60089 U.S.A 847/808-4000
Table of Contents

Lesson One Hydraulic Systems.

Lesson Two Hydraulic Schematic Diagrams.

Lesson Three Installing Hydraulic Components.

Lesson Four Installing Pipes and Tubes.

Lesson Five Selecting Hydraulic Fluids.

Lesson Six Planning System Maintenance.

Lesson Seven Troubleshooting Systems

Lesson Eight Troubleshooting Valves.

Lesson Nine Troubleshooting Cylinders.

Lesson Ten Troubleshooting Pumps and Motors.

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DEVELOPING HVDRAUUC THOUBiESHOOnNG SIOUS

Lesson One

Hydraulic
Systems

V O
^
V
V

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

Hydraulic Systems

TOPICS

Hydraulic Systems Getting to Know the System

Pumps and Their Drive Units Circuit and System Diagrams
Actuators Cutaway Drawings
Control Valves Mechanical Setup
Conductors and Connectors Understanding Components
Hydraulic Fiuids Convertible Components
Fluid Storage and Conditioning Equipment System Operation
Tracing the system

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Name the six basic elements of a hydraulic system. Describe how to trace a system.
• Explain the functions of hydraulic pumps, actua
tors, control valves, conductors and connectors,
hydraulic fluid, and fluid storage and conditioning
equipment.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Actuator 1.06 a device at the output end of the Conductor 1.09 pipe or tubing that carries the
hydraulic system that converts hydraulic power hydraulic fluid through which power is transmitted
into mechanical power Connector 1.09 fitting used to connect pipe or
Directional control 1.08 a valve that directs the tube sections
path of fluid flow in the system Hydraulic fluids 1.10 blends of oils and additives
Flow control 1.08 a valve that controls actuator Reservoir 1.12 container where the hydraulic fluid
speed is stored
Pressure control 1.08 a valve that limits
hydraulic pressure

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To troubleshoot hydraulic systems, you must have a thorough knowledge of the
system and the hydraulic process. With that knowledge, you will soon find it
easy to determine what went wrong. Even more important, you wiil know what
to look for during routine maintenance inspections to prevent trouble and
breakdowns.

This Lesson expiains how to recognize the elements of a hydraulic system and
how to blend your knowledge of the individual components into a comprehen
sive knowledge of the entire system.

Hydraulic Systems • hydraulic fluid

1.01 Hydraulic systems transmit power from one • fluid storage and conditioning equipment.
point to another. The power or energy needed to
operate a machine is usually provided by an electric Pumps and Their Drive Units
motor or an internal combustion engine. But,
because these power sources do not always deliver 1.05 The pump drive unit is usually either an elec
their power output in a directly usable form, tric motor or an intemal combustion engine. The drive
hydraulic systems convert the available power to unit, motor or engine, provides rotary motion and
usable power at the location where it is required. torque to turn the pump. The pump converts the
Consider, for instance, how much mechanical link mechanical energy input to hydraulic energy output.
age would be required to provide straight-line
motion to a component located 15 or 20 feet away Actuators
from a rapidly rotating motor shaft. The same job is
easily accomplished with hydraulics. 1.06 At the output end of the hydraulic system,
actuators convert the hydraulic energy into the
1.02 Almost every type of machine built today mechanical energy required to operate the machine.
already has hydraulic equipment or can use Actuators are either cylinders or fluid motors.
hydraulics to power its motions. You are probably Cylinders are used to push or pull the object to be
aware of several hydraulic systems in the plant. moved.

1.03 Hydraulic equipment may seem complicated
and unfamiliar at first. This may be true even if you
already have made successful repairs to a hydraulic
system. To understand how a hydraulic system oper
ates, much of what you will study in this Lesson
requires that you trace or follow the path of fluid flow
from one component to the next, until you have traced
the entire circuit or path through the system.
1.04 All hydraulic systems include six basic ele
ments or groups of components;
• pumps and their drive units(power sources)
1.07 In the case of fluid motors, the speed of the
hydraulic motor can be varied to provide a variable
torque or tuming force even though the electric motor
itself is running at a constant speed. Hydraulic motor
systems operate in much the same way as a gearbox
transmission, except that with hydraulics you do not
need to shift gears.
Control Valves
1.08 There are three basic types of control valves:
directional controls, flow controls, and pressure con
trols:

• actuators • Directional controls direct the path of fluid

flow in the system.The fluid flow in turn con
• control valves trols the direction of actuator motion. For
example, a directional control valve may be
• conductors and connectors used to retract, extend,or stop a cylinder.

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6 Lesson One
• Flow controls are used to control actuator
speed—fast, slow, or moderate. They do so
by limiting the volume of fluid flow.
• Pressure controls are used to limit hydraulic
pressure. They control the force applied to an
actuator. This can be the amount of force
pushing or pulling a cylinder, or the amount
of torque from a fluid motor.
Conductors and Connectors
1.09 Conductors are the pipes and tubes that carry
the hydraulic fluid through which power is transmit
ted. Connectors are the fittings used to join the pipe
or tube sections together, or to connect them to com
ponents such as pumps, valves, and actuators.
Although conductors are extremely important, often
they are not given proper attention. Pipe or tube that
is too small can restrict fluid flow and rob the system
of hydraulic power. Poorly fitted systems leak, creat
ing maintenance problems and safety hazards. Leaks
also decrease power.
Hydraulic Fluids
1.10 Most hydraulic fluids are carefully selected
blends of oils and additives. For safety reasons, many
hydraulic fluids are made fire-resistant for the areas
where they are used. Many fire-resistant hydraulic
fluids are formulated with glycols or a highly con
trolled water content. Other fire-resistant fluids are
made of chlorinated hydrocarbons, generally referred
to as phosphate-ester fluids.
1.11 Fluid acts as the carrier of hydraulic power
through the system, but it also serves the important
function of lubricating the hydraulic equipment. Poor
lubrication causes many breakdowns and mainte
nance problems. Use of good fluid is one of the main
tenance man's best hydraulic maintenance tools.
(Hydraulic fluids are covered in a later Lesson.)
Fluid Storage and Conditioning Equipment
1.12 The container where the fluid is stored is
properly referred to as a reservoir (or reserve fluid
chamber). Some people use the expression "hydraulic
tank." A good reservoir is actually much more than a
tank, because it also cleans and cools the fluid during
system operation.
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1.13 Fluid-conditioning equipment is a broad cate
gory that includes filters for cleaning the system dur
ing operation, coolers to prevent fluid from overheat
ing, and heaters to prevent damage to the system
under cold start-up conditions.
Tracing the System
1.14 If you have ever stood next to a hydraulically
operated machine and wondered how the hydraulic
system worked, you are not alone. Even the experts
would find themselves confused if it were not for
hydraulic diagram. Diagrams are the most important
key to understanding hydraulic systems.
1.15 Hydraulic diagrams come in many forms:
block-type, outline drawings, pictorial or cutaway
views,schematic,or various combinations of these. In
some cases you may have schematic diagrams of the
system, but pictorial or cutaway views of each com
ponent are also available. (Diagrams, symbols, and
the interpretation of drawings are covered in Lesson
Two.)
Getting to Know the System
1.16 The first thing to do is to understand the oper
ation of the basic machine or piece of equipment on
which the system is installed. As an example,consid
er a basic machine tool used for drilling, counterbor-
ing, and similar operations (see Fig. 1-1). This
machine has a hydraulic drive to feed the tools into
the workpiece and retract the tool head for the next
job.
1.17 The machine is basically a drill-slide unit
that has a hydraulic power unit mounted alongside
it. Some of the hydraulic components are on the
power unit and others are on the machine itself. In
each case, important hydraulic elements are out of
sight—some in the power unit, and some in the
machine.
1.18 In Fig. 1-2 you can see one of the hydraulic
elements that is not visible in Fig. 1-1: the cylinder
inside the machine base. This hydraulic circuit is
referred to as a "machine tool traverse and feed cir
cuit."
1.19 The hydraulic cylinder drive is used to move
and position the tool head on the machine. When the
 Fig. 1-1. Typical hydraulic power installation
Coupling
Pressure
Reservoir
machine is al rest, the cylinder retracts the slide.
When actuated, the cylinder extends rapidly (rapid
traverse) to move the tools toward the workpiece.
The drive speed is then reduced (often referred to as
"slowdown") to the slow speed used for cutting
(feed rate). The slow speed is maintained until the
cut is finished. Then the tools are rapidly returned to
their starting position where they wait for another
work cycle. This waiting period is referred to as
"dwell."
1.20 During these operations, hydraulic fluid flow
and pressure provide the motion and necessary force
to move the slide and feed the tools into the work-
piece.
Fig. 1-2. Position of the actuating cylinder in the machine
Tool slide
Stationary way
O Cylinder
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Machine slide Workpiece
Machine base
4-way valve Feed panel
Circuit and System Diagrams
1.21 Using diagrams, you can now look at the
entire hydraulic sy.stem and several of its elements in
more detail. Figure 1-3 on the next page is a block
diagram of the system. From the diagram, you can get
an idea of how the system works and what its primary
components are.
1.22 To learn even more about the system, a
schematic diagram can be studied. Figure 1-4 on the
next page is a schematic diagram of the circuit, using
JIC (Joint Industry Conference) symbols. The four-
way valve diagram has been expanded to show that it
is actually two valves. One small, solenoid-operated
Tooi nead
O
Copying by any optical, electrorue. or other means a illegal without perrmsaon
 because circuits-within-circuits are often found in
Fig. 1-3. Block diagram of a hydraulic system
hydraulic system.

Cutaway Drawings
Cylinder

1.23 A cutaway or pictorial drawing of the system

Cam deceleration similar to the one in Fig. 1-9 on page 14 is the kind of
and feed valve
drawing that every maintenance craftsman wishes he
had for every circuit he works on. In actual practice,
you will find fewer cutaway drawings than any other
4-way valve
type of diagram. This is true simply because the
Electric
motor detailed drawing of all of these units requires many
Variable-
hours of drafting time, which in turn costs money.
volume However, you will generally find that component
pump
Coupling manufacturers do supply cutaway views of their
and guard
pumps and valves.

1.24 By putting together a JIC diagram and cut

Reservoir away drawings of components, you can readily figure
out how the system functions. Note that cutaway
drawings are not drawn to scale. They may use big
pictures for small units to make them clear and to
pilot valve directs hydraulic pressure and flow from show inside details.
Port P to the appropriate pilot operator of the main
valve, as shown. This shifts the main valve, which 1.25 Manifolds are sometimes used to complete
controls the cylinder through ports A and B. You can piping and reduce the number of lines and fittings
see that a small, separate hydraulic circuit is included used. A manifold is a device that has several outlets
in the four-way valve. This is important to know for connecting one pipe with others. A manifold

Fig. 1-4. Schematic diagram of the system

Cylinder
Expanded view of 4-way valve showing
Cycle control panel how a pilot valve operates the main valve

Solenoid
actuates —
Pilot valve
pilot valve

Port A 1 I —Port B
r I 1 I ! 1

I P lL t Main valve

4-way valve (t/) Pump I L

Pilot valve operates

main valve

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 Hydraulic Systems 9

Fig. 1-5. Manifold application and circuitry

Cylinder

Input to feed-cycle
control panel

Cylinder B
Cylinder A-

Feed-cycle
control panel

ffl IN

4-way valve

also serves as a rigid mounting base for valves, and
reduces leakage points. Figure 1-5 shows a mani
fold on which a feed-cycle control panel and a four-
way valve are mounted. Without a manifold dia
gram, you would find it almost impossible to trace
the path of fluid flow from one point to another in
the manifold.
The Programmed Exercises on the next page will
tell you how well you understand the material you
have just read. Before starting the exercises,
remove the REVEAL KEY from your Trainee's
Guide.Read the instructions printed on the Reveal
Key. Follow these instructions as you work
through the Programmed Exercises.

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10 Programmed Exercises

1 -1. All complete hydraulic systems have 1-1. SIX

basic elements.
Ref: 1.04

1-2. Actuators convert enerovto 1 -2. HYDRAULIC; MECHANICAL

eneroy.
Ref: 1.06

1 -3. Name the three basic types of control 1-3. DIRECTIONAL, FLOW,PRESSURE
valves.
Ref: 1.08

1 -4. In hydraulic systems, piping and fittings 1-4. CONDUCTORS,CONNECTORS

are referred to as and
Ref: 1.09

1 -5. Hydraulic fluid transmits power through 1-5. LUBRICATES

a svstem and it also the sys
tem. Ref: 1.11

1 -6. Name the three important functions of 1-6. STORE,CLEAN, COOL THE FLUID.
a hydraulic fluid reservoir.
Ref: 1.12

1 -7. The quickest, most efficient way to 1-7. DIAGRAM

trace a hydraulic system is to have a(n)
of it. Ref: 1.14,1.15

1 -8. The waiting period between work 1-8. DWELL

cycles for a machine tool is referred to
as Ref: 1.19

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Mechanical Setup
1.26 In order for the system to provide the cor
rect hydraulic action, the valves and other compo
nents have to be installed correctly and set up in the
first place. Look at the feed-cycle control panel in
Fig. 1-6.
1.27 A feed-cycle control panel is a device that
controls the feed rale of the tool slide. It consists of a
multiposition valve and a cam roller, which is actuated
by contacting a trip mechanism on the moving tool
slide. As the slide passes over the roller extension, the
roller is depressed, causing the control spool to change
the path of the fluid flow in the panel. Fluid flow
through the control dial ports is determined by the set
ting on the dial. The table in Fig. 1-6 shows how the
volume of fluid flow through the feed panel is affected
by the different positions of the cam follower. The
dials provide closer fine control of the fluid.
1.28 If the cam is not set up and functioning prop
erly, you cannot expect the hydraulic circuit to work
properly. Whenever a system is not operating as it
was designed to, first check out all control devices to
be certain that they are operating correctly before you
try to repair the equipment.
Understanding Components
1.29 To understand the complete .sy.stem, it is nec
essary to understand fully each component in the sys
tem. There are no shortcuts.
1.30 The schematic diagram in Fig. 1-7 on the next
page shows four circuits that include feed-cycle control
panels (circled). If you were to look at each control
panel from the outside, you would have to look closely
to see the differences among the four, because each is
much like the others in appearance. In fact, without a
full understanding of what each panel is intended to do,
you would probably find yourself puzzled.
1.31 The single-feed, two-port feed panel is the
basic unit. In the circuit shown, it controls the rapid-
traverse and cutting-feed rales. It does so as follows:
with the control spool in the normal, spring-offset
position, fluid enters the valve and first crosses the
compensator spool. Fluid then passes through the
opening of the control spool to the outlet port. This is
the rapid-traverse position. As the control spool is
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Hydrau/ic Systems 11
Fig. 1-6. Feed-cycle control panel setup data
I
--rv
Cam stroke and flow rate
Cam roller position (incties depressed)
Traverse
spool 0.05 In. I 0.10 In. I 0.15 in. I 0.20 In. j 0.25 In.
10 gpm 8 gpm 6 gpm 4 gpm
15 gpm 12 9 6
20 gpm 17 13 9
30 gpm 24 19 13
depressed by cam action, it throttles down until it
closes completely. Fluid then passes through the sin
gle feed spool to control the rate of slide travel and
cutting feed, by controlling the volume of flow to the
cylinder.
1.32 The dual-feed, two-port arrangement is the
type shown in Fig. 1-6, where you will note that there
are two feed-rate setting dials. This setup provides bet
ter and more versatile feed-rate control, because the
panel now has an additional feed spool. The added
feed spool provides more variable control of the slide
travel rate because the volume of flow is controlled by
the combined .settings of the # 1 and # 2 feed spools,
which are connected in parallel to the control spool.
1.33 The two lower diagrams show panels with an
external drain port added. The positions of the feed
spools are arranged to permit draining the hydraulic
fluid back into the tank through the valve as required.
The addition of the drain port permits use of the panel
in what is called a regenerative circuit. A regenerative
circuit is one in which advance travel is speeded up
by adding oil from the rod end back into the cap end.
1.34 Because each of the four arrangements has a def
inite purpose, you must understand their differences and
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12 Lesson One

Fig.1-7. Examples offeed-panel drcult variations

J^Drahi
3^3 Single feed
Single feed
ft No. 1 X/
(eod -il*'
spool'* No. 1 feed spool

X Two-port feed panel

Drain

Regenerative feed panel No. 1 feed spool

W t1 S=o
No.2 No. 1
feed
spool)Q-
- feed
spool
No.2feed spool

Out
Dual feed

Dual feed

ff
X

the purpose of each one. As in Fig. 1-7, the basic valve different units from one basic type. Knowledge of
can be furnished in several circuit styles and be connected components and their variety is fundamental to under
in several ways. From this example you can readily standing the system.
understand the difficulties that can result fiom not know
ing what each component in a system is intended to do. System Operation

Convertible Components 1.38 Unless equipment units or machines are exact

copies of one another, no two systems are identical.
1.35 Almost every component shown in the circuit However, they are often so close to being alike that
is a convertible unit. That is, the valve or pump manu you can understand many systems without a lot of
facturer designs his equipment to be adaptable to study.
many kinds of machines. In this way, a plant can
stock basic spare units and parts that can be used to 1.39 Understanding the machine, knowing what
convert and make up many varieties of pumps and is inside the hydraulic system, and being able to read
valves. The more you know about these conversion circuit diagrams will prepare you for analyzing the
possibilities, the easier your maintenance job will be. system. Referring to Figs. 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4,
study the system in detail. Most of the following ref
1.36 Figure 1-8 shows both a single-feed and a erences are easier to check if you refer to Fig. 1-9 on
dual-feed unit. Elements of the conversion kit are also page 14.
shown. All that is necessary to change the single-feed
unit to a dual-feed unit is to remove a plug, install the 1.40 Here is what happens when the starting but
second spool and other parts provided in the conver ton is pushed. First, the electric motor turns the pump
sion kit, and change to the new nameplate which has in the proper direction.
a dial for the second spool.
1.41 Atmospheric pressure in the reservoir forces
1.37 The four-way valve in the system is convert hydraulic fluid through the filter and into the pump
ible. The pump can also be changed to make several inlet, as the pump pulls in the fluid.

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1.42 The rotating pump carries fluid around to
the discharge side and discharges it into the sys
tem.
1.43 As shown in Fig. 1-9. the spring-centered
four-way valve is blocked closed. Therefore, pres
sure in the system rises until the pump spring allows
the pump to shift to an idling position. While idling,
the pump delivers no fluid but does hold pressure.
The system is now ready to operate the machine on
signal.
1.44 When the machine operator selects the "for
ward" control position, an electrical signal is sent to
the pilot-valve .solenoid A. This .shifts the pilot-valve
spool to the right to connect system pressure through
to the main-valve pilot connection A. At the same
time, it connects the main-valve pilot connection B to
the reservoir through a passage in the spool body. The
change in pressure causes the main valve spool to
shift to the left. Doing so connects the internal pas
sages X and Y, which directs system pressure through
to main-valve cylinder port A. (Designations X, Y,
and Z are added for illustration only. You are not like
ly ever to see a valve marked like this.) At the same
time, the main valve spool connects the feed-cycle
panel port B to the tank through a passage in the
spool body, as shown in Fig. 1-10 on page 15.
Fig. 1-8. An example of component convertibility
Conversion
Single-feed unit
Dial knob added
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1.45 System pressure and fluid flow act together
on the cylinder pi.ston to extend the cylinder. Fluid
from the rod end of the cylinder passes through the
feed-panel traverse spool at full flow. At this time, the
tool head is approaching the workpiece at full pump-
output speed.
1.46 As the tools approach the work, the cam on
the tool slide depresses the feed-panel traverse-con
trol spool. That restricts the flow path of the fluid
leaving the rod end of the cylinder. Restricting the
fluid flow causes a buildup of pressure on the rod end
of the cylinder. As a result, the cylinder slows down.
1.47 When the traverse flow path has been closed
completely by depressing the traver.se-control spool
all the way. the flow passes through one or two small
adjustable feed spools, which control the cutting-feed
rate. The cam holds this position as the tool moves
into the cut.
1.48 Near the end of the cut the cam trips a limit
switch that has a time-delay relay. The switch signals
the pilot valve to reverse, but action is postponed by
the time delay until the .slide makes contact with the
positive stop which controls the depth of cut. After the
time-delay relay times out, the solenoid-pilot valves
reverse. That is. solenoid A becomes deenergized and
Double-feed unit
Plug removed
14 Lesson One

Fig. 1-9. Pictorial view of the system

Cam roller extension

Feed-panel traverse-
Cylinder
r control spool

No. 1 feed spool

Dial
adjustment

Check_
valve

Compensator spool No. 2feed spool

Pilot-valve solenoid A

Pilot-valve spool

Main-valve pilot
connection B
-Pilot-valve solenoid 8

Main-valve pilot
Internal
connection A
drain

Main-valve cylinder port 8

To tank- Pressure

Main-valve cylinder port A

Pressure (psi)
Return entry

Row(gpm)

Dirt settles

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Fig. 1-10. Shifting the main valve spool
Cylinder port B
Pressure
soienoid B is energized. This action also reverses the
main valve spool by reversing the pilot fluid flow.
1.49 With the main valve spool reversed, the path
of fluid flow through the whole system is reversed.
Pressure from the system is now ported to the main-
valve cylinder port B of the four-way valve (Y to Z).
It passes through the free-flow return check valve in
the feed panel and into the rod end of the cylinder. At
the same time, flow from the cap end of the cylinder
is ported from cylinder port A of the four-way valve
back to the reservoir, as shown in Fig. 1-11.
1.50 As the slide is retracted, removing the tool
head from the workpiece, it trips another limit switch,
which deenergizes the solenoid-pilot valve. Because
neither solenoid is energized, the pilot-valve springs
Tflit malarial is proiaclaa by U S Copyright law
Fig. 1-11. Reversing the main valve spool
Cylinder port B
Cylinder port A
center the pilot valve. When the solenoid-pilot valve
is fully centered, the pilot connections of the main
valve are interconnected through internal passage
ways in the main valve body and open to the tank.
This allows the main valve to center, which stops the
slide. Now the unit is ready for another start com
mand signal.
1.51 Note that when the machine is decelerating,
feeding slow, or is stopped, the pump supplies only
enough flow to hold proper, spring-adjusted pressure
levels. This, feature conserves power.
1.52 The description given is Just one possibility.
Many other arrangements can be used. Some
machines, for example, use manually operated lever
valves rather than solenoid units.
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16 Programmed Exercises

1-9. A feed-cycle control panel controls the 1-9. FEED RATE

of a tool slide or similar
device. Ref: 1.27

1-10. When troubleshooting a system that is 1-10. CONTROL

not operating properly, first check all its
devices. Ref: 1.28

1-11. To understand a complete hydraulic 1-11 THE INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS

system, you must first understand
Ref: 1.29

1-12. A regenerative circuit is one in which 1-12. ROD;CAP

the pressure source is simultaneously
connected to the end and Ref: 1.33
the end of the cylinder.

1-13. Most valves and pumps are adaptable 1-13. CONVERTIBLE

to many installations because they are
Ref: 1.35

1-14. Except in duplicate installations, no 1-14. IDENTICAL

two hvdraulic svstems are
Ref: 1.38

1-15. A cylinder is extended by the com 1-15. PRESSURE; FLOW

bined action of the svstem
and the fluid Ref: 1.45

1 -16. For control purposes, hydraulic sys 1-16. LEVER

tems may use manually operated
valves rather than sole Ref: 1.52
noids.

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 Self-Check Quiz 17

Answer the following questions by marking an ''X*'

in the box next to the best answer.

1-1. Which of the following elements Is basic to all 1 -6. What Is the purpose of the filters, coolers,
complete hydraulic systems? and heaters In a hydraulic system?

□ a. Filters □ a. To condition the fluid

□ b. Fluid storage and conditioning □ b. To lubricate the system
equipment □ c. To control viscosity
□ c. Pressure gauges □ d. To provide a variable torque
□ d. Thermal sensors
1 -7. The point In an operating cycle where the
1 -2. What hydraulic device can easily vary speed moving member Is at rest Is called the
to provide high torque?
□ a. dwell
□ a. Fluid motor □ b. deceleration
□ b. Manifold □ c. withdrawal
□ c. Compensator □ d. slowdown
□ d. Linear actuator
1 -8. What Is the result of hydraulic fluid flow and
1 -3. What type of valve Is used to regulate actua pressure?
tor speed?
□ a. Quiet system operation
□ a. Solenoid □ b. Motion and force
□ b. Flow control □ c. Variable speed control
□ c. Pressure control □ d. Greater fluid-carrying capacity
□ d. Directional control
1 -9. The number of lines and fittings In a system
1 -4. With which of the following are some can be reduced by using a
hydraulic fluids formulated to make them fire-
resistant? □ a. hydrojunctlon
□ b. mixing valve
□ a. Alcohol □ c. four-way junction
□ b. Foaming agents □ d. manifold
□ c. Water
□ d. Spindle oils 1 -10. To analyze a hydraulic system properly for
the purpose of troubleshooting, you must do
1 -5. A hydraulic fluid that has poor lubricating all of the following EXCEPT
qualities can cause
□ a. understand the Installation
□ a. pressure loss □ b. read the circuit diagrams
□ b. excessive noise level □ c. know what each component does
□ c. system breakdown □ d. obtain a cutaway drawing of every
□ d. fluid foaming component

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18 Lesson One

SUMMARY

Hydraulic systems convert power into useful variety of units which look alike but have small
forms and transmit it to the proper location on the differences that affect circuit hook-up and opera
machine. Although hydraulic systems may be dif tion.
ferent from one another in detail, each one is
made up of the six basic elements described in When you understand a hydraulic system, you
this Lesson, in order to understand hydraulic sys should be able to follow a description of its opera
tems, you must have proper diagrams of the sys tion from start to finish, using the steps given in
tem, knowledge of mechanical relationships, and this Lesson. This becomes easier with experience
a thorough understanding of the system compo and practice, but it is always necessary to study
nents. the system carefully before you begin to work on
it.
Components often contain circuits or subsystems
within themselves. Components come in a wide

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

1-1. b. Fluid storage and conditioning 1-6. a. To condition the fluid. Ref: 1.13
equipment. Ref: 1.04
1-7. a. Dwell. Ref: 1.19
1-2. a. Fluid motor. Ref: 1.07
1-8. b. Motion and force. Ref: 1.20
1-3. b. Flow control. Ref: 1.08
1-9. d. Manifold. Ref: 1.25
1-4. c. Water. Ref: 1.10
1-10. d. Obtain a cutaway drawing of every
1-5. c. System breakdown. Ref: 1.11 component. Ref: 1.39

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 1-5. Racine Hydraufics Rgure 1-8. Racine Hydraulics

Figure 1-6. Racine Hydraulics Rgure1-9. Racine Hydraulics
Figure 1-7. Racine Hydraulics

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DEVELOPING HYDRAUUC TROUBIESHOOUNG SfOLLS

Lesson Two

Hydraulic
Schematic
Diagrams
rX
' rS
V 3
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TPC Training Systems

20

Lesson

Hydraulic Schematic Diagrams

TOPICS

Types of Hydraulic Diagrams Read Symbols Carefully

What is a Schematic? Use the Step-by-Step Approach
Characteristics of Schematics Basic Elements of a Hydraulic System
Lines Pumps
Symbois Actuators
What Kind of Schematic? Control Valves
Guideiines for Reading Schematics Conductors and Connectors
Look for Fiow Patterns Fluid Storage and Conditioning Equipment
Look for Guides A Hydraulic Circuit
Read Diagrams Carefully Sequence Vaive Circuit

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Name three basic types of hydraulic diagrams, and • List the steps to follow when reading a schematic
explain the purposes of each. diagram.
• Describe how a valve symbol is constructed. • Identify common hydraulic symbols.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Pictorial diagram 2.02 a single-line drawing that Schematic diagram 2.04 a line drawing that uses
uses pictures to show the elements of a circuit symbols and connecting lines to indicate how a
Cutaway diagram 2.03 a double-line drawing that system works
shows both the positions of the elements in the Schematic symboi 2.11 a device or sign that
circuit and how they operate stands for something or suggests something
graphically

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 21

An essential skill for any maintenance craftsman who troubleshoots hydraulic

systems is being able to read hydraulic schematics. In this Lesson you will find
that a schematic drawing is not as complicated or difficult as It may look. After
studying this Lesson, and with practice and experience, yOu should be able to
read any hydraulic schematic.

In hydraulic troubleshooting, you have to know the total system and what it Is
designed to do. To understand the system, you must know how each of the
components In the system functions. With that knowledge, you will then think in
terms of what caused the trouble, and be able to determine what is wrong and
make the necessary corrections.

Types of Hydraulic Diagrams the whole system, component by component.

Schematic diagrams do not give the actual position of
2.01 The three basic and common types of dia a component in the system, but they do provide infor
grams used to show the layout of a hydraulic circuit mation about how each component relates to the sys
are pictorial diagrams, cutaway diagrams, and tem,and what its purpose is.
schematic diagrams. See Fig. 2-1 on the next page for
examples of each. What Is a Schematic?

2.02 The pictorial diagram is a single-line drawing 2.06 A good definition of a schematic drawing is;
that uses pictures to show the elements of the circuit. a line drawing or graphic design made for technical
What you see is an outline of the components and or scientific purposes that uses symbols and connect
their relative positions. A pictorial diagram shows the ing lines to explain how a system works'. A key word
general location, purpose, and appearance of the sys in that definition is "symbols," as will be explained
tem's elements. What pictorial drawings do not show shortly.
is the internal functioning of each element. Nor do
they show or provide specific information about any 2.07 Schematic diagrams are used for three basic
of the components—the pump,for example. You can reasons,as follows:
see that there is a pump in the pictorial diagram, but
you cannot tell what type it is. • To reduce a complicated system to an under
standable drawing. By using symbols, a com
2.03 The cutaway diagram is a double-line draw plex circuit can be put down on paper in a
ing. It provides more detail. It shows both the posi clear,concise, and complete form.
tions of the elements in the circuit and how they oper
ate. Note that the cutaway diagram shows a filter or • To explain what the system does. The
strainer in the reservoir, which the pictorial view does schematic drawing in Fig. 2-1 is a complete
not do. As clear as the cutaway diagram is, however, explanation of that circuit's function, because
it still does not tell you what type of pump is being the elements of that circuit and their relation
used. ships are clearly shown by connecting lines.
All the elements of the system are included.
2.04 The schematic diagram, on the other hand,
tells you that the pump is a unidirectional, fixed-dis • To standardize the explanation of systems. One
placement pump.It also shows the filter. As a rule,far of the most important advantages of a schemat
less space is required for the schematic drawing to tell ic diagram is that it can be read by anyone who
the fiill story. understands how to read schematics. Because
the symbols and lines used are standard, very
2.05 The basic purpose of a schematic diagram is little written explanation, if any, is needed to
to tell you exactly and completely what the system understand what is happening in the system
consists of. It lets you trace the flow of fluid through and why.

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22 Lesson Two

Fig.2-1. Types of hydraulic diagrams

iJ_j E
TTl
Vv !D JLX

Q ^(m)(b.c)

Pictorial diagram Schematic diagram

List of components
1
A —Reservoir F Wou,
B —Electric motor
C —Pump LE 1 J Drain
D —Maximum pressure ag oi
(relief) valve
E —Directional valve r "
F —Flow control valve
G —Right angle H J
check valve
H —Cylinder Cutaway diagram
w

Characteristics of Schematics a bend or"x" intersection is used. A dot is used to show

2.08 You will always be able to recognize a
hydraulic schematic by its distinctive characteristics.
Although hydraulic schematics differ according to the
systems described, all schematics have two basic
characteristics in common: lines and symbols.
Lines
2.09 Hydraulic schematic diagrams use a number
of different lines, as shown in Fig. 2-2, Each type of
line always has the same meaning. A solid line, for
example, always represents a working conduit, such
as the pressure or return line. A dotted line always
indicates a drain line. If for any reason a line is
intended to represent a different function, a separate
note on the drawing itself will identify its meaning.
This variance from standard meanings does not occur
often, however.
2.10 To show the direction of flow, an arrow or
arrows are sometimes included in the line, as shown.To
show that lines cross over one another, rather than join.
that lines join. Another means of representing joining
lines is to show one line "dead-ending" into another.
Symbols
2.11 The second basic characteristic of a schemat
ic is that symbols are used to show elements of the
system. A symbol is a device or sign that stands for
something or suggests something graphically. Well-
known trademarks are actually symbols intended to
identify the product or company. A successful trade
mark does this without the need for words.
2.12 The letters of the alphabet are symbols. You
know what each one is, but it is not until they are
combined into words that they make sense. Even at
that, words may not always mean what they seem to
mean. One of the greatest advantages of using
schematic symbols is that they always mean exactly
the same thing.
2.13 Figure 2-3 shows the standard JIC (Joint
Industry Conference) symbols for a reservoir, and the

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 Hydraulic Schematic Diagrams 23

Fig.2-2. Symbols for hydraulic schematic lines

Hydraulic schematic lines

Working line Flexible line and line functions

Pilot line

Crossing lines
Drain line
X
Enclosure outline

Direction of flow Joining lines

variations which further identity modifications to the drawn to show system flow. The positions of the
reservoir. Study them carefully. They will make more symbols in the diagram are not necessarily the same
sense if you remember that symbols may suggest an as the actual positions of the elements in the sys
object, but are not intended to show it as it actually is. tem. They will, however, be positioned in the best
Note that although one set of symbols is labeled "sim way to show the flow of the system and how the
plified," the basic symbol is the same, and the posi function of one component is related to another.
tion of the lines with respect to the liquid level is the Knowing this is a major key to understanding a
same. The symbol for a reservoir has no other mean hydraulic schematic.
ing, and cannot be confused with any other compo
nent symbol. The symbol may vary in size, and may What Kind of Schematic?
have additional lines describing a characteristic of the
reservoir, but the basic symbol remains the same. 2.15 Schematic diagrams are used to describe
Several of the same simplified symbols may be used three kinds of systems: electrical, piping, and fluid
in one diagram to represent the one reservoir. power (hydraulics and pneumatics). Check to see
what kind of schematic you have. It is usually fairly
2.14 Another basic characteristic of schematic easy to tell, partly because the symbols for electrical
diagrams is that the symbols are connected by lines and piping systems are different, and partly because

Fig.2-3. Reservoir schematic symbols

Vented Pressurized

Energy storage and fluid storage reservoir

Above fluid level Below fluid level

1 r

Reservoir witfi connecting lines

Above fluid level Below fluid level

LU
Simplified symbols

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24 Lesson Two
the title of the drawing should identify it as an
"Electrical Diagram" or a "Piping Diagram." The
difference between the hydraulic and pneumatic sys
tems is also easy to recognize, because the symbols
are slightly different (hydraulic schematics use solid
or filled-in arrows, while pneumatic schematics use
"hollow" arrows) and because the diagram of a
pneumatic system will include components not
found in a hydraulic schematic, such as a compres
sor rather than a pump.
2.16 Although you may find a diagram that does
include electrical, piping, and hydraulic symbols, it
is not considered good practice to combine them,
because it makes a drawing more difficult to under
stand. It is best to describe only one kind of system
on a diagram. If you have a combination system dia
gram, however, you can trace the hydraulic circuit
elements in color to mark them for reference. The
best way to determine the kind of system being
described is to first look carefully at the drawing
elements. Are they electrical components? Or are
they hydraulic components?
Guidelines for Reading Schematics
2.17 The most efficient and therefore the easiest
way to read a schematic is to follow certain guide
lines designed to help you get quickly to the point.
They are:
• Look for flow pattems.
• Look for guides.
• Read diagrams carefully.
• Read symbols carefully.
• Use the step-by-step approach.
Look for Flow Patterns
2.18 Ordinarily a hydraulic schematic does not
use arrows to indicate the direction of fluid flow
through the system. Yet, when the system breaks
down, the cause is usually the interruption of fluid
flow. How then do you determine the flow path?
First, look for the start of the system, the reservoir,
and then for the pump, which should be close to the
reservoir. Now that you know where the system
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starts, trace the line through the system to the actua
tor, the component which will be doing the useful
work. You will then know the flow path, even with
out the arrows.
Look for Guides
2.19 In reading a schematic, you will find that the
symbols may contain information about fluid flow.
For example, the simplified symbol for a check
valve shows that the fluid can flow from right to left,
but that it is blocked from left to right.
Simplified check valve
This is the purpose of using the check valve at that
point in the line. If you consider the symbol as
representing the ball in a ball check valve seat,
flow direction through that part of the line is easy
to see.
2.20 Many symbols resemble the component they
represent. Shown here is the symbol for a pressure
gauge, which does look much like the face of a gauge
with a pointer.
Pressure gauge
Shown here is the symbol for a single-acting cylin
der. The symbol looks something like a simplified
cutaway view of the cylinder.
Single-acting cylinder
Although not all symbols resemble the component
they represent, you will soon find that a good symbol
tells you what you want to know as easily and quickly
as if you had a photograph and a written description
of the component. In fact, it will actually be easier to
use.

Read Diagrams Carefuily
2.21 Although it is an obvious point, and certainly
an important one, the recommendation to read a dia
gram carefully is often overlooked. Many problems are
caused by failure to observe this step. Take the time
required to study a hydraulic schematic carefully the
first time. Doing so will save you time and unnecessary
work,and it can also help prevent errors and accidents.
Read Symbols Carefully
2.22 Symbols present a considerable amount of
information in a small space. Although each symbol
is different from all others, many symbols look alike
at first glance. The differences may be overlooked.
Shown here are the symbols for two valves.
Remote-operated Pressure
valve relief valve
Although the symbols are similar, the two valves they
represent are different. Before reading further, look at
them to see what that difference is. You will note that
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Hydraulic Schematic Diagrams 25
the arrow in the symbol at the left points directly to
the line leading away from the valve. The arrow indi
cates that the valve is normally open.In the right-hand
symbol, the arrow in the box (called an "envelope") is
at one side, in such a way that it does not point to the
line leading from the valve. That indicates that the
valve is normally closed. Not recognizing the differ
ence could mean misinterpreting the circuit, or that
part of it.
Use the Step-by-Step Approach
2.23 So that you do not overlook an important
detail, and to help you reach the solution to the prob
lem sooner, develop a methodical approach to reading
a schematic diagram. There are two main steps:
• Get the overall view of the system.
• Study local areas of the diagram.
By getting an overall view of what the circuit is made
up of and how it is laid out, you will quickly know
what the system is designed to do and how it does so.
By studying local areas in detail, you can learn how
each component is related to the system and how it
contributes to system operation. You can then analyze
the probable cause of the breakdown and proceed to
correct it.
26 Programmed Exercises

2-1. Name the three basic types of diagrams 2-1. PICTORIAL, CUTAWAY,SCHEMATIC
used to show the layout of a hydraulic
circuit. Ref: 2.01, Fig. 2-1

2-2. On a hydraulic schematic, a dotted line 2-2. DRAIN

alwavs indicates afnl line.
Ref: 2.09

2-3. What symbol may be used to show the 2-3. AN ARROW

direction of fluid flow in a hydraulic
schematic? Ref: 2.10

2-4. Symbols used in hydraulic drawings 2-4. LINES

are connected bv to show
system flow. Ref: 2.14

2-5. Do the positions of symbols on a 2-5. NO

schematic diagram always represent
the actual positions of elements in the Ref: 2.14
system?

2-6. Name the three kinds of systems 2-6. ELECTRICAL, PIPING, FLUID
described by schematics. POWER

Ref: 2.15

2-7. When attempting to determine the flow 2-7. RESERVOIR

path in a hydraulic schematic, the first
comoonent to look for is the Ref: 2.18

2-8. Name the two main steps of the 2-8. GET OVERALL VIEW,STUDY LOCAL
methodical approach to reading AREAS
schematics.
Ref: 2.23

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Basic Elements of a Hydraulic System
224 Before studying a specific circuit to see just
how these points tie together,look at the basic elements
of a hydraulic system to see how they are presented
symbolically. Refer to Table 2-1 on the next page. Each
hydraulic system has six basic elements: pump and
drive unit (power source), actuators, control valves,
conductors and connectors, hydraulic fluid, and fluid
storage and conditioning equipment (reservoirs). Other
components may be added to the system, but the six
basic ones will be found in any hydraulic system. Of
the six elements, only fluids are not represented by
symbols, although they may be identified in a note on
the schematic drawing itself.
Pumps
2.25 Hydraulic pumps are usually classed as either
variable-displacement or fixed-displacement types.
Fixed-displacement pumps are more common, because
they are less expensive and less complicated. A more
complex system usually has a variable-displacement
pump. The type of pump used is one key to the com
plexity of the system. It helps you know what to expect.
The symbols for both types of pumps are shown below.
Unidirectional Unidirectional
fixed-displacement variable-displacement
Actuators
2.26 Actuators perform the useful work in the sys
tem. They are either linear or rotary in action. Linear
actuators or cylinders are more conunon and may be
either double-acting or single-acting. Double-acting
cylinders may be either balanced or differential. (Dif
ferential cylinders have more area on one side of the
piston than on the other.)
2.27 Note that the symbols also refer to cushioned
cylinders. A cushion is used to slow down a piston near
the end of its stroke and prevent the piston face from
slamming into the cap end.
228 Rotary actuators, commonly called hydraulic
motors, may be either fixed-displacement or variable-
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Hydraulic Schematic Diagrams 27
displacement types. The meaning is the same as it is
for pumps. Note that the symbols for hydraulic motors
and pumps are similar. The only difference is in the
position of the arrow within the circle.
Control Valves
2.29 At first, valve symbols may seem less clear
than the symbols for pumps and actuators. But as you
become more familiar with them, you will find that
valve symbols have logical meanings. Because of the
necessity of valves in controlling fluid flow, it is espe
cially important to learn how valve symbols present
their information.
230 The chief mle governing the design and use of
valve symbols is: valve symbols show connections,
flow paths, and valve functions. They do not show the
locations of openings or other components on the actu
al valve itself.
2.31 Figure 2-4 on page 29 shows the action of a
three-position,four-way valve pictorially. Note that the
four openings are port 1, the pressure inlet (P), port 2,
and the exhaust to the reservoir (T). The three positions
of the valve spool are shown as A,B (closed), and C.
Flow paths are clearly indicated. Now refer to the
explanation of the symbol for this valve. You will note
that although the valve has four ports,three on top and
one below, the symbol shows two above and two
below.
2.32 Positions A and C show the valve open. Note
how the different flow paths are shown for positions A
and C. Now note how the arrows show flow directions
for the positions of the valve as actuated left, actuated
right, and normal.
2.33 Watch for the lines indicating port positions
with particular care,as well as the positions of the inter
nal arrows indicating flow direction. A blocked port is
indicated by the T-shaped figure inside the envelope or
block representing the valve in the closed position.
Conductors and Connectors
234 Conductors and connectors are represented by
the lines referred to earlier in this Lesson.(Fig. 2-2). No
distinction is made between piping and tubing, because
each is used according to the needs of the application.
Hose is indicated by the flexible line symbol.
Table 2-1. Common hydraulic schematic symbols

Heater, liquid
M spring M! healing media
Sequence

Pump,ftxed-dispSacement, Internal-combustion engine

unldlrsctional
c:
Manual, basic symbols
Pressure-reducing C^ooler, basic symbol

Pump,fixed-displacement,
Cooler, liquid 3^
Manual, pushbutton cooling media S. 1 /
bidirectional
Pressure gauge
Cooler,
gaseous
Manual, push-pull lever
® ®- cooling media

Simplified Complete Infinite positioning, three-way

Manual, pedal orveadle Pump, variable-displacement,
noncompensated. unidirectional Temperature gauge

Temperature controller

Flow meter, rate

Simplified Complete
Pump,variable-displacement, Infinite positioning, four-way Separator,
biOirectional Flow meter, tot^lzing manual drain

PressureHXimpensated I , Separator,
Adjustable flow control, automatic
noncompensated drain

Filter-
Single-winding solenoid Simplified Complete separator,
> I— Pump,variable-displacement, Pressure switch manual drain
pressure^xsmpensated,
I— unidirectional I ^ t Filter-
Reversing motor separator, -
Adjustable, pressure-compensated automatic drain
flow control, with bypass

Pilot pressure, remote supply

Simi^lfied Complete

Pump, variable-displacement,
Pilot pressjre, Iritemal supply pressure-compensated,
bidirectional

Adjustable, temperature- and Double-acting cylinder,

pressure-compensated fixed cushion advance
(Simplified) flow control, with bypass and retract
Pilot-controlied, spring-centered Ports internally blocKed
Motor, fixed-displacement,
unidirectional
--E
Pilot-differential, Double-acting cylinder,
simplified symbol adjustable cushion
Accumulator, advance only
basic symbol
Motor,fixed-displacement,
bidlrectlonal
Pilot-differential,
complete symbol
Flow paths internally open, Accumulator, Double-acting cylinder
infintte posWoning spring-loaded in which diameter of
rod compared to
Motor,variable-displacement, diameter of txtre is
Solenoid or piloi unidirectional significant to
Basic symbol circuit function

Thermal, local sensing

Heater, basic
fifiolor, variable-displacement, symtwl
bidirectional Pressure relief Pressure intensifier

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 Fluid Storage and Conditioning Equipment
Fig,2-5. A coininon hydraulic circuit
2.35 Figure 2-3 shows the symbols for reservoirs
and how lines are positioned within them to indicate
where fluid enters and leaves. Note that lines shown
leaving or entering below the reservoir are used only
when they are essential to the function of a system.
Conveyor
A Hydraulic Circuit

2.36 Now that you have reviewed the symbols for

the basic elements of a hydraulic system, refer to Fig.
2-5, which is typical of the hydraulic diagrams and
circuits you will be working with. To read it, use the
step-by-step approach.

2.37 First, get an overall view of what is happen

ing in the system. The diagram in Fig. 2-5 represents
a hydraulic system because it shows hydraulic
schematic symbols for a reservoir and a pump. You
can tell that it is not a pneumatic system because the
arrows are filled in. This circuit provides a means of
moving an object from point A to point B on a con
veyor. Once you locate the reservoir and the actuator, 2.38 To leam the function of the other components
you know the general direction of fluid flow through in the system, make a step-by-step analysis of each
the system (reservoir to actuator). local area in the schematic as follows:

Fig.2-4. How a valve symbol is constructed

Cylinder

Pressure_
inlet(P) ~
1 P 2 1 P 2 1 P 2

A four-way,three-
posltton valve in
position 0
To tank or
exhaust
Position A Positions Position C

Symtx)l elements for valve positions + actuating symbols= complete symbol

TTT

XJL
Position A Position B Position C Spring Manual
(closed) actuation

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30 Lesson Two

Local Area #1: The symbol shows a vented the envelope, you can tell that the valve is
reservoir that has a strainer to clean the fluid normally closed (because it does not connect
before it enters the rest of the system. with the valve outlet port). The manually
operated shutoff valve allows removal of the
Local Area #2: The symbols identify the pressure gauge from the line without disturb
pump as being the fixed-displacement type, ing the rest of the system.
which is driven by an electric motor, and runs
in one direction. • Local Area #4: This section contains the
composite symbol for a four-way, two-posi
Local Area #3: This section contains symbols tion valve actuated by solenoids. When the
for a spring-operated relief valve, a manually object on the conveyor reaches a given point,
operated shutoff valve, and a pressure gauge. a limit switch is tripped, which energizes the
When pressure in the line becomes excessive, solenoid on the left side of the valve. The
the relief valve opens, returning fluid to the solenoid shifts the valve spool to the right.
reservoir. (Note the small symbol for the Oil pressure is then directed to the cap end of
reservoir.) From the position of the arrow in the cylinder, moving the piston to the right.
That motion moves the object from point A to
point B. As the piston moves right, oil is
exhausted from the rod end of the cylinder,
Fig.2-6. A typical sequence valve circuit and returns through the two-position valve to
the reservoir. When the object being moved
reaches point B, another limit switch is
tripped, which deenergizes the left-hand sole
noid and energizes the right-hand solenoid.
The valve spool shifts left. Oil pressure is
then applied to the rod end of the cylinder,
which returns the piston to its normal posi
tion. Oil in the cap end flows back to the
reservoir.

• Local Area #5: This section contains the sym

bol representing the actuator, which is a dou
ble-acting cylinder. Its operation was
described in the previous paragraph. When an
object on the conveyor reaches point A,it trips
the limit switch and the cycle repeats itself.

Sequence Valve Circuit

2.39 Figure 2-6 shows a circuit that includes two

sequence valves. The purpose of the system is to lift
an object from one level(A)to another level (B),and
then transfer it from point B to point C. Again, using
the step-by-step approach, find the reservoir to learn
where the system circuit begins. (Areas 1, 2, and 3
show the reservoir, pump, and a relief valve, as in
Fig. 2-5.)

• Local Area #4: This is the symbol for a man

ually operated two-position, four-way valve.
When the operator shifts the handle, oil pres-
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 Hydraulic Schematic Diagrams 31

sure is directed to the cap end of the vertical handle of the four-way,two-position valve to
cylinder. The object or workpiece is raised its original position, oil pressure is directed
from level A to level B. to the rod end of the horizontal cylinder. The
piston retracts to its normal position. Pres
Local Area #5: This section contains the ver sure then builds up and opens a passage in
tical cylinder, which is used to raise the the second sequence valve. Oil flows to the
object as described. rod end of the vertical cylinder, causing the
piston to move back down to its starting
Local Area #6: The first sequence valve is position. That completes the cycle. The
shown closed. As pressure builds up in the valve has a built-in check.
cylinder, a passage is opened through the
sequence valve, permitting oil to flow to the 2.40 This is a typical sequence valve application.
cap end of the horizontal cylinder. The valve Useful as they are, sequence valves may cause diffi
has a built-in check. culty. They operate when pressure increases. If the
pressure increases too soon, and the valves open,the
Local Area #7: This section contains the hor workpiece or operating mechanism can be badly
izontal cylinder, which pushes the object damaged from the jam that results.
from B to C, as pressure is supplied to the
cap end by the oil passing through the first 2.41 Note that a diagram does not identify its
sequence valve. components as local areas. Also note that the repre
sentation of the conveyor is not a standard schemat
Local Area #8: The second sequence valve is ic symbol. It was included to make the diagram
shown open. When the operator shifts the clearer.

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32 Programmed Exercises

2-9. Of the six basic elements in a hydraulic 2-9. HYDRAULIC FLUID

system, which is NOT represented by a
schematic symbol? Ref: 2.24

2-10. Hydraulic pumps are usually classed as 2-10. FIXED-DISPLACEMENT, VARIABLE-

either or tvpes. DISPLACEMENT

Ref: 2.25

2-11. A cylinder that has more area on one 2-11. DIFFERENTIAL

side of the piston than on the other is
called afnl cylinder. Ref: 2.26

2-12. The difference between the symbols 2-12. POSITION OF THE ARROW
used for hydraulic motors and pumps is
in the Ref: 2.28

2-13. Do hydraulic valve symbols show flow 2-13. YES

paths and valve functions?
Ref: 2.30

2-14. In a hydraulic valve symbol, a blocked 2-14. T

Dort is indicated by afn)
shaped figure. Ref: 2.33

2-15. Hose is indicated bv symbol. 2-15. FLEXIBLE LINE

Ref: 2.34

2-16. To learn the function of components in 2-16. STEP-BY-STEP ANALYSIS

a system, you should make a(n)
of the diagram. Ref: 2.38

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 Self-Check Quiz 33

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

2-1, What does a pictorial diagram show? 2-6. Hollow arrows on a schematic drawing will tell
you that the drawing is for a{n)
□ a. Internal functioning of each element
□ b. General position and appearance of □ a. pneumatic system
components □ b. electrical system
□ c. Complete component information □ c. hydraulic system
□ d. Exact position and purpose of □ d. piping system
components
2-7. When a hydraulic system breaks down, the
2-2. An important characteristic of a schematic cause is usually
diagram is that it
□ a. power failure
□ a. does not show fluid flow □ b. inadequate lubrication
□ b. helps you trace fluid flow □ c. fluid leakage
□ c. gives the exact position of a □ d. interruption of fluid flow
component
□ d. provides less detail than a pictorial 2-8. Which of the six basic elements of a hydraulic
diagram system is NOT represented by a symbol?

2-3. A solid line on a hydraulic schematic may □ a. Conductors

represent any of the following EXCEPT a □ b. Actuators
□ c. Fluid
□ a. working line □ d. Fluid-conditioning equipment
□ b. pressure line
□ c. return line 2-9. Which basic element of a hydraulic circuit is
□ d. drain line missing from the diagram shown below?

2-4. Which of the following symbols is used to □ a. Reservoir

show that lines cross over one another? □ b. Actuator
□ c. Valve
□ d. Conductors
□ a. □ c.

□ b. □ d.

2-5. The following symbols describe what

hydraulic component?

2-10. What does the following symbol represent?

n ZL
ir±

□ a. Strainers
□ b. Line network □ a. Solenoid-operated valve
□ c. Reservoirs □ b. Bidirectional actuator
□ d. Linear actuators □ c. Pilot-operated valve
□ d. Manually operated actuator

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34 Lesson Two

SUMMARY

Hydraulic schematic diagrams are your map to Each line and symbol on a schematic diagram has
the construction and operation of the hydraulic a separate meaning. A solid line represents a
system. Learn to use these diagrams as you trou- working line. A dashed line stands for a drain line.
bleshoot the system. Your job will be easier, and A dot makes lines that join. A symbol Is a device
you will work more efficiently. or sign that stands for something graphically.
Most symbols are standardized.
The pictorial diagram Is a single-llne drawing that
uses pictures to show the elements of a circuit. Schematics may seem complicated at first, but
The cutaway diagram Is a double-line drawing. practice and experience will make the Job of read
This drawing shows both the positions of the ele ing them easier. As you read a schematic you
ments In the circuit and how they operate.The should look for the flow pattern and various
schematic diagram shows the parts that make up guides. Read the diagrams and symbols carefully
the system. The schematic does not show the and always follow a step-by-step approach to
actual position of each component. avoid overlooking an Important detail.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

2-1. b. General position and appearance of 2-6. a. Pneumatic system. Ref: 2.15
components. Ret: 2.02
2-7. d. Interruption of fluid flow. Ref: 2.18
2-2. b. Helps you trace fluid flow. Ref: 2.05
2-8. c. Fluid. Ref: 2.24
2-3. d. Drain line. Ref: 2.09, Fog. 2-2
2-9. b. Actuator. Ref: 2.24, Table 2-1
1
2-4. a.
-V Ref: 2.10, Fig. 2-2 2-10. a. Solenoid-operated valve.
r Ref: 2.38, Table 2-1

2-5. 0. Reservoirs. Ref: 2.13, Fig. 2-3

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Symbols used in this Lesson are extracted from ANSI Standard

Graphic SymtKtlsfor Ruid Power Diagrams(ANSI Y32.10-1967)
with the permission of the publisher. The Americein Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY

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OEVEIDPING HYDRAUUC TROUBLESHOOTING SKHIS

Lesson Three

Installing
Hydraulic
Components
ff'

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

Installing Hydraulic Components

TOPICS

Installation Considerations Extra Valve Ports for Convenience

Cieanliness Valve Port Identification
Installation Safety Mechanical Valve Installation
Pump and Drive Installations Pneumatically Actuated Valves
Pump Start-up Electrically Controlled Valves
Control Valve Installation

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain the importance of cleanliness in hydraulic
installations.
• Describe possible consequences of neglecting
safety precautions.
• Explain how motor and pump shafts are aligned
before coupling.
• Explain the correct method for checking direction
of pump rotation.
• List several useful hints for solenoid valve installa
tion.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Flexible coupling 3.08 a coupling used to con Solenoid 3.36 a coil of fine wire wound around a
nect the pump to the drive unit to help prevent
shock and vibrations from being transmitted from hollow iron cylinder
one unit to the other

The installation and removal of hydraulic system components require skill and a
thorough knowledge of the equipment and installation procedures. Many
hydraulic systems are subject to months of trouble and failure simply because
of Improper Installation or improper reinstallation.
Because there are many kinds of components in a system, several independent
but related skills are required. The maintenance craftsman must recognize the
critical points to watch for and concentrate on them at all times in his work.
Quality work is the key to success. Neatness, attention to detail, skilled and
careful fitting, and an appreciation for the precision required to install very
rugged equipment—all are essential.
In this Lesson you will study the technical aspects involved in hydraulic equip
ment installation. The control points at which you must apply particular care
and skill are emphasized.
Installation Considerations
3.01 Each major element in a hydraulic system
has its own particular features, which must be con
sidered during installation. Pumps have rotating dri
ves, which must be aligned properly. Especially
because they develop huge forces, cylinders must be
aligned carefully and mounted with mounting pads
and bolts of the proper strength. Valves often require
both a hydraulic and electrical or mechanical
hookup. Piping, tubing, and fittings have proper uses
and installation techniques. Although each major
element has several installation techniques of its
own, all elements have several installation practices
in common.
Cleanliness
3.02 The more you work with hydraulics, the
more you will appreciate the need for cleanliness.
Dirt and contaminants act as abrasives, which can
grind up internal parts under tons of force. Dirt clogs
flow paths, makes valve spools stick, cuts seals, and
ruins bearings as well as shafts.
3.03 Hydraulic components are accurately fin
ished and precision-made. Sealing and bearing sur
faces must be treated with extreme care. Nicked and
stripped threads can result in continuous leaks.
Knocking one finished surface against another pro
duces scratches, dents, and burrs, which cause leaks
or hangups of valve spools and other moving parts.
Some surfaces are especially susceptible to rust and
corrosion. Handling raw steel and cast iron parts on
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37
machined surfaces with sweating hands is one of the
fastest ways to cause parts to rust and corrode. The
salt in your body speeds up this process to the point
where rust or corrosion can set in solidly on open or
exposed parts in only a few hours. For the same rea
son, if spare or reserve parts in the storeroom are not
protected by suitable packaging or rust preventives,
you may come back two weeks later and find a bin of
rusted, useless material.
3.04 You probably have heard it said that patience
is a virtue. But in hydraulic work, patience is a must.
Without patience, you will use more parts and have
to refit more jobs. Hydraulic parts and components
must fit closely. You must be sure that surfaces match
and mate properly and then carefully, patiently ease
them together. Simple mistakes like hammering a
coupling on a pump shaft may damage the inside of
the pump so that it fails after only a few hours of
operation. When you install a component, look for
quality parts—and practice quality workmanship in
each step of the process. Otherwise, the results are
frustrating and expensive.
3.05 As mentioned in Lesson One, components
come in a variety of configurations. Check the model
numbers for exact replacements. Try to visualize the
unit running or operating before actual startup. Com
mon errors include pumps running backward, check
valves installed in reverse, solenoid valves wired
incorrectly, and so forth. Many initial start-ups are
unsuccessful because of ports left open. The results
are expensive. Be thorough and pay attention to
detail.
38 Lesson Three
Fig.3-1. Typical mounting arrangements for hydraulic pumps
a
Subplate-mounted,
right-hand rotation
Rush-mounted,
right-hand rotation
Installation Safety
3.06 Careless hydraulic system installation can be
like Russian roulette. A partially installed fitting may
break when pressurized and be fired across the room.
Open ports can spray hot oil. Any oily floor is a slip
pery rink waiting for a victim. Valves installed in
reverse close when they are supposed to open. In
addition to these safety considerations, practice per
sonal safety when installing equipment. Sharp comers
produce nasty cuts. Oil-softened hands are cut easily.
3.07 As you study the installation of each of the six
basic elements, other tips will be given. You certainly
have no need to be afraid of hydraulic equipment, but
it pays to be safety-conscious during installation.
Pump and Drive Installations
3.08 Before the drive unit is installed, the hydraulic
pump should be installed and mounted rigidly (unless it
is to be mounted or attached directly to the drive unit). A
flexible coupling should be used to connect the pump to
the drive unit. Flexible couplings can absorb only those
forces generated by minor misalignments (within toler
ance). These couplings also help prevent shock and
vibrations from being transmitted from one unit to the
other. Splines or certain tang-drive connections are
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Subplate-mounted, Range-mounted,
left-hand opposite left-hand rotation
end rotation
Rush-mounted, Foot-mounted,
right-hand opposite right-hand opposite
end rotation end rotation
acceptable where flexible couplings are not used. The
pump must be mounted rigidly to a base that will not dis
tort during operation.
I
3.09 Pumps are made in a variety of styles. Figure
3-1 shows a particular pump available in several
mounting styles and installation arrangements. Con
sider each variety carefully. A pump that is mounted
directly to its drive unit must fit a given mounting-
pad and drive shaft configuration, which cannot be
changed easily. Some pumps are subplate-mounted,
and they bolt down to a mounting subplate or riser
(vertical pipe). The riser accepts fittings for piping. In
such an installation, the pump can be removed and
installed without breaking the iitting connections.
3.10 Pumps that are foot-mounted and thread-con
nected are generally mounted to a foot-mounting
bracket. The fitting is installed directly in the pump
case, or housing. Flange-mounted pumps have either
a flange as a part of the housing or flange pads bolted
to the housing. Flange pads usually have pilots or
leads machined to ensure square installation. Flush-
mounted pumps are a combination of flange and sub-
plate mounting styles.
3.11 Pumps that are mounted separately and dri
ven by electric motors require all of the various

installation techniques. Remember that three-phase
and series-wound motors are reversible. That is, they
can be wired to run in either direction. The primary
consideration is alignment.
3.12 Correct shaft alignment is important. Pump
and drive-unit shafts must be concentric to within
specified tolerances to prevent unusual loads from
being transmitted to pump and drive-unit bearings.
No end thrust or push-pull action on the pump shaft
should be allowed. Coupling halves should be mated
so the coupling does not wedge the pump and drive
apart.
3.13 The pump-shaft centerline should be as high
off the base as the motor-shaft centerline. Mount the
pump square to the base (with the drive shaft as near
parallel to the base as possible). Then install the
electric motor. Shim it up to align the motor shaft to
the pump shaft properly (never the pump to the
motor). Figure 3-2 shows a subplate-mounted pump
and the procedure used to check its alignment. If
another coupling style is used, the dial indicatox-
method may be used directly on the two shafts. Indi
cator readings are properly taken at the top of the
coupling. Readings must also be taken at 90° posi
tions—on either side of the top of the coupling.
Straight edges and thickness gauges can also be used
as shown (Fig. 3-2).
Fig.3-2. Methods of checking shaft alignment
Thickness gauge
Straightedge
Concrete pad
GE
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Installing Hydraulic Components 39
3.14 Each make and model of pump has its own
procedure for installation and start-up. As a rule, manu
facturer's instructions are furnished with each pump.
Be sure to follow them carefully after you become con
fident that you understand them. Figure 3-3 on the next
page shows two vane pumps that look alike. But in
looking at them and reading the instructions for their
installation, you would find that there are several major
differences between them. One pump is foot-mounted
and has flanges on both the suction and the discharge
side. It has been present at the factory for service at
300 psi. Shaft-alignment tolerances for the two pumps
are also different. In both cases, alignment should be
rechecked after the piping connections have been com
pleted. If the pipe has been poorly or improperly
installed, it can push or pull the pump out of alignment.
3.15 Many pumps require that the housing be
filled before they are put into operation. This means
that hydraulic fluid must be poured into the housing
to act as a lubricant during start-up. Pumps that
require this type of lubrication also have their drain
lines piped from above to ensure a full housing for the
next start-up.
Pump Start-up
3.16 A hydraulic pump is usually thoroughly per
formance-tested at the factory before it is shipped.
Dial indicator I
Motor shaft
Fig.3-3. Typical vane pumps Unless the pump was damaged in shipment, you can
proceed on the assumption that you have a good
pump. Even so, it is good practice to give the pump a
general inspection. Check to be sure that the ports are
capped to prevent foreign material from getting into
the pump. Rotate the shaft by hand to be sure the
pump turns smoothly and is not jammed.

3.17 Make sure the system is clean. All piping in

the system should be free of foreign matter. Take spe
cial care to prevent pipe compounds, sealing tape, and
other sealants from getting into the hydraulic system. If
pipe dope is applied, be sure that it will not be dis
solved by the kind of hydraulic fluid being used. Start
threaded connections before applying dope or tape to
prevent their getting into the system. Before filling the
reservoir with fluid, make sure that it is clean.

3.18 Proper direction of rotation is essential to

successful pump operation. Some pumps fail immedi
ately if run backward. Others can run backward for a
few minutes, but they will not perform properly later.
Jog the drive to make sure that rotation direction is
correct before running the system —that is, start and
stop it quickly. Be aware that there are a few
hydraulic pumps that can be operated in either direc
tion. Many hydraulic units have electric motors with
through shafts that drive a pump on each end. When
this is the case, one pump is a left-hand (counter-

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 Installing Hydraulic Components 41

clockwise) drive and the other is a right-hand (clock to a pressure higher than the machine's requirements
wise) drive. Do not then reverse the motor to satisfy for proper operation. Additional pressure causes addi
pump rotation at one end while ignoring the other tional loads for the pump,the circuit, and the machine.
pump. To determine direction of pump rotation, look This wastes energy and causes premature pump wear,
at the end of the pump drive shaft. In many instances, circuit wear, excess heat, possible machine malfunc
the direction of rotation is usually marked both on the tion,or even component destruction.
mounting pad and on the pump. If not, it can usually
be found in the instruction manual packed with the 3.22 After the pump has been running for a short time
pump. (at least five minutes),the machine should be cycled sev
eral times to purge the air from the system.It may also be
3.19 Be sure that the reservoir has been filled with necessary to bleed the air from the system externally. It is
the recommended fluid. If the system has been usually most effective to do so at the high points in pipes
drained, be ready to add more fluid to replace the and components. Foam in the circuit means spongy oper
fluid being pumped into the circuit. Make sure the ation (fluctuating pressure) and trouble.
cylinders (if any) are all retracted when you fill the
reservoir to its highest operating level. 3.23 After the system has been operating for a
least a day,make a final check:
3.20 After you have checked out all the points cov
ered so far, you are ready to start the pump. Whenever • Check all piping joints and system com
possible, start the pump against an open system which ponents for external leakage.
will first bypass the flow directly back to the reservoir.
This establishes good circulation, pump priming, and • Check fluid level in the reservoir.
removes any air from the pump.
• Check fluid temperatures.
3.21 Do not adjust the pump until it is fully primed.
Pressure-compensated pumps are adjusted at the facto • Check system pressure to be sure that it is
ry to ensure proper pump priming. They require pres operating at the lowest level required.
sure adjustment for each installation according to the
equipment's functions and design. Never adjust a pump • Check for spongy operation.

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42 Programmed Exercises

3-1. What should be used to connect a 3-1. A FLEXIBLE COUPLING

pump to the drive unit?
Ref: 3.08

3-2. When three-phase or series-wound 3-2. YES

electric motors are used to drive
pumps,can they be connected to oper Ref: 3.11
ate in either direction?

3-3. A pump shaft should NOT be subjected 3-3. END,SIDE

to or thrust.
Ref: 3.12

3-4. When mounting pumps and motors, 3-4. MOTOR;PUMP

always align the shaft to the
shaft. Ref: 3.13

3-5. Before operating most hydraulic 3-5. HOUSINGS

pumps,the pump must first
be filled with hydraulic oil. Ref: 3.15

3-6. Before filling a resen/oir, be sure that it 3-6. CLEAN

is
Ref: 3.17

3-7. When you fill a reservoir, be sure that 3-7. RETRACTED

the cylinders are
Ref: 3.19

3-8. To prevent possible equipment dam 3-8. HIGHER

age, never adjust a pump for a pres
sure than called for. Ref: 3.21

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 Installing Hydraulic Components 43

Controi Vaive instaiiation valves are shown. Flow controls generally do not have
flanged connections because the subplate version has a
3.24 There are three basic methods of connecting single subplate, about the size of a flange.
control valves to hydraulic systems. They are: subplate
connections, in-line threaded connections, and in-line 3.25 The manifold is a mounting arrangement
flanged connections. Figure 3-4 shows examples of increasingly used for valves. Many people refer to
each type. Note that the three basic types of control manifolds as "sandwich plates" because they are

Fig.3-4. T^pes of control-valve connections

Subplate-mounted Threaded connections Flanged connections

Pressure controls

Directional controls

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 Fig. 3<5. Manifold application
The pressure-^^^^
control manifold
mounts directly ^ convenience or optional hookups.
between the four-way
valve and its subplate.
sandwiched between a subplate valve and its subplate,
or can be stacked up as several slices in a sandwich
(see Fig. 3-5). Long bolts or studs fasten the entire
stack of valves together to build a circuit. The advan
tages are obvious. Pipe connections are reduced. Only
a minimum number of ports are connected. Once an
installation is made, you can add valves without
changing piping. Circuit modifications, when neces
sary, are easy to make.
3.26 A few special considerations apply when
mounting subplate valves. The seal made between the
valve and the subplate or manifold that the valve is
mounted on is formed by an 0-ring or quad-ring.
Some valve bodies are counterbored. Other use seal
plates. In either case, the depth of the counterbore or
thickness of the seal plate is designed to allow for
proper seal compression. Additional mounting-bolt
torque may be necessary just to set the valve and set
the bolts. Use a torque wrench to be sure that tension
is equal on all bolts. However, when you try tighten
ing beyond the specified torque, you are not accom
plishing anything except distorting the valve body.
Distorted valve bodies result in sticking spools.
3.27 If all the valves shown in Fig. 3-5 were to be
connected separately, the following pipe or tube con
nections would have to be made:
• the four-way valve —four main ports
Tnis matortol is protected Dy U S Copyright law
the pressure control —two main ports
• the two pilot checks —four main ports
plus four pilot ports
• the two flow controls —four main ports
The total is 14 main ports plus four pilot ports, or 18
ports in all. With manifolding, only the four-way valve
is piped.
3.28 Watch for valves which appear to have extra
ports. Something may be wrong. Either you have not
identified all of the ports, or the valve manufacturer
has supplied additional ports in the valve body for
Extra Valve Ports for Convenience
3.29 Many valves are furnished with extra ports.
Figure 3-6A shows a partial circuit that uses a fixed-
displacement pump and relief valve. The symbol in
Fig. 3-6B shows a typical relief valve with pressure
and tank ports to be piped. In Fig. 3-6A, note that the
circuit requires a tee fitting at the point labeled "I."
Now look at Fig. 3-6C. This relief valve symbol
shows three primary ports marked by "x"s, one for
through pressure. As Fig. 3-6D shows, many thread-
connected and flange-connected controls have extra
ports. In this case you save having to pipe a tee fitting
each time you install a valve. The two small tapped
holes on each valve are plugged when it is to be used
as a relief valve. These are pilot and drain ports, which
can be externally piped to permit use of the valve as a
reducing valve, sequence valve, unloader, and so on.
Valve Port Identification
3.30 In some cases you must relate the valve to a
picture that labels the ports. Today most manufactur
ers identify the ports by casting words or letters on
the bodies —stamping, etching, or attaching name-
plates to the valves. Unfortunately, however, several
different letters and numbers are used to identify
ports, and the standards covering identification may
not have been observed.
3.31 A check of the appropriate catalog page or
drawing, and a knowledge of the component, will
clarify which ports are which. Another means of
identifying fluid flow direction is by an arrow or
Copying oy any optical, electrooic. or other r i 4 illegal without oermisaiori
 Installing Hydraulic Components 45

Fig. 3-6. Extra ports can eliminate fittings

System

wavy arrow on a valve body (see Fig. 3-7). These
symbols normally are used on check valves to indi
cate either the free flow direction or the direction of
restricted flow. Ordinarily, a check valve which has
an angular check arrangement would be more or less
pointed in the direction of free flow. On flow control
valves, the slope indicates the direction of least
restrictive flow.
Mechanical Valve Installation
3.32 Lesson One emphasized the need to set up
cams properly. Many components have mechanical
actuators that must be installed, or reinstalled, and
adjusted. Cam valves are not the only such units,
however. Many stem-operated valves depend entirely
on the mechanical actuator to position the valve

Fig.3-7. Determining direction of fluid flow through valves

Free flow
indicates free Indicates Controlled flow
flow in a check restricted
valve reverse flow

Slope of body may Least restrictive

indicate free flow direction
direction

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spool properly. Adjustment of the linkage is critical.
Being off by '''64 in. can give such a valve a com
pletely different performance. Normally, a tumbuckle
arrangement to such a valve should be lockwired to
prevent inadvertent slipping or tampering after
adjustment. These valves must be mounted rigidly to
a firm base.
3.33 Lever-operated valves must be installed or
reinstalled to give the operator the same feel of posi
tion he had before. Consider the lever-operated
valves in Fig. 3-8. If the original valve has a spring-
return, stem-out position, you would confuse an
operator by installing a spring-return, stem-in valve.
Where originally he shifted the lever to the right to
retract the actuating cylinder, and shifted left to
extend the cylinder, now he would have to reverse
the motion. Let him know if you have to change
directions.
Pneumatically Actuated Valves
3.34 Many hydraulic valves are air-operated (see
Fig. 3-9). These valves not only require proper
hydraulic installation and upkeep, but they also
involve pneumatic supply and controls. Craftsmen
who work on hydraulic equipment often work on the
pneumatic equipment, too. This means double care
and double knowledge. Air-actuated valves must have
a good, clean, dry, and ample supply of air pressure to
keep functioning. The air and air controls can cause
high-tonnage malfunctions of a machine if they are
not connected properly. Make sure that the air pres-
Fig.3-8. Look-alike valves may differ in operation
Cylinder A -
Pressure
Spring-return, stem-out position
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sure supply is shut off when removing or installing
valves.
Electrically Controlled Valves
3.35 Most industrial hydraulic valves are electri
cally controlled by a solenoid. Solenoids operate on
either ac or dc power, the ac-powered type being
more common.
3.36 A solenoid is a coil of fine wire wound
around a hollow iron cylinder. An iron rod or plunger
is positioned .so it can travel easily inside the cylin
der. When the coil is energized, a magnetic field
builds up because of the current flowing through the
coil. The magnetic attraction in the field pulls the
plunger into the coil cylinder. Magnetic force also
keeps the plunger from flying out the opposite end of
the coil.
3.37 The plunger usually has a spring attached to
it. When the power to the solenoid is switched off,
there is no longer a magnetic field to hold the
plunger in place. The spring then forces the plunger
back out of the cylinder. The motion of the plunger
is used to actuate a valve or other mechanism.
3.38 Solenoid failures are the result of overheat
ing, which can burn out the coil insulation and
cause a short circuit. Short-circuited coils cause
excessive current to flow in them, which also
results in overheating and burning out the coil. If
the solenoid plunger binds for any reason, it will
Cylinder B Cylinder A | Cylinder B
Pressure
Spring-return, stem-In position
 Installing Hydraulic Components 47

Fig. 3-9. A typical, air-operated hydraulic valve

Pressure rating - 3000 psi

Air pressure rating - 40 to 150 psi

Air circuit volume - for optimum response,

time air volume should be kept at a
minimum to meet circuit requirements.

Pilot pressure pressure Pilot pressure

Cylinder A- —Cylinder B Cylinder A- — Cylinder B
Pressure • Pressure

Spring-centered Standard action

not move into the coil cylinder. Excessive current Make sure that the electrical power is
flows in the coil, causing overheating and eventual OFF when manually actuating valves, or
coil burnout. when opening solenoid and wiring box

3.39 Solenoids having coils covered with epoxy

resin (referred to as encapsulation) should be used on • When removing a valve, never clip off
machines using coolants. The resin seals the coil and the solenoid leads. You may need new
coils because the lead wires are too short.
prevents coolant from entering the coil windings,
damaging the wire insulation, and causing a short cir-
• Install the valve and actuate it mechani
cally. All valves designed to JIG stan
dards have special pin actuators for this
3.40 Solenoids also malfunction from mechanical
purpose.
damage. Bent or twisted linkages connected to the
solenoid plunger can prevent it from actuating proper • Watch for hydraulic-spool valve push-pin
ly. Coil windings are easily damaged if bruised by a leakage. Fluid can leak into the solenoid
hard, sharp object, and a coil short may occur. Dirt, cover and work its way all the way back to
hard grease, and metal chips can prevent the proper the electrical panel. Be careful of push-pin
operation of a solenoid. seals —they are delicate and must be kept
clean and safe from damage in handling.
3.41 When replacing defective solenoids, be sure
that the replacement has the same part number and • Check out electrical insulation compati
manufacturer's specifications as the original part. bility with the fluid you are using, partic
ularly with phosphate-ester base
3.42 Here are some tips on installing solenoids: hydraulic fluids.

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48 Programmed Exercises

3-9. SUBPLATE CONNECTIONS, IN-LINE

3-9. Name the three methods of connecting
THREADED CONNECTIONS, IN-LINE
control valves to a hydraulic system.
FLANGED CONNECTIONS.

Ref: 3.24

3-10. What Is another name for a sandwich 3-10. MANIFOLD

plate mounted with a valve?
Ref: 3.25

3-11. Tightening the mounting bolts on sub- 3-11. SPOOLS

plate valves beyond their specified
toroue mav result In stlcklno Ref: 3.26

3-12. On flow control valves, the slope Indi 3-12. LEAST RESTRICTIVE FLOW
cates the direction of
Ref: 3.31

3-13. Many stem-operated valves depend on 3-13. MECHANICAL ACTUATOR

afnl to position the spool
properly. Ref: 3.32

3-14. Which type of solenoid Is more com 3-14. AC

mon for controlling hydraulic valves, ac
or dc? Ref: 3.35

3-15. Solenoid failure Is usually the result of 3-15. OVERHEATING

Ref: 3.38

3-16. Before manually actuating a solenoid 3-16. OFF

valve, make sure all electrical power Is
Ref: 3.42

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 Self-Check Quiz 49

Answer the following questions by marking an ''X'

in the box next to the best answer.

3-1. Which of the following is NOT a result of a 3-6. The device that provides an easy method for
common installation error? making hydraulic circuit modifications is
called a
□ a. Pump running backward
□ b. Check valves installed in reverse □ a. manifold
□ c. Solenoid valves wired backward □ b. subplate mounting
□ d. Lack of end thrust □ c. mixing valve
□ d. reversible pump
3-2. The preferred method for connecting a pump
shaft to the drive unit is by use of a(n) 3-7. When mounting valves on a manifold, always
make sure that mounting-bolt tension is
□ a. sleeve socket
□ b. flexible coupling □ a. staggered
□ c. subplate riser □ b. equal
□ d. NMTBA No. 50 adapter □ c. progressive
□ d. gauged
3-3. Which of the following is of most importance
when joining pump and motor shafts? 3-8. For added convenience, a manufacturer may
supply valves provided with
□ a. Alignment
□ b. Coupling selection □ a. ac/dc solenoids
□ c. Torque resistance □ b. subplates
□ d. Base rigidity □ c. extra ports
□ d. four-way pressure control
3-4. Which of the following is NOT a recommend
ed device for checking shaft alignment? 3-9. Disregarding mechanical damage, what is the
most frequent cause of solenoid failure?
□ a. Dial indicator
□ b. Straight edge □ a. Plunger-spring failure
□ c. Thickness gauge □ b. Overheated coils
□ d. Spline □ c. Encapsulation
□ d. Pin seal rupture
3-5. Before adjusting the pressure setting of a
pump, make sure that it is 3-10. After installing a solenoid valve, which of the
following should you use to check it out?
□ a. fully primed
□ b. rotating freely □ a. Pilot circuit
□ c. fitted with a bypass □ b. Pin actuator
□ d. correctly drained □ c. Flowmeter
□ d. Ohmmeter

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50 Lesson Three

SUMMARY
W
How hydraulic components are installed Is critical Always replace parts with identical parts. Be
to the operation of the system. Each component aware of how the unit runs. Careless Installation
has Its own special Installation requirements. can result In pumps running backward, check
Cleanliness Is necessary to prevent scratching or valves installed in reverse, and solenoid valves
clogging equipment. You must also guard against wired backward. Careless installation can also put
rust, corrosion, and knocking one part against other workers In danger. Be aware of your own
another. Hydraulic parts and components must fit safety, as well, and be careful as you handle
closely. You must take the time needed to ensure hydraulic components.
a good fit.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

3-1. d. Lack of end thrust. Ref:3.05 3-6. a. Manifold. Ref: 3.25

3-2. b. Flexible coupling. Ret: 3.08 3-7. b. Equal. Ref: 3.26

3-3. a. Alignment. Ref: 3.11,3.12 3-8. c. Extra ports. Ref: 3.29

3-4. d. Spline. Ref: 3.13 3-9. b. Overheated coils. Ref: 3.38,3.40

3-5. a. Fully primed. Ref: 3.21 3-10. b. Pin actuator. Ref: 3.42

Contributions from ttie foiiowing sources are appreciated:

Figure 3-1. Racine Hydraulics Rgure 3-6. Racine Hydraulics

Rgure 3-3. Racine Hydraulics Rgure 3-6. Manatrol Corp.
Rgure 3-4. Racine Hydraulics Rgure 3-9. Parker-Hannifln
Rgure 3-5. Racine Hydraulics

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DEVELOPING HYDRAUUC TROUBLESHOOnNG SKILLS

Lesson Four

Installing Pipes
and Tubes

TPC Training Systems

52

Lesson

Installing Pipes and Tubes

TOPICS

Installing Conductors and Connectors Hydraulic Hose

Hydraulic Pipe Hose Installation
General Installation Procedures Seal Installation
Hydraulic Tubing Reservoir Installation
Tube Flaring Filter Installation
Checking the Flare Cooler and Heat Exchanger Installation
Tube Bending Actuator Installation
Tubing Assembly

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain how pipe sizes are specified. • Describe the correct methods for bending and flar
• Name the common types of pipe joints. ing tubing.
• List six important rules for good piping installation. • List the key points for correctly installing hydraulic
• Describe the advantages of hydraulic tubing over hoses, seals, resen/oirs, filters, and actuators.
pipes.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Nominal size 4.02 the approximate dimension of Packing 4.37 a dynamic seal, used where some
a pipe's inside diameter form of motion occurs between rigid members of
Schedule numbers 4.03 numbers assigned pipe an assembly
to designate its size Gasket 4.37 a static seal, used where there is no
Seal 4.37 any means of preventing passage of relative motion between joined parts
fluids, gases, or particles across a joint or open
ing

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It has been said that improper installation of piping, tubing, and fittings is possi
bly the leading cause of hydraulic system failure. The application of care, skill,
and patience during Installation of hydraulic components is one of the best
guarantees of a smoothly operating hydraulic system.

This Lesson explains the installations of pipe and tubing, commonly referred to
In hydraulics as conductors. The fittings used are called connectors. Also
Included is information about other components used In a hydraulic system,
such as seals, reservoirs, heat exchangers, and their installation.

Installing Conductors and Connectors "Standard" and "Extra-heavy" wall thicknesses.

Schedule 160 is slightly thinner than the old "Double
4.01 The three major conductors used in hydraulic
systems are pipes, tubes, and hoses. The connectors or
fittings used depend somewhat on the conductor and
also on the connection specified. Basically, the fit
tings or connections may be classified as threaded,
flanged, permanent (brazed or welded), flared, and
compression types.
Hydraulic Pipe
4.02 Pipe and pipe fittings are designated accord
ing to wall thickness and nominal size. The "nominal
size" of a pipe is the approximate dimension of its
inside diameter (I.D.). The actual inside diameter for
a given nominal size varies with the wall thickness.
As shown in Fig. 4-1, a '/2-in. pipe can have the fol
lowing inside diameters, depending on the wall thick-
Standard wall (Schedule 40) I.D. = 0.622
Extra-heavy wall (Schedule 80) I.D. =
0.546 in.
extra-heavy" designation.
4.04 Threads for pipe and pipe fittings are
tapered (see Fig. 4-2 on the next page). Note the
limited area for sealers to be applied. When cutting
and threading pipes, avoid using dull pipe-cutting
tools and dies. Dull tools have a tendency to drag,
rather than cut, which results in a pulling of the
metal. That, in turn, produces very small tears and
cracks that leak when pressurized. Be sure to use
plenty of good thread-cutting oil.
4.05 Threading reduces the pipe wall thickness
and also exposes rough surfaces that are vulnerable to
corrosion. Corrosion causes binding or freezing of the
pipe and makes it difficult to unscrew a pipe connec
tion when necessary. To prevent this, use a good pipe
compound that is insoluble in your hydraulic fluid.
Start two threads before applying the compound. The
threaded connections should be made so that two-
thirds of the threaded area is used. Burrs should be
carefully removed before installation. Also, remember
not to overtighten pipe, because this will distort or
crack the pipe or fittings.

• Double extra-heavy wall I.D.= 0.252 in.

The outside diameter (O.D) does not vary with wall Fig.4-1. Pipe IJ). varies with wall thickness
thickness. The '/2-in. pipe has an O.D. of 0.840 in. in
all schedules.

4.03 It is now standard practice to use schedule

numbers instead of wall thicknesses in specifying
pipe. These schedule numbers, approved by the
Standard Extra-heavy Double extra-heavy
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), range
from 10 to 160 and covers ten distinct wall thickness Schedule Schedule (No equivalent
40 80 schedule no.)
es. For most nominal sizes, Schedules 40 and 80 are
comparable in thickness to the old designations of
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54 Lesson Four

4.06 Because threaded connec

Fig.4-2. Threaded sections of hydraulic piping
tions are not always leakproof
under high pressures, pipes are
often welded or brazed. If you are 3/4 in. taper per foot
not certified as an all-position, Remove burr,
after cutting
pressure-vessel, boiler-code welder, Pipe thread section
be sure to get assistance before I V
working on hydraulic system Tape or thread sealer
on this area only
welds.

4.07 Flanging is a common MMMV

means of joining pipe and compo
nents. Flanges are joined by bolting
them together with a gasket between
the flange faces. It is always neces
sary to have a tight flange joint to
prevent the leakage of hydraulic
fluid. Welded joints provide a good
• When installing a tapered pipe connec
means of maintaining a tight, leakproof hydraulic sys tion in a valve or component,be extreme
tem.
ly careful not to overtighten the pipe or
fitting. If tapered fittings are wedged into
4.08 Be sure that components are piped properly. place, cracking or distortion of the valve
For example, consider piping to and from hydraulic body can result, which might cause the
pumps, which can be classified in two principal valve spool to bind.
groups: (1) pressure piping, and (2) suction or inlet
piping. The most important consideration in installing • Never weld a pipe or fitting while it is
pressure piping is to prevent leaks after the system attached to a component.If this cannot be
has been pressurized. avoided, at least cool the component to
prevent distortion caused by heat, and to
4.09 Inlet piping is extremely important. The avoid melting or burning its seals.
diameter of the pipe should not be smaller than the
intake of the pump. When possible, in fact, the inlet • Always use full-size pipe or fittings for
pipe should be larger than the pump inlet, and have a any component port size unless you are
minimum of bends or elbows to provide unrestricted absolutely sure that a smaller size is
inlet flow. Inlet pipe connections must be airtight so required. When the pipe has a long run,
that air cannot be drawn into the system through the consult your plant engineer.
suction side. This prevents the system from becoming
air-filled and spongy. Such protection also lengthens • Never turn fittings or pipe to put tension
the pump's operating life. The inlet pipe should be or compression on the connector. Such
force can damage the connector or the
extended to within three inches of the bottom of the
component to which it is connected.
reservoir. When pumps are mounted above the reser
voir, the height of the fluid inlet port should not be
• Provide support for components you
more than four feet above fluid level unless the reser
install in the line. Also support the line
voir is pressurized. itself on each side of the component.

General Installation Procedures • Count your tools when you have finished
an installation, especially small tools like
4.10 To a large extent, good piping is a matter of sockets. Also count installed pipe plugs,
choosing the correct fittings and joining them careful and those on hand,to be sure none is left
ly. Observe the following points. inside the lines.

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 Installing Pipes and Tubes 55

Hydraulic Tubing 4.14 Tubing is connected by flared fittings, compres

sion fittings, and brazed or welded flange fittings, as
4.11 Nearly all industrial equipment now in ser shown in Fig. 4-3. Rared fittings are probably the oldest
vice makes some use of fluid lines. From an econom type used. Do not join tubing sections by threading
ic point of view the best fluid-line system is the one (although steel tubing is sometimes joined this way),
that is easiest to maintain at the lowest original cost. because threading weakens thin-wall tubing. Fittings are
The use of tubing and tube fittings on lines up to 2 in. available for joining sections of tubing to pipe, however.
in diameter is nearly always more economical than
the use of pipe and pipe fittings. Here are some of the 4.15 The first operation is tube cutoff, which should
more important reasons: be done with a tube cutter. To ensure a good joint, cut
the tube off square, and remove burrs from both the
• Size for size, tubing is lighter in weight inside and outside edges of the cut with a three-cor
and easier to handle than pipe, and it can nered scraper. If a sharp tube cutter is used properly,
be bent easily. Its relative flexibility burrs are kept to a minimum.
allows tubing to absorb more vibration
than pipe. 4.16 Although a hacksaw can also be used for tube
cutoff, it is a less satisfactory method, because hack-
• The bendability of tubing reduces the sawing tends to work-harden the end of the tubing. If
number of connections required, which you have to use a hacksaw, make sure you have a sharp
reduces material and labor costs. Fewer
blade. File the tube end square and flat, in addition to
joints means lower costs and fewer sites removing the burrs.
of potential leakage.
4.17 To avoid marking or scratching the smooth
• Tubing is cleaner than pipe, contains no inside surface of the tubing, be sure to remove all fil-
chips or scale, and has a smoother inner
surface, which means less friction and
less pressure loss. Fig. 4-3. Three common methods of tube joining

• Tube fittings make every joint a union,

which permits easier, faster disassembly
and repair work. No sealing compounds
are needed.

4.12 The three principal considerations in select

ing tubing are material, I.D., and wall thickness. The
I.D. determines the rate of flow that can be passed
without excessive energy loss. The wall thickness and Compression

tubing material determine the bursting pressure for

any given diameter. Tubing material is also chosen for
its resistance to corrosion, a consideration with some
hydraulic fluids.

4.13 Most manufacturers of tubing and fittings

supply tables and charts, along with recommendations
for proper selection under varying conditions. Once Brazed or welded flange
the tube has been selected, installation is a matter of
connecting and assembling sections of tubing. Before
installing tubing, inspect the tube to see that it meets
required specifications (material, dimensions—espe
cially I.D.) and that it is not out-of-round or split.
This material is protsctM Sy U. S Copyright taw. Copying by any optcei, electronc, or other means is Illegal wiltioiit permission.
 Fig.4-4. Correct and incorrect tube flares
Flare angle (37°) Correct tube flare
ings, chips, burrs, and dirt. If compressed air is avail
able, use it to blow out the tube. However, be sure to
clear the hose of any moisture first.
Tube Flaring
4.18" To obtain a firm, leakproof connection, the
end of the tube must be flared properly when a flared
fitting is to be used (see Fig. 4-4). Although other
flare angles are used, the flare angle for hydraulic
applications should be 37° from centerline to meet
JIG recommendations. The outer edge of the flare
should extend beyond the sleeve I.D. but not beyond
the sleeve O.D. The flared end should project Just
beyond the end of the tube nut. TTie diameter of the
flare should be slightly less than that of the tube nut
4.19 Flares that are too short are likely to be
squeezed thin, which can result in leakage or even
breakage. Flares that are too long will stick or jam
during assembly. When a tube is flared properly,
and the tube nut is tightened securely, the flare will
Fig.4-5. Common hand flaring tools
Combination Block-and-pin
This male'ial is oroleclM ay U S Copyr.gni lew
Incorrect tube flare Incorrect tube flare
seat firmly in the machined recess of the tube cou
pling.
4.20 A number of tools are used for flaring. Con
venience and size range determine the choice. Figure
4-5 shows several hand flaring tools. The basic prin
ciple is the same for all. That is, the flaring tool
itself is inserted into the tube end and then carefully
hammered into the tube, spreading the tube end out
ward as required. This is known as the impact
method.
4.21 The three most common tools are shown in
Fig. 4-5. The combination tool is a split female die,
which has holes of various sizes to accommodate
tubes of different diameters. The flaring punch is ham
mered in. The block-and-pin tool has two blocks,
which act as a female die. The flaring pin has a pilot or
guide to ensure proper centering. The hammer tool fits
over the end of the tube as shown. In addition to these
hand tools, there are power tools available for tube
flaring.
Hammer
Cooying by any ocxical. electmnc. or other
 Programmed Exercises 57

4-1. Variation in wall thickness does NOT 4-1. OUTSIDE

change the diameter of
hydraulic pipe. Ref: 4.02

4-2. The current standard method of speci 4-2. SCHEDULE NUMBERS

fying pipe is by usino
Ref: 4.03

4-3. Piping to and from hydraulic pumps is 4-3. PRESSURE,SUCTION,or INLET

classified as pipinc and
Dioino. Ref: 4.08

4-4. The diameter of inlet piping should be 4-4. LARGER

than the pump intake.
Ref: 4.09

4-5. To prevent line sagging when compo 4-5. SUPPORT

nents are installed, they should be pro
vided with adequate Ref: 4.10

4-6. For lines up to 2 in. in diameter, 4-6. TUBING

is usuallv more economical
than piping. Ref: 4.11

4-7. Name the three principal considera 4-7. MATERIAL. I.D., WALL THICKNESS
tions in tubing selection.
Ref: 4.12

4-8. The proper tool to use when cutting 4-8. TUBE CUTTER
tubing is a(n)
Ref: 4.15

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58 Lesson Four

Checking the Flare

Fig.4-6. Correct and incorrect tube bends
4.22 Although incorrectly formed flares may seem
to make up satisfactorily and pass initial pressure test, Correct
they are not reliable for continuous service. To ensure
proper seating, the flare should conform to the fitting
being used for joining the tube sections. if i'Utm

4.23 A compression fitting is also shown in Fig. 4-

3. As you can see, the tube end is not flared. It is fit
Kinked Wrinkled
ted with a ferrule that pinches the tube as the locknut
is tightened on the fitting body.
Incorrect

4.24 The brazed or welded flange fitting is shown

in Fig. 4-3. This is a very reliable method of tube
joining. The flange, which is welded to the tube end,
fits against the end of the mating fitting. The locknut ties, or for sizes larger than ^/g-in. O.D., a power ben
is then tightened securely to make a tight joint. der is generally used.

Tube Bending 427 Tubing should be bent accurately (see Fig.4-6).

4.25 Lines normally should be kept as short and as
free of bends as possible. However,tubing should not
be assembled in a straight line. A bend helps eliminate
strain by absorbing vibration. It also helps compen
sate for thermal expansion and contraction. Bends are
preferred to elbow fittings or sharp turns because a
bend is more gradual and reduces power loss caused
by resistance to flow.
4.26 Tubing should be bent, wherever possible, to
reduce the number of fittings. Copper tubing can be
bent easily with a hand bender. Steel tubing up to ^/s-
in. O.D. can be bent by using a hand bender specifi
cally designed for steel tubing. For production quanti-
Tubing manufacturers will give you the correct radius
to use for any given type and wall thickness of tubing.
To avoid kinks, flattened bends, wrinkles, and tube
breakage or loss,use tube-bending equipment.
Tubing Assembly
4.28 Here are some tips and precautions for
assembling tubes. Consider Fig. 4-7 as you read.
Avoid straight-line connections that strain the tube or
fittings, especially in short runs. To help eliminate
stress from tubing lines, long tubing runs should be
supported by brackets or clips. To protect tubing from
vibration, all parts installed on tubing lines, such as
heavy fittings and valves,should be supported.

Fig.4-7. Correct and incorrect mountings for tubing

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 Installing Pipes and Tubes 59

4.29 To avoid difficulty in assembly and discon two sections of the coupling are connected, the seal
necting tubing, allow enough straight length of tub opens, allowing free fluid flow. If one section of the
ing from the tube end to the start of the bend. coupling does not include a seal, it should not be
Allow at least twice the length of the nut, prefer installed on the pressure side of the line.
ably more.
Hose Installation
4.30 Tubes should be formed so that they align
with the centerline of the fittings, without distortion 4.35 Six basic rules of thumb to use when
or tension (see Fig. 4-7). A tube that has to be sprung installing hose are:
from position A to be inserted into the fitting has not
been prepared correctly. When improperly installed • Use the correct diameter hose. Check
and connected, the tubing will experience stress and with your foreman or plant engineer if in
will eventually crack or break. doubt.

4.31 When assembling the tubing,insert the longer • Make it long (generous,no tension).
leg to the fitting as at C,and then insert the other end
into fitting D.Do not screw the nut onto the fitting at • Never use a tight bend radius.
C. The nut would hold the tubing tight and restrict
any movement during the assembly operation. With • Never install a twisted hose.
the nut free, the short leg of the tubing can be moved
easily and brought into proper position for insertion • Do not run hose lines close to a hot
into the seat in fitting D. The nuts can then be tight exhaust manifold. Use a fireproof boot or
ened as required. a metal baffle to protect a hose that
comes close to a hot pipe or machine.
Hydraulic Hose
• Always use proper fittings. If in doubt,
4.32 Because of its flexibility, hose is used to con consult the instruction manual or ask
nect a hydraulic line to a moving member of a piece your supervisor.
of equipment. This is the most practical way to make
such connections. The flexibility of hose is its out Additional dos and don'ts of hose installation are
standing advantage, giving it the ability to absorb shown in Fig.4-8 on the next page.
shock and vibration. These are also the reasons why
hose wears out more rapidly than either pipe or tub Seal Installation
ing. When replacing hose, be sure to use the exact
type the equipment manufacturer has specified. This 4.36 Seals are used both to prevent the escape of
is especially important on high-pressure applications. fluid and to prevent the entry of foreign matter from
the outside (see Fig. 4-9 on page 61). They are
4.33 Hose fittings are either permanent or classed as either dynamic or static seals. Dynamic
reusable. For lower-pressure applications, reusable seals are used to control or prevent fluid leakage
hose fittings are acceptable. Permanent couplings are between moving parts. Static seals are gaskets for
required for high-pressure uses. Reusable fittings are sealing between stationary (not moving) parts. Com
screwed, bolted, or clamped to the hose end, and are mon seal material are: rubber (natural or synthetic),
easily removed. Permanent couplings are usually cork,elastomers,and various combinations of these.
attached at the factory, and are not intended to be
removed. 4.37 Although the terms "gaskets," "packing," and
"seals" are sometimes considered to mean the same
4.34 When frequent or temporary hydraulic hose thing, they actually have more specific meanings. A
connections are necessary, it is common to use quick seal can be any means of preventing passage of flu
connect/disconnect couplings. As the name suggest, ids, gases,or particles across a joint or opening. Pack
these couplings can be connected or disconnected ing is a dynamic seal, used where some form of
easily and quickly. They are self-sealing. When the motion occurs between rigid members of an assem-
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60 Lesson Four
Fig.4-8. Dos and don'ts of hose installation
Wrong
(hose twisted)
bly. Self-contained, metal-encased closures for rotat
ing shafts are commonly called seals. A gasket is a
static seal, used where there is no relative motion
between joined parts. (However, the material from
which a gasket is made may properly be called sheet
packing.)
4.38 0-rings are used primarily on static applica
tions, although when speeds are slow and pressure is
low, they are also satisfactory for oscillating and
rotary applications. O-ring packings are recommend
ed for pressures up to 1500 psi. For higher pressures
(up to 3000 psi), the O-ring should be supplemented
with backup washers. Square-cut seal rings made
from the same materials used for 0-rings frequently
equal O-ring performance in static sealing applica
tions.
4.39 When pressures are too high for a given
clearance, backup rings extend the operating range of
O-ring or other seals. They may also aid O-ring lubri
cation, because small amounts of lubricant are
trapped between the backup and the O-ring.
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3:! Right
4.40 By allowing a greater metal-to-metal clear
ance, backups help overcome the problem of wide or
out-of-tolerance bores and shafts. When wider clear
ances can be used between bores and cylinders as
well as rods and housings, machining costs are usual
ly reduced.
4.41 When leakage cannot be tolerated, the quad
ring provides positive sealing with minimum friction.
The four-lipped design eliminates spiral twist and the
rolling tendency found in 0-rings. It also resists tor-
sional movement. With proper installation, quad rings
form a positive seal at a wide range of pressures from
extreme vacuum up to 1500 psi without backup wash
ers.
4.42 When quad rings are used as gaskets, they
efficiently seal matching metal parts. The four con
toured lips effectively prevent bypass in devices using
frequent pressure cycles. There is less working of the
seal in the groove, permitting a rougher finish. The
range of quad-ring sizes corresponds with O-ring
sizes. On many applications the use of quad rings

eliminates the need for more expensive spring-loaded
seals.
4.43 Cylinders and pistons are usually protected
by molded or formed seals. Examples are the V- or
chevron type, U-seals, the cup seals. Both U- and V-
seals are somewhat automatic in their response to
variations in system pressure. As pressure increases,
the seals dig in. As pressure decreases, they relax,
which means less friction, less wear, and longer oper
ating life.
4.44 The V- or chevron seal uses a number of sep
arate rings, as many as ten being common, which pro
vides several lines of protection. It is common for V-
rings to be mounted in a packing gland setup, adjust
ment being provided by a threaded gland nut. When
installing or maintaining such a .seal, remember that
the only adjustment needed is enough to stop or pre
vent leakage. If excessive tightening is required, it is
only because the .seal or the l.D. of the gland nut is
excessively worn, possibly both. Excessive lightening
of a new .seal, however, will result in damage to the
seal and may even block piston travel. Some V-ring
designs include springs, which provide compensation
for slight wear.
Fig.4-9. Common seals
Cylinder
Bearing
cup seal
Piston-cup seal
This material is protoctod by U S Copyright lew
Installing Pipes and Tubes 61
4.45 U-rings. also called U-cups, are used singly.
Like V-rings, they are dynamic seals, but offer less
friction because they have long, thin, flexible lips. For
that reason, they are usually provided with a support
ring that helps ensure proper lip contact between the
surfaces being sealed.
4.46 Pi.ston-cup seals have long, relatively flexible
lips which compensate for minor out-of-round condi
tions in cylinder bores. In fact, they are sometimes
used to replace 0-rings, V-rings, or U-cup seals when
the cylinder has worn. Piston-cup seals are supported
by follower plates.
4.47 If seals fail repeatedly, it is sometimes an
indication of poor design. Usually, though, it means
installation error, or operating conditions tougher than
the seal was designed for. It is not your job to rectify
design problems, but you should learn to identify and
correct problems caused by installation errors and
improper operating conditions.
4.48 Seals have been developed to provide low
breakaway friction and positive sealing after long
periods of storage. Such seals use glide rings made of
Teflon® or .similar materials to contact the sliding .sur-
Quad ring Cylinder
Quad ring
Cylinder Sealing element
Bearing
Line of contact
Seal O.D.
Radial seal
® Teflon is a registered trademark of E. I. Du Pent du Nemours & Co., Inc.
Copyiog Oy any optical.
ntical. etcclronic or ol^^r moans is illoaal witnoul permission
62 Lesson Four

Fig.4-10. Reservoir installation Fig.4-11. Example of vortenng action

Return entry

Vortexing
action
Baffle-

Rlter

Space under reservoir

Dirt settles

face. These rings are backed up by O-rings or rubber • Be sure that the return line is on the same
shapes to give the seal "memory." Such seals are end as the pump inlet, but separated from
often used on the pushpins of solenoid valves and it by a baffle, as in Fig.4-10.
spool-actuator rods.
• Make sure the reservoir drain is off the
4.49 Radial seals are used for pump and motor floor.

shafts. They are dynamic seals, having fixed and

rotating elements, and are often spring-loaded. Ser
vice conditions determine both the effectiveness and
the life of the radial seal. The most important of these
conditions are shaft speed, temperature and pressure
at the seal, and condition of the shaft surface.
Reservoir Installation
4.50 The key points of reservoir installation are:
4.51 A reservoir should be equipped with air
breathers or a pressurizing system. Be sure that the
breathers have been cleaned and inspected before
starting a new pump installation. Breathers or pres
sure filters for air filtration prevent foreign matter
from entering the system when reservoir fluid levels
change. If the breathers are clogged they can cause
pump cavitation, lack of priming, and eventual fail
ure.

• Keep the reservoir close to the machine. Filter Installation

If this is not possible, use oversize pipes
or tubes for supplying fluid to the 4.52 Inlet or suction filters are often installed
machine. improperly. They should be low enough to prevent the
fluid from vortexing, which is a whirlpool effect, as
• Keep the bottom raised off the floor. shown in Fig. 4-11. Vortex action fills the pump and
This allows circulation of air for cooling system with air. A safe rule of thumb for getting the
and allows cleanup underneath (see Fig. filter deep enough is: install the filter top below the
4-10). lowest expected fluid level by an amount at least four
times the inlet pipe diameter. That is, with a 1 ^/4-in.
• Make sure you have a magnet installed to diameter inlet, the filter top should be at least 5 in.
trap iron-bearing contaminants. below the lowest operating fluid level.

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4.53 Many filters have bypass valves which open
when the filter is clogged. Do not install these filters
backward or you will have a failure on your hands as
soon as the filter gets dirty. Be sure that filters are
easy to get at. Otherwise they will not get cleaned or
changed regularly.
Cooler and Heat Exchanger Installation
4.54 Coolers and heat exchangers are important
components and their installation requires attention to
detail. If you are installing a shell-and-tube, water-to-
hydraulic fluid cooler, be sure that the water is con
nected to the water ports and that the hydraulic fluid
is connected to the hydraulic ports on both ends. Cor
rect installation on one end, and incorrect installation
on the other end, will mean a hydraulic system full of
water. Make sure you observe the markings or tags
attached to the heat exchanger connections.
Actuator Installation
4.55 Actuators are, basically, either motors or
cylinders. Motor installation procedures are almost
identical to those for pump installation. The same
requirements of alignment, rigidity, and technique
apply.
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Installling Pipes and Tubes 63
4.56 A cylinder frequently can get bumped,
scraped, dirty, burned, cut, scratched, bent, broken,
and otherwise abused. Install all the protection you
can, or all that has been allowed by the designer of
the machine. Make sure that they cylinder mounting
base (commonly referred to as the platform) is suffi
ciently strong and properly supported.
4.57 Alignment is of primary importance. Also,
because of their ability to generate tremendous forces,
cylinders must be mounted securely. Do not substitute
softer bolts or pads than called for. Cylinder align
ment must be done according to the instruction book
because each installation is different.
4.58 Long-stroke cylinders should have rod support
on the ends to prevent the rod from sagging.If installed
in hazardous places, cylinder rods should be covered
with a boot or jacket to protect them from dirt, nicks,
weld splatter, and exposure to heat,steam,or water.
4.59 Cylinders should be stored with rods fully
retracted, filled with fluid, and with ports plugged.
This prevents rod damage and the entry of moisture,
condensation, and foreign matter into the cylinder. If
a cylinder has been stored for more than three years,
take it down and repack its seals before installing it.
64 Programmed Exercises

4-9. In general, should tubing be assembled 4-9. NO.

in a straight line?
Ref: 4.25

4-10. Tubes should be alloned with 4-10. CENTERLINES

of the fittings.
Ref: 4.30

4-11. The most outstanding advantage of 4-11. FLEXIBILITY

uslno hvdraullc hose Is Its
Ref: 4.32

4-12. Where hose connections are connect 4-12. QUICK CONNECT/DISCONNECT

ed and disconnected frequently, use
couplings. Ref: 4.34

4-13. Seals are classed as being either static 4-13. DYNAMIC

or

Ref: 4.36

4-14. Cylinders and pistons usually are pro 4-14. FORMED or MOLDED
tected bv seals.
Ref: 4.43

4-15. The return line In the reservoir should 4-15. BAFFLE

be separated from the Inlet by a(n)
Ref: 4.50

4-16. Cylinders should be stored with their 416. RETRACTED

rods
Ref: 4.59

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 Self-Check Quiz 65

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

4-1. Which of the following types of connectors 4-6. Advantages of tube bending Include
should NOT be used In a hydraulic system?
□ a. reducing the number of fittings
□ a. Threaded needed
□ b. Expansion □ b. Increasing resistance to flow
□ c. Flared □ c. Increasing resistance to pressure
□ d. Permanent □ d. eliminating thermal expansion

4-2. Hydraulic pipe size Is designated according to 4-7. For high-pressure applications, which of the
following hose connections Is used?
□ a. schedule numbers
□ b. the tolerance □ a. Self-sealing
□ c. Its outside diameter □ b. Threaded
□ d. Its AWG number □ c. Permanent
□ d. Bolted reusable

4-3. How close to the bottom of the reservoir 4-8. When Installing hydraulic hose, which of the
should the Intake pipe be Installed? following Is NOT recommended?

□ a. 3 In. □ a. Use long lengths

n b. 5 In. □ b. Avoid twisting hose
□ c. 6 In. □ c. Use large-diameter hose
□ d. 8 In. □ d. Use a tight bend radius

4-4. When Installing piping, be sure to 4-9. What kind of seal can be used to compensate
for cylinder wear?
□ a. apply tension to the conductor
□ b. wedge tapered fittings Into place □ a. Piston-cup seal
□ c. weld pipe with component In place □ b. O-rIng
□ d. provide line support for components □ c. Quad ring
□ d. Chevron seal
4-5. To comply with JIG recommendations, the
proper flare angle for tubing should be 4-10. A spring-loaded radial seal Is used to protect

□ a. 37** Included angle □ a. cylinders

□ b. 37® from centerllne □ b. pistons
□ c. 60® Included angle □ c. pump shafts
□ d. 60® from centerllne □ d. gears

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66 Lesson Four

SUMMARY

Careful and proper Installation of pipes, tubing, gases, or particles from entering the system and
hoses, and fittings is necessary for the success also prevent leakage. Packing is used where
ful operation of any hydraulic system.Pipes,tub some motion occurs between rigid members of an
ing, and hoses are called conductors,the fittings assembly. A gasket is a static seal, used where
used to join the conductors are called connec there Is no relative motion tietween Joined parts.
tors. connections are classified as threaded,
flanged, brazed or welded,flared, and compres Other components of the conductor Installation
sion. Include the reservoir,filters, coolers and heat
exchangers, and the actuator. Attention to detail
in selecting conductors for a hydrauiic system, during installation is critical to the proper opera
you should consider such factors as size, materi tion of the system. Location of the components is
al, pressure the conductor must withstand, length always an important factor. Follow the instruc
of run, and how the conductors will be connected. tions in this Lesson and also that given in the
manufacturers' literature.
Seals, packing, and gaskets are commonly used
In conductor Installations. Seals prevent fluids.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

4-1. b. Expansion. Ref;4.01 4-6. a. Reducing the number of fittings

needed. Ref: 4.26
4-2. a. Schedule numbers. Ref: 4.03
4-7. 0. Permanent. Ref: 4.33,4.34
4-3. a. 3 In. Ref: 4.09
4-8. d. Use a tight bend radius. Ref: 4.35
4-4. d. Provide line support for components.
Ref: 4.10 4-9. a. Piston-cup seal. Ref: 4.46

4-5. b. 37® from centerline. Ref: 4.18 4-10. 0. Pump shafts. Ref: 4.49

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 4-6. Parker-Hannlfin

Figure 4-8. Radne Hydraulics
Figure 4-10. Radne Hydraulics

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DEVELOPING HYDRAUUC TJtOUBLESHOtnJNG SMLLS

Selecting
Hydraulic
Fluids

TPC Training Systems

68

Lesson

Selecting Hydraulic Fluids

TOPICS

Hydraulic Fluid Selection Fire Resistance

Lubricating Properties Compatibility
Viscosity and Viscosity index Other General Properties
Resistance to Chemical and Physical Changes Fluid Selection
Low-Temperature Properties Filling the System
Demuisibiiity Filter Installation
Antirust Properties

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• List ten important properties of hydraulic fluids. • Describe how to read a viscosity-temperature
• Explain the difference between hydrodynamic and chart.
boundary lubrication. • List the proper procedures for installing hydraulic
• Explain what a fluid's viscosity index means. fluid.
• Define demuisibiiity and emulsibility.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Viscosity 5.09 a measure of a fluid's ability to Shear stability 5.14 the ability of a fluid to resist
flow permanent changes in its physical properties
Viscosity index (VI) 5.13 a measure of change in under conditions of high mechanical stress
fluid viscosity caused by changes in temperature Demuisibiiity 5.19 a hydraulic oil's ability to sep
arate from water

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With the great growth and widespread use of hydraulics have come correspond
ing growth and refinement in hydraulic fluids. Selecting a fluid tailored to the
requirements of the system is a major key to product and equipment perfor
mance.
This Lesson explains the viscosity and temperature characteristics of hydraulic
fluids to help you select the fluid that meets the operating requirements of the
installation, it also describes the proper method of filling a system with new
fluid, and explains the importance of filters as a means of preventing contami
nants from entering the system through the fluid.
Hydraulic Fluid Selection
5.01 Selection of a hydraulic fluid requires
knowledge of fluid terminology, a thorough review
of the component manufacturer's recommendations,
and knowledge of the conditions under which the
system will be operating. Hydraulic fluid is the
"lifeblood" of any hydraulic system, and should be
selected with as much care as a pump, valve, or fil
ter.
5.02 The primary function of a hydraulic fluid is
to transmit efficiently the force and energy applied
at one point in the system to the point where the
required mechanical action is produced. Equally
important, the fluid also lubricates the hydraulic
components through which it passes.
5.03 A given fluid should have all the lubricating
qualities required for a particular system. In some
cases, the system's requirements may be such that
compromise will be necessary in order to obtain the
best possible combination of properties.
5.04 Use the following key properties as a guide
for determining the acceptability of a given fluid for a
hydraulic system:
• lubricating properties (lubricity)
• viscosity and viscosity index
• resistance to chemical and physical
changes(such as oxidation)
• low-temperature properties
• demulsibility (water separation)
• antirust properties
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69
• fire resistance
• compatibility
• detergent-dispersant properties
• foaming and aeration resistance.
Lubricating Properties
5.05 Because a hydraulic system contains many
moving surfaces, the fluid must have good lubricity.
It must reduce friction and maintain an adequate
film of lubricant to prevent wear between mating
surfaces. Wear protection is the principle reason for
selecting a hydraulic fluid that has good lubricating
characteristics.
5.06 The lubricating properties of a fluid are
largely dependent upon its viscosity, and features
such as antiwear, extreme-pressure (BP),or lubricity
additives. There is no clear distinction between them
because a single additive may serve all three func
tions.
5.07 The two basic types of lubrication are:
hydrodynamic (thick-film) and boundary lubrication
(thin-film). Hydrodynamic lubrication is very depen
dent on viscosity. In boundary lubrication, viscosity
is less of a factor, the physical and chemical proper
ties of the base materials and additives being more
important.
5.08 The component manufacturer usually recom
mends the type of fluid that will provide the opti
mum or most favorable component life. He may
specify that fluids having particular additives (anti-
wear, EP, for example) be used to meet the condi
tions of his warranty and to obtain best performance
from the component. Such recommendations are
70 Lesson Five

Table 5-1. Wear-rate comparison oftwo oils

Wear rates based on laboratory testa.
Based on the wear established in an1800-rpm vane pump at 2000 psi
Non-antiwear oil Antiwear oil

Viscosity ® lOO'F 150 SSU 155 SSU

Viscosity @ operating temperature 60SSU 60 SSU
Test duration 1000 hours 1000 hours
Weight loss of ring and 13 vanes 0.78 grams 0.04 grams

based on the results of various tests. Table 5-1
shows the results of wear tests made to determine
the effectiveness of an oil that has antiwear proper
ties. Wear on the pump was 19^/2 times greater when
an oil without antiwear additives was used and all
other conditions remained the same. It is clear that
the oil containing an antiwear additive significantly
reduced component wear in this application.
Viscosity and Viscosity Index
5.09 Viscosity—the relative thickness of a liquid,
or flow resistance —is probably the single most
important property of a fluid when overall system
performance is considered. Viscosity selection is nor
mally based on the design requirements of the pump.
5.10 A certain amount of internal leakage (slip) in
the pump is unavoidable and, in most cases, also
desirable. A low-viscosity oil ensures quick system
response, but it also allows excessive pump slip
page, which decreases pump efficiency and increas
es fluid temperature. It may also increase the amount
of wear. A high-viscosity fluid, on the other hand,
increases energy consumption and slows response.
In addition, pressure drop through the system
increases. If fluid viscosity is too high, pump cavita-
tion may result.
5.11 In practice, viscosity selection must be a
compromise to ensure optimum fluid performance,
minimum energy consumption, and minimum tem
perature rise. Each type of pump operates satisfacto
rily only within a limited viscosity range. Minimum,
optimum, and maximum viscosities are usually
established by the component manufacturer for each
type of pump produced. Table 5-2 lists viscosity
requirements for a typical series of hydraulic pumps.
5.12 Temperature is the greatest variable affecting
viscosity. As temperature increases, viscosity decreas
es (see Fig. 5-1). The change in fluid viscosity, in

Table 5-2. Viscosity recoiiiinendatioiis for typical pumps

Viscosity recommendations for hydraulic componentry
For self-priming applications, without the aid of supercharge

Viscosity recommendations will vary among manufacturers. These figures are based
on the requirements of pumps manufactured by Racine Hydraulics.

Type of component Maximum Operating Optimum

start-up viscosity viscosity range viscosity range

1200-rpm vane pump 4000 SSU 80-1000 SSU 120-250 SSU

1800-rpm vane pump 4000 SSU 100-1000 SSU 120-250 SSU
Radial-piston pump 750 SSU 60-300 SSU 120-250 SSU
Axial-piston pump 3000 SSU 60-300 SSU 80-200 SSU
Gear pump 4000 SSU 40-1000 SSU 120-250 SSU
Valves and boosters
Any viscosity range suitat)le for the pumpin9 element
is acceptab e for valves and boosters.

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 Selecting Hydraulic Fluids 71

Fig.5-1. Viscosity-temperature comparison for several oils

100.000
s.
50,000
\ Viscosity-temperature comparison
20,000 \
Fluid Ruid type Viscosity Viscosity Viscosity
10,000 atlOOT etaiCF index
- \
5,000 A Oil 201 SSU 46.3 SSU 95
-S B Oil 205 SSU 56.5 SSU 156
3,000 C Oil 310 SSU 54.3 SSU 107
2,000 ■X D Phosphate 230 SSU 43.0 SSU -20
1,500 ester
N ■
1,000 E Oil 102 SSU 39.4 SS U 96
750 X
500 ,N
400
N
N -
300
(0
(0 200 \\
ISO

100

75

60

50 \
\ B
45
C
\
A
40

\ D

E
35
•30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110120 130 140 150 160 170180190 200210220230240250260270280

Temperature, ®F

relation to a change in temperature, is an especially all hydraulic systems, fluid is circulated or forced
important consideration if the system is intended to be through small clearances and is subjected to high
operated over a wide temperature range. mechanical stresses. The ability of a fluid to resist
permanent changes in its physical properties under
5.13 Viscosity index (VI) is a measure of change in such conditions is commonly referred to as shear
fluid viscosity caused by changes in temperature. Flu stability. High-VI fluids are affected by shear. When
ids whose viscosity changes little because of tempera subjected to high rates of shear, they may break
ture variations are classified as high-VI fluids. They down physically, with a permanent loss in viscosity.
are used in applications where temperatures may be
expected to change considerably. In addition, heaters 5.15 In some fluids, such as water-in-oil mixtures
and heat exchangers are often used to help keep an oil (called emulsions), the "in-use" viscosity depends on
at its most efficient viscosity level. the rate of shear—the higher the rate of shear, the
lower the viscosity. For this reason, emulsions may
Resistance to Chemical and Physical Changes provide only marginal lubrication under conditions of
high shear.
5.14 Because no fluid will remain completely sta
ble or resist change indefinitely, it is good practice 5.16 Petroleum oils are a complex mixture of
to select a fluid that changes as little as possible. In hydrocarbons. They have a certain attraction for
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72 Lesson Five

Table 5-3. Comparison of general hydraulic fluid properties

Comparison of general fluid properties,fire-resistant fluids
Petroleum Water-in-oii Water Phosphate Chlorinated Synthetic with
oil emulsion giycol ester hydrocarbon petroleum fractions
Pump life Standard Low to 'Fanr-fio Very good IVOrygood Very good
good good to excellent to excellent to excellent

Effect on roller bearings Fair 1 Excellent Veiygood' ' Very good

excellent ' ;,j' to excellent to excellent

General lubricity Excailent Fair to Faitjito, Good to Good to Good to

good veiygood excellent excellent ' excellent

Viscosity index G()Od;tO ,, Good* 'Good.to Low to Lowto Fair

excellent •ex(%l!ent good -fair

Tftermal stability Good Fair FaSr' Fair to Goodto Good

good iexceUent
The viscosity index will vary depending on the rate of shear.

oxygen. The rate of oxidation (or reaction with a fluid whose pour point is at least 20"? below the
oxygen) depends on the type of hydrocarbon, the lowest temperature to which the fluid will be
operating conditions, and the use of oxidation- exposed. Certain fluids, such as water-in-oil emul
inhibiting additive characteristics in the fluid. Oxi sions, must not be used in freezing temperatures.
dation causes the formation of acids and various
combinations of soluble and insoluble materials. Demuisibillty
The insoluble by-products (referred to as "sludge"
or "varnish") may clog lines, filters, and orifices. 5.19 Under normal working conditions, a small
Soluble by-products may thicken the oil. To slow amount of water is present in a petroleum oil-based
down or prevent the process of oxidation, hydraulic fluid. Condensation, moisture-laden air, or
inhibitors should be included in the fluid. In any a leaky heat exchanger can contaminate the
case,fluid selection is based on the special require hydraulic system with water. Small amounts of
ments of an application. water suspended in the oil can seriously decrease the
oil's lubricating ability. A good hydraulic oil should
Low-Temperature Properties readily demulsify (separate). However, in water-
based fluids, demulsibility is unacceptable. Good
5.17 Normally, in applications where the ambient emulsibility is needed—that is, the water and oil
temperature varies by only a few degrees and heaters must remain mixed at all operating temperatures and
keep the fluid at its most favorable viscosity, low- pressures.
temperature start-up is not a problem. In some appli
cations, however, the hydraulic system may be Antirust Properties
exposed to low temperatures without any preheating
of the fluid. Such applications require a fluid that 5.20 Particles of rust in the hydraulic fluid not
will not be too viscous at low temperatures. The only cause wear, but help increase the rate of oxida
lowest temperature at which a hydraulic system can tion. Use a fluid which contains effective rust
operate is determined by the maximum fluid viscosi inhibitors, especially because small amounts of mois
ty the pump is capable of handling. ture are likely to be in the fluid. Some water-based
fire-resistant fluids provide little or no rust protection,
5.18 The pour point of the oil should not be used while other water-based fluids provide optimum pro
for determining the minimum start-up temperature tection. Many hydraulic system failures have been
of the system. It is, however, good practice to select caused by severe rusting.

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Fire Resistance
5.21 While most industrial hydraulic systems
use petroleum oils as the hydraulic fluid, some
applications require a fire-resistant fluid for safety
reasons. Fire-resistant fluids fall into two general
categories: water-based fluids and synthetic fluids.
See Table 5-3 for a comparison of their typical
properties.
5.22 Selection of fire-resistant fluid must be based
on the fluid's acceptability in a given hydraulic sys
tem. For example, water-based fluids are not recom
mended for some pumps and might void the pumps
manufacturer's warranty. In other pumps, to compen
sate for reduced lubricity when using water-based flu
ids and to provide full-film lubrication, antifriction
bearings are changed to sleeve bearings. In general,
water-based fluids are more suitable for low-tempera
ture, low-pressure systems, preferably without
antifriction bearings.
5.23 The effect of temperature becomes a greater
problem with all types of fire-resistant fluids. High
operating temperatures cause excessive water evapo
ration in the water-based fluids, for which a maxi
mum temperature of 130'F is recommended. In some
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Selecting Hydraulic Fluids 73
cases the more volatile inhibitors will readily evapo
rate.
5.24 Fire-resistant fluid resists catching fire and
burning. If a line ruptures, and the fluid hits a hot
spot, it should not catch on fire. If it does, it must
extinguish itself when the source of heat is removed
to be fire-resistant. The viscosity index of synthetic
fluids is much lower than that of petroleum oils. This
means that the synthetics cannot operate over a wide
temperature range.
5.25 All fire-resistant fluids weigh more per gallon
than petroleum oils do.The greater density of such flu
ids requires modification of certain components. The
capacity of the intake strainer should be four times
greater than the capacity of the pump. Because dirt and
air are more likely to be trapped in the fluids, larger
reservoirs and better filtration should be provided.
5.26 Not all fire-resistant fluids have the same
degree of fire resistance, or are equally effective
lubricants. The component manufacturer can recom
mend the type of fire-resistant fluid that offers satis
factory wear protection to his components. He can
recommend any system changes needed to provide
compatibility between fluid and components.
74 Programmed Exercises

5-1. The basic function of a hydrauiic fiuid is 5-1. FORCE

to transmit and enerov.
Ref: 5.02

5-2. The two basic kinds of hydraulic lubri 5-2. HYDRODYNAMIC(THICK-FILM),

cation are and BOUNDARY (THIN-FILM)

Ref: 5.07

5-3. The property of a hydraulic fiuid that 5-3. VISCOSITY

has the greatest effect on system per
formance or efficiency is its Ref: 5.09

5-4. The term that identifies the change in 5-4. VISCOSITY INDEX (VI)
fluid viscosity when the temperature
changes is called the fluid's Ref: 5.13

5-5. The ability of a fluid to resist perma 5-5. SHEAR STABILITY

nent physical change caused by stress
is Ref: 5.14

5-6. The oxidation of a hydrauiic fiuid can 5-6. INHIBITORS

be reduced or prevented by the use of
oxidation Ref: 5.16

5-7. The lowest temperature at which a 5-7. PUMP

hydrauiic system can operate is deter
mined by the maximum viscosity rating Ref: 5.17
of the

5-8. Name the two categories of fire-resis 5-8. WATER-BASED,SYNTHETIC

tant hydrauiic fluids.
Ref: 5.21, Table 5-3

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 Selecting Hydraulic Fluids

Compatibility tance,toxicity, or heat-transfer resistance deserve spe

cial consideration. Antifoam additives are normally
5.27 The hydraulic fluid must be compatible with included in hydraulic fluids. Excessive foaming is
the materials used in the system. That is, it should not usually the result of poor system design and not the
react chemically with any of the metals, plastics, fault of the fluid itself. An antifoam additive forms an
paints, coatings, or other materials used in the sys unstable foam with large bubbles. Large bubbles
tem's components. You may find after reviewing the break up faster, reducing foam and dissipating
system's requirements that the fluid selected is not trapped air.
compatible with materials in the system as it presently
exists. To provide maximum component life and min Fluid Selection
imum maintenance, it may well be more economical
and desirable to change those materials. Table 5-4 5.30 After matching a fluid and its chemical prop
shows the compatibility of some fluid types with vari erties to the requirements of the system, the next step
ous other materials. is to select the viscosity grade that matches the
requirements of the operating conditions. On a typical
5.28 One point conunonly overlooked is the com fluid data sheet, the fluid viscosity is given at two dif
patibility of one fluid with another. New fluid must be ferent temperatures. Viscosity readings at ICQ and
compatible with any remaining fluid it is replacing. 210T are given for all but water-based fire-resistant
The fluid supplier can normally provide definite con fluids. (Their viscosity readings are always given at
version procedures to avoid difficulty. lOOT and then either 120 or 150°?.) Such informa
tion sheets are commonly provided by suppliers.
Other General Properties
5.31 With the two viscosity-temperature readings
5.29 For some complicated systems, fluid proper given on a data sheet, you can determine the viscosity
ties such as coefficient of expansion, radiation resis of a fluid at other temperatures by plotting your data

Table 5-4. Compatibility offluid bases and component materials

Ruid compatibility
Component materials Fluid bases

Petroleum Water-ln-oll Water Phosphate Chlorinated Synthetic with

oil emulsion glycol ester* hydrocarbon petroleum fractions

Buna-N (acrylonitrile) Excellent Excellent Very good Poor Poor Poor

Neoprene (chloroprene) Good:", Good Good ; Poor Poof Poor

Butyl Poor Poor Good Fair to good Poor Poor

Silicone Fair Fair Fair to poor Fair to good Poor to fair Fair

Ethylene-propylene Poor. :• Poor Good to Excellent Fair Poor

excellent
Viton® (fluorocartx}n) Excellent Excellent Good to Good to Good to
Excellent excellent excellent excellent
Metals Conventional Conventional
Conventional Conventional Conventional
Pipe sealants Conventional, Conventional,
iLoctlte® or ' Loctite® or loctite® or Loctite® or Loctite® or Loctite® or
Teflon^tape Teflon® tape teflor)®tape Teflon® tape Teflon®tape Teflon® tape

'Many types and blends of fluids are sold under tfie designation 'phosptrate ester.* Ctieck with fluid supplier to verify exact compatibility.
"Avoid zinc, cadmium, or galvanized materials.

Viton and Teflon are trademarks of E. I. DuPont OeNemours & Co., Inc. • Loctite is a trademark of the Loctite Corp.

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76 Lesson Five
on an ASTM Viscosity-Temperature form,such as the
one shown in Fig. 5-1.
5.32 Using the information from Table 5-2, and
the viscosity plot for fluid A, you can then determine
over what temperature range a fluid can be used with
out exceeding the manufacturer's recommendations.
For example,the 1800-rpm vane pump in Table 5-2 is
designed to operate over a range of 100 to 1000 SSU.
From the viscosity plot in Fig. 5-1, you can see that
the viscosity of fluid A is 100 SSU at 133°F and 1000
SSU at 52°F. A minimum temperature of 22°F is
acceptable for start-up. The viscosity will approach
but not exceed the maximum of 4000 SSU.
5.33 For comparison, the viscosities of fluids B,C,
D,and E have also been plotted. Note that fluid B can
be used over a much wider temperature range than can
C,D,or E. On the other hand,fluid C is a better choice
than fluid B for high-temperature operations. Note that
the actual "as-measured" viscosity at any specified
temperature may vary somewhat from the readings
plotted on the ASTM chart, at least between the stan
dard rating temperatures of 100 and 210T. They will,
however,be close enough for all practical purposes.
5.34 As an example of a step used in selecting an
oil, consider the following. If oil E were used in a
system having a radial-piston pump, you would want
to know the minimum start-up temperature and the
maximum operating temperature. By referring to
Table 5-2, you would find that the viscosity limita
tions for the radial piston pump are 750 SSU for start
up, and 60 to 300 SSU as an operating range. From
the viscosity/temperature plot (Fig. 5-1) you can find
that oil E reaches its maximum start-up viscosity of
750 SSU at 31''F. The minimum operating viscosity of
60 SSU is reached at 138°F.
5.35 If several kinds of pumps are used in a given
hydraulic circuit, the fluid for that system must be
matched to the pump that has the most limiting require
ments. This applies to both the type of oil required
(antiwear,for example)and the viscosity limitations.
5.36 Suppose, for example, that an 1800-rpm vane
pump and an axial-piston pump are to use the same
reservoir, and that the vane pump manufacturer rec
ommends an antiwear oil. From Table 5-2, you find
that the fluid should have the following characteris
tics: (1) start-up viscosity of 3000 SSU maximum at
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lowest operating temperature (maximum allowed vis
cosity for the piston pump);(2) minimum viscosity of
100 SSU at highest operating temperature to match the
needs of the vane pump; and (3)an antiwear additive.
5.37 In another example, a hydraulically operated
packaging system is located in an unheated ware
house. The system does not have a heat exchanger or
heating units. The lowest temperature is 55°F. During
the summer, the maximum reservoir temperature is
115 to nOT.Both radial piston pumps and 1800-rpm
vane pumps are used in this circuit. Which fluid (A,
B,C, D,or E) would best meet the viscosity require
ments of this system?
5.38 When more than one type of pump is used in a
given system, you must consider the limitations of each
pump. In this case, for instance, the maximum allow
able start-up viscosity is based on limitations of the pis
ton pump. Although the vane pump will prime at 4000
SSU,the piston pump is limited to 750 SSU (see Table
5-2). The piston pump can mn with oil having a viscos
ity of 60 SSU,but the 1800-rpm vane pump cannot go
below 100 SSU without wearing at an above-average
rate. Thus, your viscosity range would be 100 to 750
SSU.The specified temperature range is 55 to 120°F.
5.39 As shown in Fig. 5-1, at 55T neither oils B
nor E exceeds the maximum viscosity of 750 SSU.At
120T,oil E has a viscosity of 73 SSU and oil B has a
viscosity of 148 SSU. It is evident that only oil B
would be satisfactory for this set of conditions.
5.40 In many applications where the viscosity and
temperature extremes are too far apart for any
hydraulic oil, the only solution may be the installation
of heaters and heat exchangers. In situations of poten
tial fire hazards, a system designed for petroleum oil
must use a fire-resistant fluid. No matter which fire-
resistant fluid is selected, the system must be modi
fied to operate effectively.
Filling the System
5.41 Most system builders and equipment suppli
ers provide detailed start-up procedures for their
equipment, but include relatively little information
about actually filling the system.
5.42 Even though the manufacturer carefully
cleans and prepares the equipment before shipment, it
 Selecting Hydraulic Fluids 77

is still important that you take precautionary steps to process. Circulate the flushing oil for
ensure the cleanliness of the system before installing several hours,and drain while it is hot.
the new fluid. During shipping and installation there
are many opportunities for contaminants to enter the 5. Drain and clean filter housings. Replace
system. Dirt, rust, paint chips, wood splinters, shop or clean filter elements. Strainers should
towels,or weld splatter must be removed. be taken apart, washed,and cleaned.

5.43 Any rust-preventive coatings must be cleaned 6. After reassembly, install the recommend
off, because they may not be compatible with the fluid. ed type and grade of fluid. Take special
For example,chemicals used in such coatings may cause care when handling the lubricant to avoid
instability problems with some fire-resistant fluids. introducing contamination and excessive
air into the system. The fluid should be
5.44 Use the following procedure to prepare a new transferred directly from the barrel to the
hydraulic system for the installation of the hydraulic system through a portable transfer pump,
fluid: which pumps the fluid through a filter.

1. Remove reservoir cleanout covers, and 7. Fill the reservoir to the recommended
examine the interior of the reservoir. level. After the equipment has been cycled
Carefully remove all foreign materials several times, recheck the fluid level.
and contaminants. Avoid using rags Check for leakage. Vent the system at
which may recontaminate the system. Be high points and vent the components that
sure that rags used are lint-free. are not operating properly. Check system
temperature.
2. Check for the presence of rust preven
tives. If a rust preventive has been used, 5.45 The same basic steps apply to installing new
follow the builder's instructions for fluid in an old system.The solvent properties of the new
removing the coatings. Rust preventives fluid tend to loosen and remove some of the contami
that are petroleum-based can be nants deposited by the old hydraulic fluid. These loos
removed by flushing the system with oil. ened deposits can quickly clog filters, orifices, and fluid
The lower the viscosity of the flushing passages. Flush the system before installing new fluid.
oil, the more effective the flushing
action. In some instances, a flushing oil Filter Installation
containing special solvents is used to
clean the system. These products can be 5.46 Having selected and installed the fluid, you
obtained from the fluid supplier, but should next be certain that ample protection has been
should only be used if acceptable by the provided. Filters prevent particles from circulating
equipment builder. Do not use chlorinat through the system. They should be installed in several
ed solvents. Their chemical makeup may locations in a circuit, as shown in Fig. 5-2 on the next
attack seals, coatings, or other system page.The filters shown and their functions are:
components.
• Intake strainer, 100 mesh, for protection
3. Be sure that the hydraulic fluid you are of the pump.
using is compatible with the materials of
the seals, hoses, accumulator bags, and • Pressure-line filter, 5 microns, for protec
other system components. Check with tion of the servovalve.
the fluid supplier for detailed fluid instal
lation procedures—some fluids require • Pressure-line filter, 10 microns, for pro
special handling techniques. tection of the feed-valve orifice.

4. Circulate the flushing oil at low pressure, • Return-line filter, 25 microns,for full-sys
actuating all hydraulic components in the tem filtering and general fluid processing.
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78 Lesson Five

Fig.5-2. Location of filters in a typical hydraulic circuit

• Air-breather filter, 25 microns,for preven 2. Run for another 500 hours and repeat
tion of mass contaminant introduction cleaning or replacement of filters.
from the air.
3. Under normal plant conditions, establish
5.47 Because filters are useless and even harmful a procedure for servicing filters at 1000-
to a circuit if they are not serviced, the filter selected hour intervals. In no case should the
should be one that is easily maintained. Poor access, interval exceed 2000 hours.
hidden filters, laborious procedures for replacement,
inadequate replacement supplies, and poor under 4. Under severe conditions, as in mobile
standing of their importance are the greatest filter equipment or foundry installations,
maintenance problems. For filters having replaceable maintain a 500-hour or 90-day sched
elements, provide easy access and keep spare ele ule.
ments in inventory. Be familiar with all of the plant's
established, published procedures for cleanable ele 5.49 After the filter has been changed or its ele
ments. ments cleaned four or five times, the required ser
vice interval can be established from experience.
5.48 Instructions for servicing filters should
include the following: IMPORTANT

1. With new equipment, start the system, Before changing a filter, check to be sure that spare
cycle it for about 50 hours, then shut it elements are on hand.
down. Clean or replace all filter elements.

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 Selecting Hydraulic Fluids 79

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80 Programmed Exercises

5-9. Hydraulic fluids must be with 5-9. COMPATIBLE

materials used in the system.
Ref: 5.27

5-10. Hydraulic fluids normally include 5-10. ANTIFOAM

additives.
Ref: 5.29

5-11. The viscosity ratings of petroleum- 5-11. 100,210

based hydraulic oils are measured at
and °F. Ref: 5.30

5-12. When selecting a hydraulic fluid, you 5-12. START-UP;OPERATING

should know the system's minimum
and maximum Ref: 5.34
temperatures.

5-13. Before installing fluid in a new 5-13. CLEAN

hydraulic system, be sure that the sys
tem is Ref: 5.42

5-14. Before filling a new hydraulic system, 5-14. RUST-PREVENTIVE

be sure you remove all
coatings. Ref: 5.43

5-15. Petroleum-based rust preventives can 5-15. FLUSHING OIL

be removed by flushing the system
with Ref: 5.44

5-16. Before changing a hydraulic fluid filter, 5-16. SPARE

be sure that elements are
available. Ref: 5.47

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 Self-Check Quiz 81

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

5-1, Which of the following properties affects the 5-6. Acids, sludge, and varnish are formed in a
selection of a hydraulic fluid the most? hydraulic fluid by

□ a. Demulslbility □ a. oxidation
□ b. Viscosity □ b. inhibitors
□ c. Shear stability □ c. wear
□ d. Pour point □ d. hydrocarbons

5-7. Synthetic, fire-resistant hydraulic fluids can

5-2. The selection of fluid viscosity is normally not operate over a wide temperature range
based on the requirements of the because of their

□ a. pump □ a. flash point

□ b. control valves □ b. pour point
□ c. actuators □ c. shear resistance
□ d. reservoir □ d. low viscosity index

5-3. What is likely to happen in a system when the 5-8. A system that uses fire-resistant hydraulic
fluid viscosity becomes excessively high? fluids requires

□ a. Pump cavitation □ a. additional relief valves

□ b. Excessive pump slippage □ b. larger reservoirs
□ c. Excessive pressure rise □ c. extra ventilation
□ d. System responds too fast □ d. self-cleaning characteristics

5-4. When the temperature of hydraulic fluid 5-9. Before you install new fluid in a hydraulic
increases, the fluid viscosity system, you must

□ a. increases □ a. flush the system

□ b. decreases □ b. make a temperature check
□ c. remains constant □ c. run a cooling agent through the
□ d. changes with the square of the system
temperature change □ d. clean the system with a chlorinated
solvent
5-5. Which of the following should be used to
maintain the most efficient level of hydraulic 5-10. Under severe conditions, filters in a hydraulic
fluid viscosity? system should be serviced at intervals of

□ a. Glycols □ a. 500 hours

□ b. Baffles □ b. 1000 hours
□ c. Viscosity fixatives □ c. 2000 hours
□ d. Heaters and heat exchangers □ d. 4000 hours

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82 Lesson Five

SUMMARY

The fluid in a hydraulic system has two functions: Make sure the system is clean before you add
to transmit the force and energy applied at one hydraulic fluid. Always fill the reservoir to the rec
point in the system to the point where mechanical ommended level, then recheck the fluid level after
action is produced, and to lubricate the hydraulic the equipment has been cycled several times.
components through which it passes. The accept
ability of a fluid for a system depends on the fol The system should have filters at several loca
lowing properties: lubricity; viscosity and viscosi tions to help prevent contamination by particles
ty index; resistance to chemical and physical and dirt. Remember,a dirty or faulty filter can
changes; low-temperature properties; demulsibiii- damage a circuit, so you should follow a mainte
ty; antirust properties;fire resistance; compatibil nance routine for inspection, repair, and replace
ity; and such general properties as the coefficient ment of hydraulic fluid filters.
of expansion, radiation resistance, toxicity, heat-
transfer resistance, and whether the fluid con
tains antifoam additives.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

5-1. b. Viscosity. Ref:5.09 5-6. a. Oxidation. Ref: 5.16

5-2. a. Pump. Ref:5.09 5-7. d. Low viscosity index. Ref: 5.24

5-3. a. Pump cavitation. Ref:5.10 5-8. b. Larger reservoirs. Ref: 5.25

5-4. b. Decreases. Ref:5.12 5-9. a. Fiush the system. Ref: 5.45

5-5. d. Heaters and heat exchangers. 5-10. a. 500 hours. Ref: 5.48
Ref: 5.13

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Table 5-2.. Racine Hydraulics

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DEMEiOPtNG HVDRAUUC TROUBLESHOOnNG SiOUS

Lesson Six

Planning
System
Maintenance

TPC Training Systems

84

Lesson

Planning System Maintenance

TOPICS

Classifying Maintenance Operating Pressure

inspections Fiuid Quaiity
Organizing the Maintenance Plan Filters
Maintenance Requirements Machine Performance
Reguiar Inspections Repair Planning
Reservoir Fluid Levei Reconditioning Planning
Reservoir Fiuid Temperature System Servicing
Externai Leaks A Typical System Plan
External Condition of System Structures

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• List the major categories of hydraulic system main • List the steps Involved In reconditioning a hydraulic
tenance. component.
• Name and describe the six essential Items In a • Explain how to set up a maintenance plan for a
maintenance file. typical hydraulic system.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Operating hours 6.04 the total accumulated Calendar time 6.04 the number of days that have
operating time since the last maintenance Inspec elapsed since the last maintenance Inspection
tion

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 85

Some people think of maintenance only as something needed when a failure or

breakdown occurs. Actually, when a breakdown does occur, It requires repair
maintenance.

Planned maintenance, on the other hand, reduces the need for repair mainte
nance. Maintenance is really the upkeep that you provide the hydraulic system.
Good, planned,system maintenance reduces downtime and costs.

This Lesson explains how maintenance planning can be set up, and what points
should be Included when establishing a program of planned preventive mainte
nance for hydraulic systems.

Classifying Maintenance 6.05 In many cases, inspection will show the need
for further maintenance. In some cases, repairs are
6.01 Hydraulic system maintenance work can gen needed immediately. These necessary repairs, in turn,
erally be classified according to a few major cate may reveal the need to recondition the equipment.
gories: service, inspection, repair, reconditioning
(overhaul),and testing. Organizing the Maintenance Plan

6.02 Each category can be further subdivided into 6.06 When planning maintenance for hydraulic
specific tasks or work to be performed. Service, for systems, the first step is to identify each system indi
example, may include checking the fluid level, period vidually. The most common method used is to num
ically changing the fluid, changing or cleaning filters, ber the reservoirs and describe their machines, as
and cleanup. Conditions and the work to be done vary shown in Fig.6-1A on the next page.
from one system to another. Even the location of iden
tical systems in a plant can have an effect on service 6.07 You should have a maintenance file for every
requirements. However, servicing should always be unit of hydraulic equipment in the plant (see Fig. 6-
done on a regular basis. IB). The essential items in that file are:

Inspections • A circuit diagram and bill of materials for

each component in the system.
6.03 Make regular inspections whether or not they
seem to be required. How often you inspect, what • A description of the system and its relation
you inspect, and what you inspect for depend on the ship to the operation of the machine (simi
system, its environment (surrounding conditions), lar to the one pictured in Fig. 6-2 on page
and its application. When you first have little experi 87). This should include a description of
ence on the system, you should inspect more fre the machine's normal cycle and the
quently. As experience is gained, you will inspect hydraulic actions that the system performs.
less often. But be sure to inspect completely. That is
the purpose of inspection—to discover trouble before • A special folder for the hydraulic fluid
it happens. and its service record (as shown in Fig. 6-
3 on page 88).This should include all per
6.04 Two basic yardsticks are used to define the tinent information —fluid type, date
time elapsed between inspections: operating hours, changed,and so on.
which are the total accumulated operating time since
the last inspection, and calendar time, which refers to • An inspection plan for the system.
the number of days that have elapsed since the last
inspection, regardless of operating time. The inspec- • A routine servicing plan for the system.
tion plant should specify that the next inspection is to
be made when either the operating time or calendar • A record of major maintenance per
time has elapsed, whichever occursfirst. formed on the system.

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86 Lesson Six

Fig.6-1. Planning hydraulic maintenance

A. Identifying the system

Reservoir Machine Location

1 (Mfrs. name)Drill Aisle 4, Plant 1 \ fr

2 (Mfrs. name)Grinder Aisle 1, Plant! \\
3 (Mfrs. name)Grinder Aisle 1, Plant 1 \\
4 (Mfrs. name)Press Center bay, Plant 4 \ I
5 (Mfrs. name)Scrap baler Center bay. Plant 4 \\

B. A typical maintenance pian fiie 1

record. Unfortunately, such information is sometimes frequently enough and thoroughly enough to reduce
entered only in someone's head. The results can be the failure rate. This can be overdone too, so the plan
expensive. must be practical. The following paragraphs examine
some hydraulic system inspection requirements and
6.09 A maintenance file this complete probably attempt to determine how they might be met.
seems to be expensive and difficult to put together at
first. But a little further consideration shows that it 6.11 Inspections can vary from a simple check or
is not so difficult as it looks. The first two items on "look-see" to a thorough "going over." Here are some
the list, for instance, can usually be found in the of the checkpoints:
manufacturer's handbook for the equipment. The
manufacturer may also have recommendations for • w
reservoir fluid level
the next three items. All five items should still be \
recorded on separate sheets, however. The manufac • reservoir fluid temperature
turer's recommendations are usually followed, but
the planning required to carry them out is always the • visible leaks
responsibility of the company that purchases the
machine. One of the essential itens in the mainte • external condition of system structures
nance file isa special folder for the hydraulic fluid and (support tight, all components securely
its service record (as shown in Fig. 6-3 on page 88).
fastened, no vibration)
This should include all pertinent information—fluid
type,date changed,and so on.
• operating pressure and temperature
Maintenance Requirements
• fluid appearance and quality (contamina
6.10 The need to provide planned system mainte tion levels)
nance can be proved in either of two ways. Regularly
scheduled inspection is the simpler way, looking for • filter condition
possible troubles before they occur. Inspection is a
form of preventive maintenance. Failure is the hard • machine cycle performance (smooth and
er, but more conspicuous way. When something steady, no "skips" or unusual noises).
breaks,it is immediately obvious that maintenance is
required. This is maintenance after the fact. Obvious There are many other elements, of course, but they
ly, it is better to locate possible sources of trouble belong in the "in-depth" inspection category. The
W
during routine inspection, before a breakdown items listed above are the easiest to check. In addi
occurs. The trick is to make equipment inspections tion, these eight points account for over 90% of the
areas that develop major and expensive problems.
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 Planning System Maintenance 87

Fig.6-2. A fluid record form

EQUIPMENT

MACHINE SERIAL NO. LOCATION DATE INSTALLED

Horizontal Drill 4-4-44 Plant 1, Aisle 4 7-17-92

SYSTEM DESCRiPTiON
Horizontal Drilling Machine, Unit 1
1. The drill slide is driven forward and reverse by a hydraulic cylinder. It is cam-operated into a fast or slow feed position by
camming the hydraulic feed panel. The unit may be electrically jogged into position or hand pushed into place for tool
change and setup. An anticreep spool in the 4-way valve prevents forward creep during dwell. If the unit creeps it is out
of level. A pressure gauge at P1 should read 600 psi during dwell.

2. Cycle
A. Fast forward

The hydraulic pump 3 develops flow, which passes from P to A when solenoid A is energized for fast fonvard. This
drives cylinder 8, which forces fluid to exit the rod end through three paths in feed panel 7, which is in position 3.
This return flow out of the feed panel passes through 4-way valve 6 back to reservoir 1.

B. Fast feed

While traveling forward the cam depresses the spool in feed panel 7to position 2, which only allows in-to-out flow to
pass through the two feed valves.

0. Slow feed

While traveling further forward, the cam depresses the spool in feed panel 7 to position 3, which only allows in-to-
out flow to pass through one feed valve.

D. Fast retract

When the machine has ended its cut, it is reversed by deenergizing solenoid A and energizing solenoid B. This
reverses flow to the cylinder and retracts the machine.

E. Dwell

The machine slide will stop and hold position when both solenoids are de-energized.

6.12 In a normal, well-planned shop, hydraulic sys After start-up:

tem inspectors include the machine operator, his supervi
sor or foreman, and a member of the maintenance team. 1. Does hydraulic system sound normal?
As a rule,experienced machine operators routinely check
for reservoir fluid level,system operating pressure,reser 2. Is there any evidence of hydraulic fluid
voir temperature,extemal leaks,and unusual sounds. leakage?

6.13 For maintenance purposes,fiimish the operator 3. What is hydraulic system pressure?
with a checklist of things to watch for, as shown below.
During operation:
Before start-up:
1. Is hydraulic fluid visible in reservoir
sight gauge?
1. Is hydraulic reservoir fluid visible in
sight gauge? 2. Does system sound normal?

2. Is temperature of hydraulic fluid below 3. Does temperature of reservoir exceed

T or above "F? 'F?

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88 Lesson Six

Fig.6-3. Common plan for fluid inspection procedure

FLUID RECORD

MACHINE SERIAL NO. LOCATION DATE INSTALLED

Horizontal Drill 4-4-44 Plant 1, Aisle 4 7-17-92

TYPE OF FLUID 1 ALTERNATE FLUID WHERE STORED

PRECAUTIONS Po open container,filter thru filter cartridge fir&t.

ALLOWABLE CONTAMINANT LEVEL

ALLOWABLE ACIDITY LEVEL

SYSTEM CAPACITY 36 GALLONS

RESERVOIR CAPACITY GALLONS

FILL CONDITIONS Cylinder retracted

FLUIID SERVICING CHART(Please print)

Lab Test Change Service Gallons

9Pec - OK GO 9 Dec - ±1 JK
12 Mar- ±2 JK
May - dir^GO 6 May GMay-

4. Is there any evidence of hydraulic fluid Regular inspections

leakage?
6.15 The maintenance department should assign
5, Is pressure of hydraulic system normal someone to make regular inspections for the eight
( psi)? items listed in paragraph 6.11. Each item requires
separate attention because some items take longer
6.14 The operator should report any variations or than others. Figure 6-4 is a typical inspection plan.
problems to the foreman, and the foreman in turn Detailed steps are outlined in the following para
should notify the maintenance department about them. graphs.

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 Planning System Maintenance 89

Fig.6-4. Common plan for fluid inspection procedure

FLUID INSPECTION PLAN

MACHINE SERIAL NO. LOCATION DATE INSTALLED

Drill Slide 4-4-44 Plant 1, Aisle 4 7-17-92

A. The operator will Inspect

a. Fluid level prior to shift operation.
b. For external leaks while operating.
c. For unusual noise or action during operation.
He will report discrepancies to the Foreman who in tum will notify maintenance
when assistance is required.

B. Maintenance Inspections will be performed on the following items. A record of

these inspections will be made on the reverse of this page.

1/10 Hour Item Weekly Monthly 6 Months 1 Year

1 1. Reservoir fluid level X X X X

5 2. Ruid quality X X
7 3. Rlters X X
1 4. Coupling insert X X
3 5. Extemal leaks X X X
2 6. Operating Pressure X X X
6 7. Feed rate X X X
2 6. Reservoir inside X
1 9. Reservoir fluid temperature X X X

Inspection time per year 22.4 houre

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90 Programmed Exercises

6-1. Hydraulic systems should always be 6-1. REGULAR or SYSTEMATiC

serviced on a(n) basis.
Ref: 6.02

6-2. The frequency of inspections wiil 6-2. SYSTEM or EQUIPMENT

depend on the itself.
Ref: 6.03

6-3. The time iapse between hydrauiic sys 6-3. OPERATING; CALENDAR
tem inspections is determined accord-
inq to time and Ref; 6.04
time.

6-4. The first step in organizing mainte 6-4. RESERVOIR

nance pianning for hydrauiic systems
is to assign a number to each system's Ref: 6.06

6-5. A maintenance file should be main 6-5. EACH or EVERY

tained for unit of hvdrauiic
equipment in the piant. Ref: 6.07

6-6. Whenever equipment is added to or 6-6. UPDATED or CHANGED

removed from service, the mainte
nance records shouid be Ref: 6,08
accordingiy.

6-7. Reguiar inspection of the hydrauiic 6-7. PREVENTIVE

system is a simple form of
maintenance. Ref: 6.10

6-8. inspection checkpoints for hydrauiic 6-8. LEVEL;TEMPERATURE

system maintenance inciude checking
the reservoir fluid and Ref: 6.11

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Reservoir Fluid Level
6.16 The reservoir fluid level should be checked
after 100 hours of operation or once a week,
whichever occurs first. In some systems a leak is
known to exist and fluid level drops faster. To avoid
losing production, the leak may not be fixed until
the next scheduled shutdown,such as on a weekend.
In these cases, fluid level should be checked more
often. The foreman and operators should be advised,
and the maintenance check should be more thorough
than usual. Check when the reservoir is fullest. That
is, have the equipment set so that the actuator is
retracted, which leaves the least amount of fluid in
the system. A record should be made of this inspec
tion and service.
Reservoir Fluid Temperature
6.17 The temperature of the fluid in the reservoir
should be checked at least twice a year during the
extreme seasons. In winter, the unit should be
checked for cold start-up temperature. In summer,
the unit should be checked for maximum tempera
ture after two, four, six, and eight hours of opera
tion. These temperature measurements should be
taken with a reliable thermometer. The thermome
ter itself should be checked for accuracy once a
month.
External Leaks
6.18 Check for external leaks whenever fluid
must be added to the reservoir for an unknown rea
son. If leaks are found,schedule the repair on a basis
of common sense and priority.
External Condition of System Structures
6.19 The mounting rigidity of electric motors,
pumps, cylinders, fluid motors, and free-standing
reservoirs should be checked every 500 hours or
three months, whichever comes first. A system reser
voir can vibrate and "walk" (change its position
while operating). This in turn can put a strain on
connections. The rigidity of pipe or tube support
should be checked. Check the condition of flexible
hoses for rubbing or chafing. Valves or components
should be examined, particularly those mounted in
lines without added support,and supports installed if
excessive vibration is found.
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Planning System Maintenance 91
Operating Pressure
6.20 Check operating pressures after every ICQ
hours of operation. Changes in operating pressure
can cause problems if an operator or someone else
makes an unauthorized adjustment. If pressure set
tings in one part of the system are changed to match
production requirements, they should be recorded in
the maintenance file. Check pressure gauges for
accuracy once every six months against a laboratory
gauge,or use a deadweight tester.
Fluid Quality
6.21 A sample of fluid should be taken at least
twice a year, or every 1000 hours, and sent out for
laboratory analysis. The laboratory report should
include contamination levels and content, as well as
the acidity of the fluid. Check these factors against
the operating specifications and report those mea
surements that are not within specifications.
Filters
6.22 Replace or clean filter elements every 500
hours. This interval may vary, because some sys
tems require more frequent attention due to operat
ing conditions. System filters which are very clean
after 500 hours of operation can possibly be put on
a 1000-hour inspection schedule. The 1000-hour
schedule should not be exceeded, however,
because the condition of the filter can often reveal
what is happening inside the system and its com
ponents. The contaminants found should be
inspected and identified. Knowing what they are
permits taking corrective measures to prevent
future breakdowns.
Machine Performance
6.23 The equipment cycle and its hydraulic func
tions should be checked at least every 2000 hours or
yearly. It is also advisable to observe each operator's
individual procedures and habits. For example,
whether a pump is shut down and restarted at lunch
can be very significant to pump life.
Repair Planning
6.24 System and component repairs made to put
equipment back in operation are basically of two
92 Lesson Six

kinds: repairing a system element, and replacing down for routine scheduled repairs, or when an ele
system element. ment has been replaced and the old element is recon
ditioned.
6.25 Replacing an element requires that the com
ponent or materials are available in your inventory 6.31 Reconditioning can also be referred to as
of spares. If an exact replacement is not in stock, an repair or overhaul. Many companies find it best to
equivalent component which will do the job must be completely recondition a system element when it
available. A standard component may sometimes be has run for two years or more, or breaks down and
converted to the exact unit required. Sometimes requires repair. Elements that have not failed
parts can be salvaged from the unit being replaced to should be reconditioned in accordance with the
make the conversion. Whenever a replacement is manufacturer's recommendations. Reconditioning
made, it should be entered in the maintenance log. means an overhaul to restore the element to new
Repeated failure of the same component indicates condition.
system or machine problems.
6.32 You have three choices when you are con
6.26 Example of repairs made to existing system sidering reconditioning a component. You can do it
elements to put them back into service include: yourself, you can send it out to a local shop, or you
changing solenoids or coils, replacing pump or can send it back to the manufacturer. The retum-to-
motor shaft seals, installing new bearings, and manufacturer approach is best for complicated
putting in new sections of hose or pipe. equipment, particularly when it requires consider
able performance testing. Usually, the manufacturer
6.27 Even after being repaired, the machine ele returns a reconditioned component with a new part
ment often develops further problems. By the time a warranty.
pump shaft seal wears out, other elements may also
be approaching their wearout points. Remember, a 6.33 When you recondition an element yourself,
new shaft seal does not make a new or reconditioned use the following guidelines:
pump. When you make repairs, you should also have
access to an inventory of spare parts and materials to 1. Completely disassemble the component.
repair additional items.
2. Wash and clean all usable parts.
6.28 Most repairs can be scheduled with proper
planning. This allows machinery to stay in produc 3. Inspect all parts which can be salvaged.
tion even though a problem exists. When leakage is
the problem, prepare for reservoir servicing. 4. Determine whether or not certain parts
Extreme care must be taken in leakage situations to should be salvaged. To make this judg
avoid pollution of other fluids, and to ensure that ment requires experience and skill. If
fluids do not create safety hazards. excessively worn parts are reinstalled,
they may fail prematurely. Pump bear
6.29 Never sacrifice safety for production. Cor ings fall into this category. The best bet
rect potentially dangerous conditions immediately. is to change them. Some parts should be
Delayed repairs often cause more serious damage. replaced regardless of their condition.
These include all gaskets and seals,
Reconditioning Planning backup rings, and small, low-cost, high-
wear parts.
6.30 Systems require periodic reconditioning.
Generally speaking, you do not really recondition 5. Obtain new parts where required.
the system as such—you recondition its elements.
An important part of reconditioning is cleanup. The 6. Lubricate and reassemble all parts.
reconditioning of systems or their elements can be
referred to as preventive maintenance. Recondition 7. Adjust the unit and give it a performance
ing is usually accomplished when the system is shut check.

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 Planning System Maintenance 93

Fig.6-5. Circuit diagram for a drill-slide unit cate when it requires servicing. By the time this does
happen, the plant may lose production and have an
expensive repair job besides. Regular servicing is a
must. Routine service elements are: fluid, filters, and
cleanup.

123 1 6.36 Check and service hydraulic fluid as follows:

Positton .• ^
• once a week for fluid level

• once every six months or 1000 hours for

content(lab analysis)

• change every two years or 4000 hours.

Filters should be opened and cleaned or cartridges

replaced at least once every six months or 500 to
1000 hours, whichever comes first. System cleanup
I '--[fci. [V®-''T! should be as follows:

®
• external—continuously
1. Reservoir
2. Filter
© • air breathers—every month
3. Pump
4. Motor
Th—®
w 5. Coupling • fluid and reservoir interior—every year
6. 4-way valve or 2000 hours
7. Feed panel
8. Cylinder
• pipes and system—flush before every
fluid replacement or change.

A Typical System Plan

8. If you do not return it to service immedi
ately, package the component for protec
tion in storage.
6.34 Some elements require very little recondition
ing. For example, hose assemblies can often be
stripped and the fittings saved. If a replacement hose
section has already been installed, it probably is not
necessary to make a new hose assembly. Some parts
should be reworked. Seats in poppet valves, for
instance, can be relapped to form better seals. What
ever the case, try to recondition the element to "like-
new" condition. Do not be satisfied with "patched up"
equipment,because it will soon fail again.
System Servicing
6.35 Servicing should be scheduled and carried out
whether the system needs it or not. One of the easiest
mistakes to make is to assume that a system will indi
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6.37 The procedure of setting up a maintenance
plan for each system is a relatively easy one. Begin
with a folder, as in Fig. 6-1, being sure that the folder
itself is marked to identify the hydraulic system and
its location. The same number should be plainly
marked on the reservoir for each system.
6.38 The folder should include a circuit diagram of
the system, as in Fig.6-5,and a description of the unit
and system operation, as in Fig. 6-2. Separate sheets
or folders should be included in the master file for the
fluid record, inspection plan, and other charts or data
sheets that apply to each hydraulic system concerned.
You will find this plan easy to organize and keep up.
A complete system record, properly kept up,is a very
effective aid to efficient system maintenance.
6.39 The fluid record sheet should include the
facts about the fluid required for this particular sys-
94 Lesson Six

Fig.6-6. A representative fluid inspection chart

FLUID INSPECTION CHART

MACHINE SERIAL NO. LOCATION DATE INSTALLED

Horizontal Drill Plant 1, Aisle 4 7-17-96

DATE ITEM INITIALS STATUS DATE ITEM INITIALS STATUS

9/1/ 1 JK 9/22/ 5 JK Cylinder

OK
9/3/ 1 JK 9/22/ 6 JK 600pel
OK
9/15/ 1 SJ 9/22/ 7 SJ OK
OK
9/22/ 1 JK 9/22/ 3 JK Ruety
LOW
9/22/ 2 JK'G3 DIRTY
9/22/ 3 JK DIRTY
9/g2/ 4^ JK OK

tern. See Fig, 6-3 for an example. "Precautions"
should also include such things as water content for
fire-resistant fluid. As you can see from the record
sheet, the fluid was changed because of excess conta
minants. The format of the sheet is unimportant, as
long as it is clear and easy to understand.
6.40 The inspection plan should include a descrip
tion of the inspections that are to be made by operat
ing personnel. Another element of the plan should be
a chart (see Fig. 6-6) on which to record the mainte
nance inspections.
6.41 The service plan should include all items to
be checked, whether they need it or not. These items
are in addition to those found during inspection.
Record any repair or major maintenance, as shown in
Fig. 6-7. Note that corrective action has been taken
for all problems except item #4.That item is still open
and can be worked on at any time. As for item #1,
repeated failures are easy to analyze, but they call for

Fig.6-7. A discrepancy report form

DISCREPANCY REPORT

MACHINE SERIAL NO. LOCATION DATE INSTALLED

Horizontal Drill 4-4-44 Plant 1, Aisle 4 7-17-92

DISCREPANCY INITIAL DATE CORRECTIVE ACTION INITIAL DATE

1. Pump noiey JK 9/1/ Inepected noley pump.Should continue JS 9/3/
to work: operator will watch cloeely.
2. Cylinder leak SG 12/2/ Replaced rod packing and filled tank. JS 12/4/
3. Pump eelzed JK 12/4/ Replaced pump. JS 12/4/
4. 4-way leake JK 12/9/
5. Pump eelzed JK 12/9/ Replaced pump. JS 12/9/
6. Pump eelzed JK 12/12/ Replaced pump,realigned motor. SJ 12/12/
changed fluid, cleared filter.

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 Planning System Maintenance 95

Fig.6-8. A form for additional procedures

TEST DATA

MACHINE SERIAL NO. LOCATION DATE INSTALLED

Horlzonteil Drill 4-4-44 Plant 1, Aisle 4 7-17-92

Pressure checks
A gauge should be connected between the pump 3 and the 4-way valve 6 to check system pressure. This should be
done when the 4-way Is deenergized and centered. The pressure should t>e 600 psi PLUS 50 psi MINUS 0 psi.

A gauge should be connected between the rod end cylinder port and the feed panel IN port. The pressure should be
at least 100 psi while the unit Is in feed and cutting material. It should not drop below 100 psi during the cut.

Flow checks
When cylinder Is all the way fonvard, it should retract all the way back in 2.2 seconds.

When the system Is In dwell and the pump Is operating at 600 psi, the pump drain line should flow at a rate not more
than 3gpm or less than 2 gpm.

Temperature checks
The reservoir temperature should never exceed MS'F or go below 55®F for startup or operation. The thermometer
on the reservoir can be used for this check. The reservoir thermometer should be calibrated every two years.

extra effort to cure. When an item is corrected, an instructions, which should also be listed on a separate
"OK" is put on the discrepancy number. sheet.

6.42 Some equipment may have special test

instructions. See Fig. 6-8 for an example of such

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96 Programmed Exercises

6-9. When the fluid level of a hydraulic 6-9. RETRACTED

reservoir is inspected, the actuator
should be Ref: 6.16

6-10. When the reservoir fluid level drops for 6-10. EXTERNAL
an unknown reason, always check for
leaks in the system. Ref: 6.18

6-11. The mounting rigidity of hydraulic sys 6-11. 500;3

tem elements should be checked every
hours of operation or every Ref: 6.19
months.

6-12. The operating pressures in a hydraulic 6-12. 100

system should be checked at least
once every hours of opera Ref: 6.20
tion.

6-13. A sample of hydraulic fluid should be 6-13. TWICE

sent for laboratory analysis at least
a vear. Ref: 6.21

6-14. With proper planning, most hydraulic 6-14. SCHEDULE

system repairs can be made according
to afnl Ref: 6.28

6-15. When working on hydraulic systems, 6-15. SAFETY

personal should NEVER be
sacrificed for production. Ref: 6.29

6-16. Should regular hydraulic servicing be 6-16. YES

scheduled and performed even if the
system does not appear to need it? Ref: 6.35

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 Self-Check Quiz

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

6-1. In devising a plan for hydraulic system main- 6-6. At what operating intervals should you check
tenance, what must you always provide for? hydraulic system cycle performance?

□ a. Regular inspections □ a. 1000 hours

□ b. Tool reconditioning □ b. 2000 hours
□ c. Instruction sessions □ c. 4000 hours
□ d. Gauge inspection □ d. 8000 hours

6-2. When organizing a hydraulic maintenance 6-7. If the same system element has failed several
plan, which of the following should be the first times, what is the probable cause?
step?
□ a. A problem elsewhere in the system
□ a. Set up repair parts inventory □ b. The operating personnel
□ b. Identify each system individually □ c. An unauthorized pressure adjustment
□ c. Be sure of proper fluid □ d. A defective part
□ d. Get manufacturers' recommenda
tions 6-8. Regardless of their condition, which of the fol
lowing parts should always be replaced when
6-3. Which of the following is one of the eight a system element is reconditioned?
major check points in a hydraulic system
inspection plan? □ a. Seals
□ b. Couplings
□ a. Valve quality □ c Valve spools
□ b. Accurate schematics □ d. Terminal fittings
□ c. Fluid quality
□ d. Conductor strength 6-9. How often should hydraulic fluid filters be
cleaned or the elements replaced?
6-4. If system pressure settings are changed for
production purposes, what should you do? □ a. 50 to 100 hours
□ b. 200 to 300 hours
□ a. Return settings to original position □ c. 500 to 1000 hours
□ b. Change pumps □ d. 1000 to 2000 hours
□ c. Change hydraulic fluid viscosity
□ d. Record the changes in the mainte 6-10. The system identification number listed in the
nance file maintenance file folder should also be
marked on which of the system's compo
6-5. Which of the following items should be includ nents?
ed in a laboratory report on fluid quality?
□ a. Reservoir
□ a. Contaminants □ b. Control valve
□ b. Pressure □ c. Pump
□ c. Temperature □ d. Motor
□ d. Volume

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98 Lesson Six

SUMMARY
w

Planning and organization are necessary to pre fluid and its service record, and an inspection
vent increased maintenance costs. Each system pian, as well as a routine service plan, and a
requires its own maintenance plan and schedule. record of major maintenance performed on the
The main categories of maintenance include ser equipment.
vice, inspection, repair, reconditioning, and test
ing. Each inspection should include the eight points
covered in this Lesson. Service should be per
For each hydraulic system, a maintenance file formed on the system according to schedule,
should be icept, including such items as a circuit regardless of whether the need for service is
diagram and bill of materials for each system indicated by the inspection or not. Sticking to
component. The file should also contain a the service schedule can help avoid equipment
description of the system,a file for the hydraulic problems and downtime later.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

6-1. a. Regular inspections. Ref: 6.02, 6.03 6-6. b. 2000 hours. Ret: 6.23

6-2. b. Identify each system individually. 6-7.

Ref: 6.06 Ref: 6.25

6-3. c. Fluid quality. Ref: 6.11 6-8.

6-4. d. Record the changes in the mainte 6-9. 0. 500 to 1000 hours. Ref: 6.36
nance file. Ref: 6.20
6-10.
6-5. a. Contaminants. Ref:6.21

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DEVELOPING HYDRAUUC mOUBlESHOOTING SiOLLS

Lesson Seven

Troubleshooting
Systems

TPC Training Systems

100

Lesson

Troubleshooting Systems

TOPICS

What Is Troubleshooting? Tools and Gauges

Diagnosis and Symptoms Wrenches
Evaiuating Recent Maintenance History Gauges
Evaluating Symptoms Typical Troubleshooting Application
Determining the Cause Troubleshooting Charts
Providing the Soiution

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Describe the troubleshooting process. Explain how to determine the cause of and provide
• Explain how to evaluate recent maintenance histo a solution to a problem.
ry. Explain how a portable tester works.
• List typical symptoms of common hydraulic system Describe how to keep and use troubleshooting
problems. charts.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Troubleshooting 7.01 a methodical system of steps taken to find the cause of failure or mal
cause and effect thinking and logical inspection function of a system or its components

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 101

In all maintenance situations involving failures, you will find the troubleshooting
aspect to be the most challenging and revealing one. Determining what is
wrong is the first step. Determining why it is wrong is the next. Correcting the
cause is most important, of course, but sometimes correcting the apparent
cause is not enough, because failure may occur again and continue to cause
problems if you do not get to the basic difficulty.

This Lesson explains the troubleshooting procedures used in maintaining

hydraulic systems, it includes examples of practical troubleshooting methods.
Troubleshooting charts listing common problems of hydraulic systems, their
usual causes, and corrective measures are also Included.

What is Troubleshooting? 7.05 Some questions you should ask yourself

before going any further include:
7.01 Troubleshooting is a term applied to a
methodical system of cause-and-effect thinking. A • Is the complaint legitimate?
series of logical steps-is_taken to find the cause of
failure or malfunction of a system or its components. • Has the system ever operated properly?
Put more simply, troubleshooting is finding out what
went wrong in a logical, methodical manner. Steps are • If it has, when was the last time it did
applied in order of priority, after first considering the so?
most logical thing to check. The probability of one
problem being more likely than another problem is • Has anyone serviced or made adjustments
based on the performance history of the particular to the system recently? If so, what was
hydraulic system (or of any hydraulic system,for that done?
matter).
• Has this malfunction ever occurred
Diagnosis and Symptoms before? If so, what was done to correct
it?
7.02 As a doctor checks your medical history
when you need his services, one of the first things to Evaluating Symptoms
do when the hydraulic system breaks down is to study
the most recent history of its operation and perfor 7.06 The complaint always comes in the form of
mance. The second step is to evaluate the symptoms at least one symptom, and often many symptoms. If
to determine the cause of the present malfunction. there are several symptoms, the best thing to do is
write them down just as they are given. There is a
7.03 Next you must determine what the causes of tendency to consider symptoms to be the basic prob
the problem might be and decide on a logical order of lem. In fact, the person making the report usually
checking them out. This can involve direct correction refers to the symptoms as '"the problem." They are
of the problem, or it can mean a series of tests, which not the same, however. Examples of typical symp
sooner or later provide the solution. toms are:

Evaluating Recent Maintenance History • The pump will not develop pressure.

7.04 Depending on circumstances, there may be • The pump will not develop flow.
several ways to evaluate recent maintenance history.
You should talk with the person reporting the prob • The pump is noisy.
lem. In some cases, you will personally have to see or
hear the system operate. In these instances, evaluating • Pressure is fluctuating.
recent maintenance history consists of witnessing
what is actually happening. • The system seems slow or sluggish.
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102 Lesson Seven

• The cylinder will not move. partial solution. The next thing to do is to find out why
the fluid level is low and correct that. Otherwise, the
• The machine chatters. same condition may occur again. In some cases this
kind of problem may mean extensive repair mainte
• The valve will not shift. nance, requiring scheduling. You may have to fill the
reservoir over and over while waiting to get at the
• The valve squeals. source of the trouble. Judgment must be applied in
such cases.
• The system is hot.
Tools and Gauges
Determining the Cause
7.11 Before reviewing case histories of typical
7.07 With all symptoms identified, the next step is hydraulic troubleshooting applications, consider the
to determine the cause. Sometimes the symptoms or tools and gauges used. Most of the tools are wrenches
clues all point to one logical cause. In other cases the required to open connections in hydraulic lines, and
cause can be any of several possibilities. to remove or install components. You will also use
dial indicators or straight edges for determining cor
7.08 A hard and fast rule that can save you a lot of rect alignment of motor shafts with pump shafts.
time and work is: check the probable causes that are Gauges are used to determine flow volume, pressure,
easiest to check first.(These will be items that require and temperature of the hydraulic fluid in the system.
only a visual inspection and evaluation.) For example,
if the pump will not develop pressure, the points to Wrenches
check first are:
7.12 Wrench selection depends largely on the kind
• Is there enough fluid in the reservoir? of conductor or connector in the system. Tubing, for
example, is usually connected with fittings that have
• Is the fluid intake strainer plugged? hex nuts. Logically, an open-end wrench of the proper
size is your best bet. Other names for open-end
• Is the pump running in the right direc wrenches, of either the fixed or rigid type, are box-
tion? end or combination wrenches(see Fig. 7-1).

• Does it develop any pressure? Does the 7.13 Another type of wrench you may use is the
gauge needle move at all? socket wrench.It is important to use the correct size for
two reasons. First, an oversize wrench will round the
• Is the gauge good? comers of the hex nuts, causing future difficulty in
reassembling that section of the line. Second, an over
• Can you hear fluid leaking or fluid size wrench will probably slip and cause a set of
bypassing any valves or components? skinned or bruised knuckles.

7.09 Note that these steps are progressively more
difficult and require more extensive involvement as
you proceed. Yet each step is quite simple. If you do
not find the cause with the first step,continue on until
you do.
Providing the Solution
7.10 To continue with the pump example, assume
that the reservoir fluid level is too low,and the pump is
not getting enough fluid. Obviously, that can be cor
rected by filling the reservoir. Actually, this is only a
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7.14 Another choice is to use an adjustable-jaw
wrench, such as a standard adjustable-end wrench or
pipe wrench. For tubing fittings, use a smooth-jawed
adjustable-end wrench,which will not mar the fitting. A
pipe wrench, with its notched or serrated jaw, is the
most practical tool to use on a section of hydraulic pipe,
but is not to be used to tighten nuts or fittings. When
using any type of adjustable wrench,exercise caution to
be sure that the jaws are properly closed to a snug fit, in
such a way that pressure will be brought against the
fixed jaw. This prevents the wrench from slipping and
eliminates possible damage to fittings or hands.
 Troubleshooting Systems 103

Fig.7-1. lypicai wrenches

Box end

Open end

Combination

Socket wrench Adjustable-jaw wrench

Fixed-end wrenches

3)
Pipe tongs or chain pipe wrench
Strap wrench

Strap wrench

7.15 Figure 7-1 shows additional wrenches, which
your shop may have. A strap wrench is used on plated
or polished surfaces because the strap, which is made
of webbing, will not scratch the surface. To use the
wrench, open the strap, fit it around the pipe or tub
ing, and refasten it. As you turn the handle, pressure
tightens the strap and it takes a firm hold. Chain pipe
wrenches are similar in operation to strap wrenches.
The main difference is that a section of chain is used
instead of a strap so it is not suitable for plated pipe.
Both are used on larger diameters of piping.
Gauges
7.16 Gauges provide you with needed information
about fluid temperature, fluid pressure, and the vol
ume of fluid flow. When fluid flow is interrupted or
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stopped, a hydraulic system functions improperly, if
at all. Because the fluid is important to the proper
operation of a system, one of the best ways to deter
mine what is wrong with a malfunctioning system is
to check the fluid flow. When something is wrong
with a system, hydraulic fluid behavior may change
in one of three ways; pressure, volume of flow, or
temperature. In practice, you will most often find
some combination of the three. Such changes are
caused for any number of reasons, many of which are
shown in the troubleshooting chart included at the end
of this Lesson.
7.17 All hydraulic systems are designed to operate
at a specified pressure level. When that pressure
changes, the system will not operate as it was
designed to. Pressure gauges are connected to some
systems although they are not expected to provide
Fig. 7-2. Portable hydraulic circuit tester
continuous readings. For these applications, a valve is
used to shut off fluid flow to the gauge except when it
is desired to take a reading. Gauges are also equipped
with devices called "snubbers," which keep the nee
dle from fluttering and absorb surges of pressure to
protect the gauges.

7.18 To facilitate testing, it is common to include

test ports or connections in the valves at various
points in a line. When testing readings are needed, it
is a simple matter to remove the plug from the test
K il
port and connect the gauge.

7.19 Flowmelers are normally used only for test

ing purposes. It is unusual to find one as a permanent
part of a system. They are regularly included in lest
stands or test benches (separate testing units for
checking hydraulic components), which are used by
manufacturers of hydraulic equipment, and by plants
that have a considerable number of hydraulic compo
nents. Temperature readings are taken with any of
several kinds of industrial thermometers.
7.20 Many plants have a portable testing device
much like the one shown in Fig. 7-2. This unit has all
three types of gauges. The unit is constructed to allow
fluid to flow through it from the system and back to
the system's reservoir. A manually controlled loading
valve permits setting the unit to the pressure level of
the system being tested. The unit is connected to the
system at any of several points, such as the discharge
side of the pump, the intake side of the relief valve, or
at the control valves and actuators. Readings taken at
these positions usually are all that are required to get
an accurate picture of how the system is operating,
and the probable cause of any difficulty.

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 Programmed Exercises 105

7-1. The first thing to do when a hydraulic 7-1. RECENT HISTORY

system breaks down is to study the sys
tem's Ref: 7.02

7-2. When all symptoms have been identi 7-2. CAUSE

fied, the next step is to determine the
Ref: 7.07

7-3. The most useful wrenches to have in 7-3. OPEN-END

your troubleshootinq kit are
wrenches of the proper size. Ref: 7.12

7-4. If an oversize wrench is used on hex 7-4. ROUNDED

nuts, the corners of the nut are likely to
become Ref: 7.13

7-5. When an adjustable wrench is used, 7-5. FIXED

the pressure should bear against the
law. Ref: 7.14

7-6. Name the three ways in which 7-6. PRESSURE,TEMPERATURE,

hydraulic fluid may be affected when VOLUME OF FLOW
something is wrong with the system.
Ref: 7.16

7-7. Gauge "snubbers" are devices used to 7-7. PRESSURE

absorb suroes.
Ref: 7.17

7-8. Flowmeters are most often used in 7-8. TESTING

hydraulic systems for pur
poses. Ref: 7.19

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106 Lesson Seven
Typical Troubleshooting Application
7.21 Although the following example of a
hydraulic system problem concerns a machine tool,
the basic troubleshooting procedure is the same for
any kind of hydraulic equipment. The type and loca
tion of components in the system may vary, but the
same principle of cause-and-effect applies, regardless
of the application. Whatever the problem, there has to
be a reason for it and a solution. The variety of
hydraulic equipment and the many possible causes of
system malfunction are what help make troubleshoot
ing such a challenging and interesting job.
7.22 To give you an example of what you can
expect, imagine that one Tuesday morning the main
tenance department is notified by a department fore
man that a horizontal drilling machine at a certain
location has broken down. The foreman has had to
take it out of production and, understandably, request
prompt assistance. What do you do? The first step is
to take out the maintenance folder for that machine
and learn something about its operation.
7.23 The next step is to go to the location for a
look at the machine itself and to talk with the fore
man. The foreman may either answer your questions
himself or direct you to the machine operator. To
repair the unit, you need to know exactly what went
wrong. It helps if you learn when the problem
occurred and what the symptoms of the problem
were. In talking to the foreman, you learn that the
slide action has been sluggish for a couple of days
and that the cycle time seemed longer than usual.
That morning,the slide stopped altogether. The opera
tor tells you that he heard an unusual noise coming
from the hydraulic power unit, mounted next to the
machine,just before the slide stopped. This is reason
enough to suspect that the hydraulic system has
caused the trouble.
7.24 You definitely know at this point only that
the slide has stopped, and that something may have
occurred in the hydraulic power unit. The operator
referred to a grinding noise, a metal-on-metal sound.
The operational description of the hydraulic circuit
in the maintenance folder for this machine shows
that the slide moves from left (in the retracted posi
tion) to right, toward the workpiece. The function of
the circuit is to provide motion for the slide. Once
the tools are near the work, a feed-panel cycle con
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trol valve cuts in to slow the advance of the slide,
carrying the tools into the work at a predetermined
rate of speed. When the cut has been completed, the
tools are withdrawn and the slide returns to its
retracted position.
7.25 A careful reading of the schematic diagram
for the circuit (see Fig. 7-3) shows that it includes the
following components: reservoir, filter, pump and
motor, relief valve, a four-way control valve, an actu
ating cylinder, the feed-panel cycle control valve
(referred to earlier), and a check valve. Before doing
anything further, it is a good idea to ask for more
information. Get as complete a history of the
machine's recent behavior as possible. Was the
change in the slide's motion gradual? Sudden? Was
the cycle longer? Irregular? Did it skip? Was the tool
cycled empty? Have there been any signs of leakage?
Have there been any changes in fluid temperature?
Has reservoir oil level been OK? What about the sight
level gauge? Any differences in machine behavior
between moming and aftemoon? Have there been any
other changes? In this case, because the machine is
already down and because you want to avoid the pos
sibility of further damage, it is not advisable to have
the operator start it up.
7.26 Next make a visual check. Look for signs of
leakage—a loss of fluid would indicate one possible
cause for system failure. In this example, suppose
that there is no external sign of leakage. The next
stage is to look inside the base of the hydraulic
power unit itself. Check the reservoir fluid level. If
the level is alright, take a look at the pump.(If the
machine is running, put your hand carefully on the
pump to feel if it is running hot.) Inspecting the
pump, you conclude that the pump itself seems to be
alright, but there is a noise which indicates that the
drive shaft is loose and may be out of alignment.
Further inspection proves the pump shaft to be loose
and out of line.
7.27 You can be certain that pump failure would
cause the system to stop immediately. It could also be
the explanation for the noise reported by the operator.
It might not be the whole answer, but the pump
should be replaced. Although it is not possible to tell
just what caused the pump to fail, the most likely
explanation would be failure of the pump bearings or
of the coupling. Only a closer inspection could deter
mine the cause of failure.

Fig.7-3. Pictorial and schematic views of typical hydraulic circuit
Tool head
Pressure line
Coupling Machine slide
Pump j Motor
I
Motor I
Reservoir
J Machine base
Power unit
Return line
4-way valve
7.28 Before replacing the pump, first shut off all
power to the machine and tag the disconnect switch.
Open the switch at the control panel.
WARNING
Always tag or lock the switches. Failure to do so
can result in injury or even death.
Then remove the safety guard from the coupling, and
open the coupling itself. Loosen the pump bolts and
remove the pump from the circuit.
7.29 Install the replacement pump, reconnect the
coupling (if it is undamaged), and check the align
ment of the motor shaft with the pump drive shaft.
Alignment should be held to whatever the manufac
turer's instructions call for. Tighten all bolts and
recheck alignment. Replace the coupling guard. If
necessary, prime the pump.Turn the power on.
7.30 Examination of the pump,now removed from
the machine, shows that the bearings have failed. A
check of the records shows that the pump had been
replaced ten months earlier during a routine overhaul
•s^
of the machine, when most of the hydraulic system
components were replaced or thoroughly recondi
tioned. A closer check shows that the pump housing
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Troubleshooting Systems 107
Workplace
Tools w Z]=o
I
ZD
w Iwm
Manifold 1
Feed panel
has been worn more on one side than another. If this
is a gear pump,one cause of the gears rubbing against
one side of the housing could be excessive pressure.
Misalignment could be another. Because the coupling
has not been damaged, it seems more probable that
the cause is excessive pressure. From the characteris
tic wear pattem, it seems unlikely that it was a surge
of pressure. In all probability,the pump was operating
for some time against enough excess pressure to
cause accelerated bearing wear and sudden failure.
7.31 Because the bearings on the previous pump
had failed and the pump housing was damaged as a
result, it is almost certain that metal particles are
being carried in the hydraulic fluid. The next step is to
drain the system of the fluid. Having done so, clean
out the reservoir and fill the system with flushing oil,
which should circulate through the system for several
hours at low pressure. Drain the flushing oil and clean
all filters, replacing elements as necessary. Then fill
the system with new hydraulic fluid of the proper
specifications. Run the machine through a few cycles.
If all seems to be running satisfactory, put the
machine back into production. A report of the work
performed should be entered into the maintenance
record of this machine.
7.32 Suppose that a day or two after the pump is
replaced, the maintenance department receives anoth-
108 Lesson Seven
er call about the same machine. Again, the mainte
nance folder for the machine is reviewed. The fore
man reports that the cycle is somewhat slow, and that
fluid temperature is slightly higher than usual. This
time, put the machine through its paces, because there
is no immediate reason to think that doing so will
damage the machine or any of its components.
7.33 Follow the same checkout procedure. That is,
make a visual check, beginning with the reservoir, as
before. The maintenance record shows the recent
pump replacement. Take particular care to inspect and
check the alignment again, which appears to be well
within tolerance. Check all other readily accessible
elements visually and cycle the machine. If nothing
visible seems out of order, make tests for pressure and
flow. Shut off the machine and connect a pressure
gauge to the discharge side of the pump. This system
is designed to operate at 500 psi. According to the
gauge,the pump is providing 500 psi.
7.34 Next connect the test gauge at the inlet side
of the four-way valve. The gauge now reads 400 psi,
20% less than the pressure required to operate the
system. The problem, then, is to determine why. At
this point, you know that the pump itself is operating
satisfactorily, even though it is warmer to the touch
than usual. You also know that the pump is not deliv
ering full system pressure. If you are using a testing
device like the one shown in Fig. 7-2, you also know
that even though the flow volume directly from the
pump is correct, the pressure at the four-way valve is
lower than it should be.
7.35 You might conclude that the problem is
somewhere between the pump and the four-way
valve, although you know that the only system ele
ment between them is the conductor itself. Suppose
you trace the line and find that a tubing bend has a
definite crimp in it. As the back side of the power unit
is open to the aisle, the damage could have been
caused in any number of ways. However it happened.
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the result is a reduction of pressure and flow to the
system, and a sharp rise in pressure on the pump's
side of the restriction. The same effect would have
been caused by an undersize conductor. (This cause
of system malfunction does not appear on the trou
bleshooting chart at the end of this Lesson. It is an
unusual one, but you might want to add it to your
list.)
7.36 By replacing that section of tubing (again, be
sure to follow safety procedures), you have probably
solved the basic problem. A further check of pressure
in the system will confirm if you have solved the
problem. This is an example of the point that at first
what may seem to be the problem is not necessarily
the real cause of difficulty. Both problems illustrated
that the real cause of system failure is an interruption
of flow.
Troubleshooting Charts
7.37 It is highly desirable to keep a troubleshoot
ing chart on hydraulic systems. A chart helps you
organize your thoughts but does not do the entire job.
A good troubleshooting chart can be constructed for
any system. You can start with a basic troubleshooting
guide and add specifics to it for a given system.
7.38 A good troubleshooting guide provides iden
tification and guidance in three areas: (1) possible
troubles,(2) the most probable causes, and (3) the
most common remedies.
7.39 The following is a basic troubleshooting
guide for hydraulic systems. This guide is subdivided
into some of the basic elements to make it easier to
follow. The sections list many of the difficulties that
may be experienced with elements in the hydraulic
system. The sections indicate the cause and remedy
for each of the troubles listed. Always remember that
"pressure" and "delivery" are factors that are depen
dent on each other.
 Troub/es/iootmg Systems i09

TROUBLESHOOTING CHART
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Problem Cause Solution

EXCESSIVE Abrasive material in the hydraulic oil Install adequate filter or replace oil more often.
SYSTEM being circulated through the pump.
WEAR
Oil viscosity too low for working conditions. Follow minimum viscosity recommendations.

3. High pressure sustained above maximum Reduce pump pressure to minimum required for Installation.
pump rating or higher than system
requirements.

4. Air causing chatter in system. Remove air from system.

SYSTEM 1. Pressure too high. Reduce pump pressure to minimum required for application.
EXCESSIVELY
HOT 2. Pump not unloaded during idle periods. Use open-center valve or two-pressure compensating
governor when applicable. Unload pump whenever possible.

3. Cooling facilities not adequate. Install oil cooler or heat exchanger. Increase reservoir
capacity.

4. Excessive pump slippage. Repair pump.

5. Excessive leakage through valves or Check progressively through the system for excessive
cylinders. leakage.

6. High ambient or radiant temperature. Relocate power unit or put baffle against source of
radiant heat.

7. Resenroir oil level low. Bring oil level up to recommended point.

8. Excessive friction. Internal parts may be too tight. Reshim.

9. Reservoir too small. Install larger reservoir or auxiliary cooling equipment.

10. Valves on hydraulic lines restricted or Clean valves and piping. Install pipe large enough for
undersized. application.

VALVES

Solut on

VALVE incorrectly installed connections. Check installation drawing.

PRODUCES
UNDESIRED Incorrect valve assembly. Check parts and drawings.
RESPONSE
IN WORK UNIT
Spool installed backwards. Reverse spool end for end.

Sticking or binding. Check for dirt or gummy deposit and contamination. Check
for air in system and for worn parts.

PUMPS

Problem Cause Solution

EXCESSIVE 1. Pump rotating in wrong direction. See arrow on pump case. Direction of rotation must agree.
PUMP
NOISE 2. Oil level tow. Fill reservoir until surface of oil is well above end of suction
line during all of work cycle.

3. Wrong type of oil. Use good clean hydraulic oil of recommended viscosity.

4. Pump running too fast. Reduce speed. Speeds above rating are harmful and cause
early pump failure.

5.Pump aiitound. Air locked in pumping chamber has no way to escape. Stop
pump immediately. Bleed pump before restarting.

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 PUMPS(Continued)
Problem Solution

BEARING 1. Chips or other contaminants in bearings. Be sure that oil is clean. Essential for efficient operation and
FAILURE long life of bearings.

2. Coupling misalignment. Realign pump and motor shafts.

3. Excessive or shock loads. Reduce operating pressure. Follow maximum rating.

PUMP NOT 4. Overhung load. Pumps are not designed to handle high overhung loads or
DELIVERING side thrust on the drive shaft. Provide outboard bearings.
OIL
1. Reservoir oil level low. Maintain oil in reservoir at recommended level.

2. Air leak in suction line. Tighten joints and apply good pipe compound, not soluble
in oil.

3. Suction line or suction filter blocked. Clean lines and filters. Periodic checks should be made as a
preventive maintenance precaution.
PUMP NOT
DELIVERING 4. Broken pump shaft or rotor. Replace broken parts. Check for signs of excessive shock,
PRESSURE dirt, foreign material, or other probable causes of failure.

1. Pressure adjusting screw set too tow. Set adjusting screw to obtain desired operating pressure.

2. Oil brassing to reservoir. Test circuit pressure progressively. Look for open-center
valves or other valves open to reservoir.

3. Relief valve set too low. Relief valve regulates the maximum pressure the pump will
put out.

4. Relief valve not functioning properly. Seat may be worn or springs may be broken. Replace.

CYLINDERS

Problem Solution

ERRATIC 1. Insufficient flow. Check valves and pump for proper delivery.
ACTION
2. Cylinder sticking or binding. Check for dirt, gummy deposits, or air leaks. Check for mis
alignment, worn parts, or defective packing.

3. Internal leakage In cylinder. Repair or replace worn parts and loose packing. Check oil to
see that viscosity is not too low. Check for excessive con
tamination or wear.

4. Air In system. Bleed air and check for leaks. Check to see that oil intake is
well below surface of oil in reservoir. Check pump packings
and line connections on intake side by pouring hydraulic oil
over suspected leak.

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 Troubleshooting Systems 111

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112 Programmed Exercises

7-9. If a machine Is down due to a malfunc 7-9. NO

tion, is it a good idea to start it up again
in an attempt to find out what is wrong? Ref: 7.25

7-10. When installing a replacement pump, 7-10. ALIGNMENT

connect the coupling and check for
proper of the motor shaft. Ref: 7.29

7-11. The gears of a gear pump are rubbing 7-11. EXCESSIVE PRESSURE or MIS
against one side of the pump housing. ALIGNMENT
Name at least one probable cause.
Ref: 7.30

7-12. If pump bearings fail and the pump 7-12. METAL PARTICLES
housing becomes damaged, it is
almost certain that are beina Ref: 7.31
carried in the hydraulic fluid.

7-13. When troubleshooting for the cause of 7-13. RESERVOIR

pump problems in a hydraulic system,
your visual inspection should begin Ref: 7.33
with the

7-14. When testing a hydraulic relief valve, 7-14. INLET

connect the test gauge at the valve
Ref: 7.34

7-15. Pinched hydraulic lines between 7-15. REDUCED

pumps and relief valves cause
system pressure. Ref: 7.35

7-16. A good troubleshooting guide should 7-16. PROBLEMS;CAUSES;SOLUTIONS

provide identification of possible
. probable . and Ref: 7.38
common

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 Self-Check Quiz 113

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

7-1. The first step In troubleshooting a problem In 7-6. Gauges are used In troubleshooting hydraulic
a hydraulic system Is to systems to determine all of the following
EXCEPT
□ a. check the fluid level In the reservoir
□ b. list the symptoms □ a. fluid pressure
□ c. study the system's recent history □ b. fluid temperature
□ d. shut down the malfunctioning □ c. fluid viscosity
equipment □ d. volume of fluid flow

7-2. If a pump falls to develop pressure, which of 7-7. The purpose of "snubbers" when used with
the following should you check first? hydraulic gauges Is to

□ a. Is the gauge good? □ a. provide resilient mountings

□ b. Is there enough fluid In the reservoir? □ b. control loading valves manually
□ c. Is the fluid Intake strainer plugged? □ c. suppress pressure surges
□ d. Is the pump running In the right □ d. provide continuous readings
direction?
7-8. What Is the first thing you should do before
7-3. In determining the causes of problems In replacing a hydraulic pump?
hydraulic systems, the troubleshooting proce
dure becomes progressively □ a. Identify and tag the lines
□ b. Shut off all power to the machine and
□ a. simpler lock the switch
□ b. faster □ c. Be sure a replacement Is on hand
□ c. more complicated □ d. Remove the safety guards
□ d. more dangerous
7-9. When replacing a pump In a hydraulic sys
7-4. Which of the following should NOT be used to tem, which of the following steps must be
tighten tubing fittings. done first?

□ a. Pipe wrench □ a. Reconnect the coupling

□ b. Socket wrench □ b. Turn the power on
□ c. Open-end wrench □ c. Check shaft alignment
□ d. Adjustable-end wrench □ d. Prime the pump

7-5. Which of the following Is best for use on a 7-10. Which of the following steps Is LEAST likely
large-diameter pipe with a plated surface? to be necessary when hydraulic pump bear
ings fall and the pump housing Is damaged?
□ a. Box-end wrench
□ b. Combination wrench □ a. Clean the reservoir
□ c. Chain wrench □ b. Clean filters and replace elements
□ d. Strap wrench □ c. Drain and flush the system
□ d. Replace the four-way valve

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114 Lesson Seven

SUMMARY

System troubleshooting Involves following a logi problems and a history of maintenance and
cal series of steps to find the cause of a failure or repairs, and also provide you with Information on
malfunction. The first step Is to Identify all the replacement parts. The diagrams and schematics
systems. A good place to start looking for a solu will help you trace the system.
tion to the problem Is with the probable causes
that are easiest to check. A troubleshooting chart, which you can develop
and add to. Identifies trouble symptoms,their
You must have the correct tools and gauges In most probable causes, and the most common
order to troubleshoot a system. A complete, up- solutions. Use the troubleshooting chart as a
to-date maintenance folder Is another must,a guide to help you work efficiently and effectively.
review of the folder's contents will reveal past

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

7-1. 0. Study the system's recent history. 7-6. c. Fluid viscosity. Ref: 7.16
Ref: 7.02
7-7. c. Suppress pressure surges. Ref: 7.17
7-2. b. Is there enough fluid in the
reservoir? Ref: 7.08 7-8. b. Shut off all power to the machine and
lock the switch. Ref: 7.28
7-3. 0. More compiicated. Ref: 7.09
7-9. a. Reconnect the coupling. Ref: 7.29
7-4. a. Pipe wrench. Ref: 7.14
7-10. d. Replace the four-way valve.
7-5. d. Strap wrench. Ref: 7.15 Ref: 7.31

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Table 7-2. Schroeder Bros. Corp.

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DEVELOPING HYDRAUUC mOUBLESHOCmNG SKILLS

Lesson Eight

Troublesho€3ting
VahfBS

t! rS

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

«j Troubleshooting Valves

TOPICS

Valve Problems Repair or Replacement

Valve Test Procedures Inspection Troubleshooting
Repair Procedures Solenoid Problems
Disassembly Reassembly
Cleaning Testing
Inspection

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to.

• Name five common valve problems and explain Describe the reasons for hydraulic "wire drawing.'
the sequence of steps to be followed in trou List the reasons for electrical and mechanical fail
bleshooting them. ures of solenoid valves.
• Describe the proper procedures for valve disas Explain the procedures for reassembling, rein
sembly, cleaning, and inspection. stalling, and testing valves.
• Explain how to determine whether to repair or
replace a malfunctioning valve.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Sludge 8.20 material produced through oxidation Chattering 8.38 the buzz, hum, or rattle caused
due to the overheating of hydraulic fluid by a plunger repeatedly slamming into a solenoid
Wire drawing 8.23 small channels worn into the frame and due to insufficient or excessive current
surface of a valve by fluid under high pressure flow

This maleral is proteaea py U S Copyright law Copying By any optical, eloclionic. or olhor means is illegal writwul parmissor

In actual practice, problems with valves are very limited, mostly because there
is not much that can or does go wrong with them. However, because the valves
are a critical part of any hydraulic system, the problems that do occur are
Important enough to concern you.
This Lesson describes the problems most commonly encountered with valves.
It explains the causes of these problems and what can be done to correct them.
Most valve failures are actually caused by problems elsewhere In the system.
Unless the real fault Is corrected, you can expect repeated difficulty with
repaired or replaced valves. This Lesson also explains valve repair procedures,
when to repair a valve, and when to replace It.
Valve Problems
8.01 Regardless of what you are troubleshooting,
the most common problems are the ones you should
consider first. When a component seems to fail
because of one specific reason, you may find that sev
eral things are actually wrong with it. To restore the
valve to working order, you must troubleshoot the
unit and repair all areas that are not up to specifica
tion.
8.02 There are certain valve problems that occur
repeatedly in service. These are some of the common
ones:
• excessive leakage
• sticking or jamming
• bad controller element
• cracked or broken parts
• distorted or broken springs.
Even when something else goes wrong, there is like
ly to be a problem in one or more of these areas as
well.
Valve Test Procedures
8.03 Ordinarily, a valve is checked for one of two
reasons: routine scheduled overhaul and recondition
ing, or because of a system breakdown. In scheduled
reconditioning,there is no prior reason to question the
condition of the valve. It is disassembled, cleaned,
tested, parts replaced, and then restored to service.
When a system breaks down, however, there may be
no problem with the valve at all. Before proceeding
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117
on the assumption that a valve has malfunctioned,test
the circuit.
8.04 To do so, proceed as follows. First, review the
information in the maintenance file folder for the sys
tem. Next, learn as much as possible about the sys
tem's recent operating history. If possible,observe the
equipment in operation to get a better idea of what
might be wrong, and to find out what the symptoms
of the problem are. Then, make a visual check of the
entire system. Next, test the component elements in
the system. Take a local-area, step-by-step approach,
beginning with the reservoir.
8.05 When testing valve functions, follow the
same procedures described in Lesson Seven for the
rest of the system. If you are testing a control valve,
for example,connect the gauge at the inlet side of the
actuator (see Fig. 8-1 on the next page). Shift the
valve so that it directs fluid flow to the actuator and
record the fluid pressure and flow. If you have
checked all points in the line up to the valve and
found no problem, this will show whether or not the
valve is admitting fluid to the actuator at the correct
levels of flow and pressure.
8.06 Suppose that you have done this in a typical sit
uation and have learned that the 5(X) psi needed to actu
ate the system has been delivered to the valve
(allowances for friction losses are not necessary for this
example). If the gauge shows a reading of only 400 psi
at the actuator, you immediately know that the valve is
not functioning properly and that it should be removed.
WARNING
Observe all safety precautions both before and
during the removal and replacement procedure.
 Fig.8-1. Testing a control valve

fi Control valve

Actuator

Reservoir

Repair Procedures to the one shown in Fig. 8-2. This permits you to see
what you will find before taking the valve apart.
8.07 When repairing hydraulic valves, always fol With a drawing or parts breakdown, the Job is at least
low a logical series of steps: twice as easy as it would be without one. As you pro
ceed with disassembly, lay the parts out in the exact
1. Disassemble the valve. order in which you remove them from the valve.
Doing so will make later operations, including
2. Clean it. inspection and reassembly, easier and faster.

3. Inspect it. Make the repair-or-replace deci 8.09 Be careful when removing caps or plugs that
sion. If you find no serious damage to the cover springs. Highly compressed springs can be
valve body: dangerous—they fly out and can cause injury. In fact,
when you disassemble any piece of equipment, it is a
4. Repair or replace parts. good idea to wear safety glasses. Cocking, or tilting,
a multibolt cap that contains springs (as in Fig. 8-3
5. Reassemble the valve. on page 120) might also cause damage during disas
sembly.
6. Adjust to specifications.
8.10 Some valves have force-fit parts, such as
7. Test. pressed-in sleeves or balls. These should not be
removed unless necessary. If it is necessary to
Proceed beyond step #4 only if it is more economi remove them, be sure you know and understand the
cal to repair the valve than to replace it with a new proper procedure for removing and reinstalling them.

Cleaning
Disassembly
8.11 All parts must be cleaned thoroughly in order
8.08 Disassembly usually means simply to take to permit adequate inspection. Some manufacturers
the unit apart. The following hints and precautions recommend cleaning fluids. Many cleaning solvents
should be observed. It is extremely helpful to have an are available. Check their performance and user
exploded valve parts breakdown or drawing similar instructions. Make sure they are compatible with the

This malonal m proloctcd Dy U S Copyngftt taw Copying Dy any optical, electronic, or oiner meana 4 illegal wittwui permissan
 Troubleshooting Valves 119

W Fig.8-2. Typical illustrated breakdown of valve parts

■.25 >

(34i_
'©US??!-'
(29) (261

Ref. No. Part No. Description Qty.

29 401732 Pin 1
1 222121 Body 1
30 402396 Screw #10-24 x 1/2 6
222124 Body 1
i 2 405972 Screw 5/16-24 x 1-1/2
Ls 222164 Body 1" Ports 1
31
32 406601 Screw 7/16-20 x 3^
1
3 222123 Body 1 4
33 406953 "0"
4 403609 Seal Plate 1
^33 407099 —
^ 5 ^ 3q68g£^ 2
—--ti^.P.T.F. 1
34
^__^,.«ng-T^x 1-1/4 OD
o
2 Quad Ring (Viton) 4
23^ 307588 Qpprpr 777662 Spool - Type 1 1
24 307604 Retainer 2 777682 Spool - Type 2 1
25 307596 Lever 1 48 777696 Spool - Type 3 1
26 307605 Yoke 1 48 777683 Spool - Type 7 1
27 400922 Plug 1/8 N.P.T.F. 1 48 777849 Spool - Type C 1
28 401703 Knob 1 [48 777817 Spool - Type W 1

materials in the parts you want to clean. In all cases seals, because all seals should be replaced routinely.
you can use the hydraulic fluid in the system that the This is an important point. When you disassemble a
unit came from. If the system uses petroleum-based valve for repair or reconditioning, always replace all
hydraulic fluids, you can clean parts with kerosene or the seals, even though they seem to be in good shape.
#2 fuel oil if nothing else is available. In some cases
cleaning may require degreasing and devamishing. 8.13 General inspection of parts includes visual
This calls for hot-fluid cleaning. Be sure to obtain inspection for such surface deformities as nicks, cuts,
proper instructions and observe safety precaution scratches, burrs, dents, cracks, wear marks, or warped
when heating a solvent fluid. configuration. To inspect a coil spring, place it on its
side on a flat surface and roll it, as in Fig. 8-4 on the
inspection next page. Visually inspect for wobble that indicates
distortion.
8.12 Parts inspection must be very thorough. How
ever, it should be limited to the operating compo 8.14 Mating surfaces require close inspection for
nents. For example, it is not necessary to inspect surface condition and flatness or clearance (depend-

This motenal a pnitectod by U. S. CopyrigM taw. Copying by any optical, ctoctronie, or other moons is illogol without permission.
Fig.8-3. Example of a multibolt valve cap with springs
Cocking can cause damage
valve body
ing on the part involved). Consult the manufacturer's
specifications to determine the exact requirements.
Check for rust and corrosion because they cause
problems when they attack mating surfaces.
8.15 Many valves have control elements such as
solenoids, coils, motors, and diaphragms. They must
be in perfect condition if they are to perform properly.
Inspect solenoids separately. Check their operation in
individual elements, and consult the plant electrician
if necessary.
Repair or Replacement
8.16 Once you have completed your inspection,
set aside all parts that seem to require rework or
replacement. If the cost of the parts requiring replace
ment is about half the cost of a new unit (or greater),
replace the entire valve with a new one. Discard the
damaged parts, and store the other parts as spare
repair parts. On the other hand, if repair-part cost is
lower than 50% of the cost of a new unit, it usually is
more economical to repair the valve.
8.17 Scratches usually can be removed with a
piece of fine emery paper or stone. Be sure to wash
away any abrasive particles when you have finished.
Some surfaces can be lapped to improve sealing
action. Cleaning is often all that is required.
This maic'iai is protected by U S Copynghi law
Fig.8-4. Inspect for straightness of coil springs
Rejects
Inspection Troubleshooting
8.18 The types of damage found during an inspec
tion are usually symptoms of problems that still exist.
Replacing damaged parts treats the symptom but does
not necessarily solve the problem. To solve the prob
lem, examine the damaged parts for clues. They can
reveal the cau.se of the problem. Correct the cause,
and the symptoms will not recur.
8.19 As an example, assume that tests have shown
that a particular valve is not functioning properly. The
valve is removed from the system, disassembled, and
inspected. Examination shows that the valve spool
jammed because of heavy sludge, and that the spool
was damaged by solid particles contained in the
sludge. It would be easy enough to clean the valve
and replace the spool, then put the valve back, into
service. But would doing so solve the problem? No. It
would solve the immediate problem of a malfunction
ing valve, but the valve would fail again.
8.20 At this point, it is necessary to determine
what caused the sludge to form. Sludge formation is
caused by the overheating of hydraulic fluid, which
results in oxidation. This explains the origin of the
sludge. Next, what caused the fluid to overheat?
There can be several explanations, ranging from high
fluid viscosity to line restrictions to a reservoir that is
Copying by any optical, oiectronc. cu oinc' I IS illegal witnoji pomisson

too small to permit proper cooling. When the cause is
corrected, you can reasonably expect the valve to
function properly until it wears out.
8.21 As a mie. manufacturers of hydraulic compo
nents thoroughly lest their products for endurance and
wearability. It is rarely necessary to question the com
ponent design for inspection purposes. However, other
factors that should be considered involve quality con
trol, incorrectly identified or applied valves, and so on.
8.22 There is not enough space here to study every
possible case and situation, of course, but the follow
ing examples of inspection troubleshooting will give
you a feeling for what is required.
8.23 Parts that show evidence of "wire
drawing"(small channels worn into the surface by
fluid under high pressure) usually have been damaged
by excessive leakage (see Fig. 8-5). This leakage may
have been caused in turn by excessive pressure or the
poor fit of wom parts. Most commonly, wire drawing
is caused by hydraulic fluids that are too thin (low vis
cosity) for the application. In such cases, check the
system for proper fluid and to see if high temperatures
have caused the low fluid viscosity, which resulted in
wire drawing.
8.24 Long scratches or broach marks are caused
by contamination or internal damage that has caused a
ridge to form on the mating surfaces of sliding parts.
In a valve body, such surface interruption will cause
the new spool or part to become useless quickly. Deep
scratches lead to worse leakage, wire drawing, and
overheating.
8.25 Poppets and valve seats may become cracked
and out-of-round from hydraulic shock, contamina
tion, or side loading. Seals may be inadequate
because the fluid is incompatible with the seal materi
al. Gasket sealants may dissolve in incompatible flu
ids. The ends of spools, poppets, and push pins may
become battered because of chattering.
8.26 Valve bodies may crack or break from exces
sive mechanical loads. Pipe-tapped bodies may be
overstressed when tapered pipe is overtorqued. As
soon as more pressure is applied, the body will crack
under the added forces. If subplale-mounted valves
are overtorqued. body distortion, spool sticking, pop
pet hangup, and breakage may result.
T^is rr^aionol « proioclod Dy U S Copynght l«w
Troubleshooting Valves 121
8.27 Foreign objects on subplate surfaces often
cause the valve to "weep" or leak, which may lead
someone to overtorque in an effort to stop the leak.
The possibility of a subplate valve assembly being
damaged for this reason is not at all farfetched. It is a
good example of the cause-and-effect principle
applied in troubleshooting a hydraulic system. The
basic cau.se of the problem is not that the valve body
has cracked or distorted. It is not even that a solid par
ticle has been trapped. The real cause is carelessness
during the original installation of the assembly. With
proper care during installation, any solid particles
would have been removed when the surfaces were
cleaned for assembly.
8.28 It is also possible that the contamination is
the result of gasket deterioration. Gasket deterioration
in turn can be caused by improper hydraulic fluid or a
change to a fluid that is incompatible with the gasket
material. Another cause can be normal wear. Change
the seal or gasket even if it seems to be in good shape.
8.29 Improperly installed springs may become
pinched or cut off when caps are tightened. Spring-
guide misalignment can cause excessive stress and
eventual breakage of the spring.
8.30 Tar or varnish on valve parts indicates conta
mination and is usually evidence of overheating.
These substances cause the spool and poppet to hang
up. which may result in further damage, such as sole
noid burnout.
Fig.8-5. Appearance of"wire drawing" on pump cap
-rs
Wiry lines
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122 Programmed Exercises

8-1. Common valve problems include dis 8-1. LEAKAGE

torted springs, broken parts, sticking or
jamming, bad controller elements, and Ref: 8.02
excessive

8-2. Normally, valves are checked during 8-2. BREAKDOWN

routine overhaul and after a system
Ref: 8.03

8-3. A system's maintenance file should be 8-3. BEFORE

checked vou make a visual
check of the system. Ref: 8.04

8-4. If the pressure ahead of the valve is 8-4. VALVE

normal, but the pressure is low at the
actuator, the is bad. Ref: 8.06

8-5. To clean the parts in a hydraulic unit 8-5. DEVARNISH

properly, you may be required to
degrease and them. Ref: 8.11

8-6. General inspection of valve parts con 8-6. DEFORMITIES

sists of looking for surface
Ref: 8.13

8-7. Sludge formation is caused by the 8-7. OVERHEATING; OXIDATION

of hvdraulic fluid, which
results in Ref: 8.20

8-8. Valve parts that show "wire drawing" 8-8. LEAKAGE

usually have been damaged by exces
sive Ref: 8.23

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 Troubleshooting Valves 123

Solenoid Problems Fig. 8-6. A solenoid-operated valve

8.3! Most of the control valves used in industrial

Solenoids
hydraulic systems are controlled by ac-power sole
noids (see Fig. 8-6). One of the more common causes
of failure in such valves is malfunction of the sole
noid. Just as a seeming valve failure is often actually
a symptom of a problem elsewhere in a system, sole
noid failure may not be caused by a failure in the
solenoid itself. It may be the result of some other con
dition.

8.32 Solenoid failures are either electrical or

mechanical. Some common solenoid problems and
the reasons they occur are explained below. Electrical
failures may include:
These factors cause the solenoid to react improperly,
• damaged insulation, caused by the corro resulting in electrical or mechanical damage.
sive effects of vapor or direct contact
with an incompatible fluid. With the insu 8.33 Coils bum out from overheating when short
lation no longer effective, electrical fail circuits cause excessive current flow. Overheating
ure (short circuit) will bum out the sole also has other causes. If the plunger hangs up for any
noid coil. reason, and cannot move into the coil, the high cur
rent required to move the plunger into the closed
• overheating, caused by overvoltage or position will continue to flow and generate heat.
by a short circuit in the coil (the result of Because the solenoid is not designed for a continued
a leak or hole in the insulation). Over flow of high current, it will bum out.
heating can also be the result of heat
generated by continued high-current 8.34 If the linkages between the plunger and valve
flow when the plunger fails to move (see spool become bent, twisted, or otherwise damaged.
Fig. 8-7). Overheating can cause coil
burnout.
Fig. 8-7. Construction of a solenoid
• insufficient voltage, sometimes due to an
excessive line-voltage drop, which can Hole for linkage pin
result in the failure of the valve to open
or close.

Mechanical failures may include:

• chattering, caused by the plunger slam

ming into the solenoid frame.

• shifting too fast. As a result, the solenoid

Coll
does not get a chance to cool.

• insecure fastening of the solenoid.

• a jammed valve spool or plunger.

Plunger

• a broken valve spring.

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the plunger will not operate properly. Other mechani
cal causes of solenoid malfunction are chips, hard
ened grease, or other solid contaminates that hold the
plunger open.
8.35 Now, consider some of these problems and
identify the probable causes of failure. When a sole
noid is energized, high initial current flow activates
the plunger, which in turn pulls the valve element
into the desired position. Once the element has shift
ed, the plunger is easily held in position by a
reduced current flow. This means a reduction in
heat.
8.36 If, for any reason, a valve spool or poppet
sticks, the solenoid continues to draw the needed ini
tial high current and it overheats. The bobbin (sheath
or covering for the plunger) will melt. If there is evi
dence of a melted bobbin, a mechanically jammed
valve may be the cause of the overheating.
8.37 A melted bobbin is also evidence of another
type of failure. When a control problem causes both
solenoids of a valve (like the one in Fig. 8-6) to be
energized at the same time, the valve will shift one
way, but the other solenoid will continue to draw high
current. The heat generated will melt the bobbin.
8.38 Chattering is the effect of a plunger repeated
ly slamming into the solenoid frame. The sound may
be a hum, buzz,or rattle, and is caused by the plunger
moving back and forth. Chattering is caused by insuf
ficient or excessive current flow, and usually results
in valve malfunction. Eventually, chattering can result
in the mechanism destroying itself. Overvoltage dri
ves the plunger too hard, which results in hammering.
Misalignment may distort the solenoid frame and
interfere with the plunger's designed motion. Loose
mounting can cause distortion of the solenoid frame.
The effects of shock, misalignment, and vibration can
also cause fatigue failure of material.

TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

VALVES

Problem Cause Solution

VALVE 1. Dirt in system. Drain and flush system. Disassemble and clean, If necessary.
SPOOL
RESPONSE 2. Blocked drain. Small fittings or pipe.
SLUGGISH
3. Low pilot pressure. Check pilot pressure system.

4. Solenoid malfunctions. Check for proper source voltage and frequency. Remove solenoid and
check fields.

5. Distortion of valve body. Align body and piping to remove strain.

VALVE 1. Dirtin system. Disassemble, clean, and flush.

SPOOL
FAILS 2. Blocked drain. Inspect for plugs or foreign matter.
TO
MOVE 3. Pilot pressure off. Check source of pilot pressure.

4. Solenoids Inoperative. Check electrical source and solenoid fields.

5. Distortion. Align body and piping.

6. incoirect reassembly after overhaul. Use parts drawing to check proper assembly.

VALVE 1. Incorrectly Installed connections. Check Installation drawing.

PRODUCES
UNDESIRED 2. Incorrect valve assembly. Check parts and drawings.
RESPONSE
IN WORK UNIT 3. Spool Installed backwards. Reverse spool end for end.

4. Sticldng or binding. Check for dirt or gummy deposit and contamination. Check for air in
system and for worn parts.

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8.39 When you replace solenoids, first be certain
that the electrical power has been turned off. You will
be opening the covers of wiring boxes and solenoids.
The power should also be off, of course, when you
are manually actuating the valves. Also check on the
compatibility of the hydraulic fluid with the electrical
insulation of replacement solenoids.
8.40 When you replace a defective or damaged
solenoid, be certain that the replacement solenoid has
the same part number as the solenoid being replaced,
or at least meets the recommended specifications.
Reassembly
8.41 When you have completed the inspection and
replaced all worn or damaged parts, reassemble the
valve. Reassembly is simply a matter of reversing the
procedure for disassembly. Always observe the fol
lowing precautions: (1) follow manufacturer's
instructions, and (2) use proper care when installing
seals.
8.42 Whether it is new or repaired, you will be
installing a valve of the same type as the one
removed. In some cases, you may be using a different
manufacturer's valve. In either case, double-check to
be certain that the pressure and return ports are prop
erly identified and that the direction of spool travel is
correct so that the fluid flow will be in the right direc
tion. If you are installing a new valve of the same
make, be certain that its part number matches specifi
cations and that its materials are compatible with the
fluid in the system (the old valve may have been
modified). If the valve has adjustable controls, be cer
tain that the settings are those specified for the sys
tem.
8.43 When replacing a valve seal, be sure to avoid
damaging the seal and make certain that the seal will
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Troubleshooting Valves 125
seat properly. To prevent damaging the seal, avoid
putting it on over threads and sharp comers—use an
expanding tool or thimble. If the seal is of the O-ring
type, be careful not to leave it twisted in place. Be
certain that the seal material is compatible with the
hydraulic fluid and that all surfaces are clean and con-
taminant-ffee. If adjustment is required, do not apply
excessive pressure on the seal. Soak the seal in the
system fluid and keep the seal lubricated with system
fluid during installation.
8.44 Reassemble valves confidently but cautious
ly. Be extremely careful with sliding fits, such as
spool-to-bore. Spools should slide in easily. They will
fit better if they are lightly lubricated with system
fluid. Take your time and do it right. Remember that
patience is a must. Poorly assembled components are
very costly, not only in terms of wasted time and
money, but also because they have to be repaired
again before they will work properly. When reassem
bling, always be mindful of your own safety and that
of the operator as well.
Testing
8.45 After the valve has been reassembled, make a
performance test. If a test stand is available, use it. If
something is still wrong with the valve, you may pre
vent an equipment malfunction or accident by not
installing it until it does work properly. If a test stand
is not available, install the valve and see that the
machine is run with caution at no load and low speed.
Build the pressure up to its full performance or pres
sure rating, carefully watching to be sure that the
equipment is operating properly.
8.46 Obtain valve test specifications from the
manufacturer. If you do not have any test specifica
tions, check for pressure, leakage or slip, freedom of
shift, and control of flow paths or flow rates.
•I26 Programmed Exercises

8-9. A common cause of failure of an ac- 8-9. SOLENOID MALFUNCTION

Dowered control valve Is
Ref: 8.31

8-10. Solenoid failure Is caused by either 8-10. MECHANICAL

electrical or problems.
Ref: 8.32

8-11. When a valve spool sticks in a control 8-11. OVERHEATING

valve and the solenoid continues to
draw startino current. occurs. Ref: 8.36

8-12. The first thing you should do when you 8-12. POWER IS OFF
have to replace a solenoid is to make
sure the Ref: 8.39

8-13. Replacement solenoids must have the 8-13. SPECIFICATIONS

same part numbers, or they must meet
the recommended Ref: 8.40

8-14. The material of a replacement seal and 8-14. COMPATIBLE

the hvdraulic fluid must be
Ref: 8.42

8-15. Spools fit better during installation if 8-15. LIGHTLY LUBRICATED

thev are
Ref: 8.44

8-16. Before you install a reconditioned 8-16. TEST IT

valve, vou must
Ref: 8:45

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 Self-Check Quiz 127

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

8-1. In order to restore a valve to good working 8-6. What is accomplished when you replace all
condition, you must damaged parts in a unit?

□ a. replace all internal parts □ a. The basic problems are always

□ b. replace spools and seals only solved
□ c. troubleshoot and replace all moving □ b. The symptoms are treated but the
parts basic problems may not be solved
□ d. troubleshoot and repair areas not up □ c. The symptoms and the cause are
to specification treated
□ d. The unit becomes airlocked
8-2. When should hydraulic valves be checked?
8-7. When the basic cause of trouble in a unit has
□ a. Whenever the circuit is faulty been corrected, how long can a valve be
□ b. During a routine overhaul or after a expected to last?
system breakdown
□ c. Every 500 operating hours □ a. Until the next inspection
□ d. Before a system is disassembled □ b. Until it wears out
□ c. For approximately 1000 operating
8-3. When a system breaks down, you should do hours
all of the following EXCEPT □ d. For approximately two years

□ a. check the valve's maintenance 8-8. Failure of ac-powered control valves is

history caused most frequently by
□ b. make a visual check of the system
□ c. test the elements in the system □ a. excessive system pressure
□ d. assume that the valve has □ b. low system pressure
malfunctioned □ c. solenoid malfunction
□ d. incompatible system fluid
8-4. With a reading of 500 psi at the valve inlet,
but only 400 psi at the actuator, what unit(s) 8-9. How should hydraulic valves be reassem
is (are) defective, if any? bled?

□ a. Valve □ a. Cautiously
□ b. Actuator □ b. Quickly
□ c. Both the valve and actuator □ c. With a good arbor press
□ d. Neither unit—this is a normal □ d. Without lubrication
condition
8-10. What is the next step after you reassemble a
8-5. In all cases, what can be used to clean valve?
hydraulic valve parts?
□ a. Restore the system to full operation
□ a. Gasoline □ b. Enter the procedure in the log
□ b. Water □ c. Test the valve
□ c. System fluid □ d. Look for leftover parts
□ d. Mild detergent

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128 Lesson Eight

SUMMARY

Valves tend to have the same problems repeated repair the valve, do so,then reassemble It, preset
ly. Directional-control spool valves develop sole It to specifications, and test rt.
noid failure, spool sticking, scratching and
broaching, and have spool-end damage. Flow Most control valves used In industrial hydraulic
controls experience problems with varnish, dirt, systems are controlled by ac-powered solenoids.
leaks, and wire drawing. Check valves often Solenoid failures are either electrical or mechani
develop bad seats, broken springs,and bad pop cal. Before you replace valve solenoids, be sure
pets or balls. Pressure controls have problems the electrical power has been turned off.
with wire drawing, varnish, bad control poppets,
broken springs,and dirt. Valve troubleshooting should go beyond just fix
ing the valve. The causes of valve damage or mal
If a valve is malfunctioning, disassemble and function may still exist after the valve has been
clean It. Next,Inspect the valve and decide repaired.
whether to repair or replace It. If you decide to

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

8-1. d. Troubleshoot and repair areas not up 8-6. b. The symptoms are treated but the
to specification. Ref: 8.01 basic problems may not be solved.
Ref:8.18
8-2. b. During a routine overhaul or after a
system breakdown. Ref: 8.03 8-7. b. Until it wears out. Ref: 8.20

8-3. d. Assume that the valve has 8-8. c. Solenoid malfunction. Ref: 8.31
malfunctioned. Ref: 8.04
8-9. a. Cautiously. Ref: 8.44
8-4. a. Valve. Ref: 8.06
8-10. c. Test the valve. Ref:8.45
8-5. c. System fluid. Ref: 8.11

Contributions from tite following sources are appreciated:

Figure 8-2. Racine Hydraulics

Rgure 8-6. Racine Hydraulics

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DEVELOPING HYDRAUUC TROUBLESHOOTING SKUIS

Lesson Nine

Tmubleshooting
Cylinders

11
V 3
^
V
V

TPC Training Systems

130

Lesson

Troubleshooting Cylinders

TOPICS

Cylinder Descriptions Cylinder Repair

Troubleshooting a Cylinder Cylinder Installation
Cylinder Testing Shock Absorbers

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Name the most common types of hydraulic cylin Name the cylinder components most frequently
ders and identify their major parts. replaced.
• List the symptoms of internal and external cylinder Explain the purpose of a piston rod boot.
misalignment. Describe the symptoms of shock absorber failure.
• Explain what to do if you find internal leakage in a
cylinder.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Shock absorber 9.43, 9.44 a external device that

stops a moving load by metering hydraulic fluid
through a series of orifices

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 131

Troubleshooting hydraulic cylinders is usually a little easier than troubleshoot

ing the entire system, because there are fewer parts. Like pumps and control
valves,there is less to inspect visually before the unit is disassembled. But the
worn parts are harder to identify because of their construction.

Seals are soft and the wear not readily apparent. In all cases,troubleshooting
procedures must be followed systematically if the source of the problem is to
be located.

This Lesson describes some of the more common causes of cylinder problems
and their solutions. Of the many troubleshooting procedures,the best one to
use is the one that follows a logical sequence,starting with the most obvious
cause and ending with repair of the component.

Cylinder Descriptions not repairable, they are replaced when they become
worn out.
9.01 Before attempting to troubleshoot or repair
hydraulic cylinders, you must understand just what is Troubleshooting a Cylinder
expected of them. Because hydraulic cylinders con
vert fluid pressure into straight-line motion, they are 9.04 Probably the first time you will learn that a
defined as linear actuators. The pressure of the cylinder is causing problems is when you are called in
hydraulic fluid acting on the piston surface creates a to determine why the cylinder has either stopped
force which, when sufficient, moves the piston and operating or stopped performing the function for
performs work. which it was designed. Troubleshooting a cylinder is
no different from troubleshooting any other hydraulic
9.02 There are many types of hydraulic cylinders component. Following the troubleshooting procedures
manufactured, ranging over a wide selection of bore outlined in Lesson Seven, proceed in a logical
diameters and stroke lengths. Although their construc sequence, checking the most obvious and accessible
tion may vary, the functions are identical. The most items first. The following questions must be answered
common types of cylinder construction are tie rod, as a basis for troubleshooting most problem situa
threaded-head,and welded-head. A variation of the tie tions;
rod cylinders are called mill cylinders. Mill cylinders
have heavy flanged heads that bolt together, eliminat • Is the cylinder large enough to do the
ing the tie rods that hold the cylinder heads in place. job?
Usually, these cylinders are used for heavy-duty
applications—in steel mills,for example. • Does misalignment exist between the
cylinder and the load to be moved?
9.03 Tie rod cylinders are most commonly used for
industrial applications. They have four or more rods • Is the hydraulic fluid pressure at the
holding the heads in position on the cylinder tube or cylinder adequate to produce the required
body. These cylinders are used extensively in the force?
automotive and machine tool industries. Threaded
cylinders have the heads screwed onto the tube—no • Are the piston seals or piston rod pack
tie rods. This style is commonly used in the food ings worn,allowing fluid to escape?
industry because it is easily disassembled and
reassembled, and is much more streamlined, with no 9.05 The easiest items to examine are the cylinder
. protruding surfaces. Welded cylinders have the heads size and the size of the load to be moved. For
welded onto the tube ends. They are similar in shape machine tool applications this is not usually a prob
to threaded cylinders. Welded cylinders are classed as lem, since the load for any given machine is fairly
the mobile type, and are found on construction equip constant. For other applications, the load may have
ment and farm machinery. Because the cylinders are become heavier than the cylinder can handle with the

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available fluid pressure. Then the cylinder size or
pressure has to be increased. Before increasing the
cylinder size or system pressure, determine how
much work the cylinder can do, or has done in the
past.
9.06 Misalignment is a very common cylinder
trouble and easily located by visual inspection. Mis
alignment created by excessive side loading causes
the cylinder to bind and become inoperative.
Although misalignment can be either external or
internal, external misalignment occurs more frequent
ly. External misalignment means that the cylinder rod
does not travel in a straight line. This does not apply
to normal side movement that occurs in a pivot-
mounted cylinder.
9.07 External misalignment can usually be detect
ed by sighting down the length of the cylinder. If the
end of the cylinder rod does not line up with the
cylinder centerline, the rod is out of line. Side loading
can also be identified by wear marks on the piston rod
and rod gland. As .shown in Fig. 9-1, the wear marks
on the piston rod will be on the same side as the bend
ing action. These marks are caused by the rod rubbing
against the side of the gland. In addition to the wear
marks on the piston rod, the gland will show evidence
of the rubbing. Wear at the gland usually results in
fluid leakage.
9.08 If external misalignment is suspected, the
cylinder should be cycled with the load disconnected.
The cylinder should stroke smoothly, and the extend-
Fig.9-1. Cylinder rod scoring
Piston rod
Cylinder
Score marks
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ing piston rod should mate easily with the load con
nection.
9.09 Although a hydraulic cylinder is well-lubri
cated internally, the gland surface is dry. For this rea
son, misalignment frequently is indicated by noise.
Binding generally is characterized by squeal or chat
ter. If the cylinder is pivot-mounted, also check for
binding at the pivot points. These areas should always
be well-lubricated and have full freedom of move
ment. The pivot points should also be examined for
centerline error.
9.10 If the side loading is severe enough and the
piston rod does not give or bend, the piston rod may
break. In most cases, the break will be at the undercut
sections of the rod. These undercuts are usually on the
ends of the piston rod where it is threaded and
attached to the load or the piston. The external mis
alignment will often be transmitted back to the piston,
causing it to score the I.D. of the tube.
9.11 Internal misalignment is less common than
external misalignment, but does occasionally happen.
One source of such trouble is the connection between
the piston and piston rod. To prevent trouble here, the
piston must be attached securely to the piston rod. If
the cylinder appears to be binding while it is not
under load, this is a possible cause.
9.12 When the piston is not attached securely to the
rod, it will cock or tilt and score the tube I.D. The
cylinder will not operate properly for very long under
these conditions because the score marks in the tube
allow the fluid to blow by, reducing the effectiveness
of the cylinder. In addition, the packing will be
destroyed quickly. To prevent the piston from becom
ing loose, most manufacturers provide a locknut or pin
at the piston-to-rod connection.
9.13 Improper tie rod torque can be another source
of internal misalignment. When the cylinder is assem
bled and the tie rod nuts tightened, they must be torqued
equally, and in a manner that prevents the heads from
cocking. Generally they are tightened in a cross-comer
manner. If the heads are not square with the centerline
of the cylinder, the piston rod will bind in the gland, a
condition similar to external misalignment.
9.14 Double-ended cylinders in which two rods are
connected at the piston are more susceptible to internal
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Fig.9-2. Connecting a test instrument
i Control valve
Reservoir
misalignment than are single-ended cylinders. The
combination of piston-to-rod connection, along with
two heads containing glands, considerably increases
the probability of internal misalignment. Although the
cylinders are properly assembled at the manufacturer's
plant, many problems can develop before and during
installation. Whenever you have to troubleshoot this
style of cylinder, examine it carefully for internal mis
alignment.
Cylinder Testing
9.15 If everything appears to be in the proper
working order externally on the cylinder, the next step
in troubleshooting is to check the pressure at the cylin
der. The tests are the same as those used to determine
flow at control valves.
9.16 The first thing to do is to install the testing
device at the inlet connection to the cylinder, as shown
in Fig. 9-2. Reading the pressure and flow of the
hydraulic fluid as it passes through the testing device
will tell you exactly how much fluid is reaching the
cylinder. If the test is being conducted with the load
disconnected, an increase in pressure indicates internal
binding.
9.17 Testing the cylinder under load conditions
will tell you if sufficient fluid pressure is being deliv
ered to the cylinder. If there is a drop of more than
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Troubleshooting Cylinders 133
Actuator
100 psi, there is a blockage occurring in the system
somewhere between the control valve and the cylin
der. (That is. if the control valve is operating proper
ly.) Check the amount of fluid flowing through the
cylinder. If fluid flow is indicated after the cylinder
has reached the end of its stroke, then internal leakage
is taking place.
9.18 Internal leakage past the piston is usually
caused by worn piston seals or a scored cylinder tube.
If the test indicate internal leakage, remove the piston
from the cylinder and replace the seals. After remov
ing the old seals, clean the piston and the cylinder
l.D. Make a thorough inspection of the cylinder and
install new .seals, taking care not to cut or nick the lips
of the seals.
9.19 If everything in the system up to and including
the cylinder checks out satisfactorily, and the cylinder
still does not function properly, there are another cou
ple of items that may be causing the cylinder to remain
inoperative. These are cylinder cushions and speed
control valves. Although many systems are not fur
nished with speed control valves, almost every cylinder
has travel or stroke cushions.
9.20 The cushions are located in the ends of a
cylinder to prevent the piston from banging into the
cylinder head at the end of the piston stroke. On most
cylinders the amount of fluid allowed to pass out of
the metering valve in the cushion is adjustable. If the
134 Lesson Nine
orifice becomes obstructed or clogged, no fluid can
pass through,and the piston just sits there.
9.21 Speed control valves act in much the same
manner as cushion-metering valves. However, the
control valves are usually located outside the cylinder.
These valves are used to regulate the fluid flow out of
the cylinder through the entire stroke or travel of the
piston. These valves are almost always adjustable, but
there are a few fixed or nonadjustable types. Here
again, if the metering orifice is blocked or restricted,
the fluid will not be allowed to pass freely through the
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valve, and the cylinder will not move, or will move
very slowly.
9.22 Remember that even though the cylinder may
not be operating, there are several items that must be
thoroughly checked out before you start to disassem
ble the cylinder. Whenever you are troubleshooting a
hydraulic system, it is important that you have a
schematic or layout drawing of the system to tell you
exactly what equipment is in the system. This draw
ing will help you proceed in a step-by-step manner
through the operation of the system.
 Programmed Exercises 135

9-1. Name the type of cylinder construction 9-1, TIE ROD

most used in industrial hydraulic cylin
ders. Ref: 9.03

9-2. Troubleshooting a hydraulic cylinder 9-2. LOGICAL

should be done in a(n)
sequence. Ref: 9.04

9-3. Misalignment of hydraulic cylinders is 9-3. SIDE LOADING

usuallv caused bv excessive
Ref: 9.06

9-4. External misalignment can be checked 9-4. DISCONNECTED

by cycling the cylinder while the load is
Ref: 9.08

9-5. Extreme side loading usually causes 9-5. BREAK

the piston rod to
Ref: 9.10

9-6. When pressure-testing a cylinder with 9-6. BINDING

the load disconnected, an increase in
fluid pressure indicates internal Ref: 9.16

9-7. A drop in fluid pressure between the 9-7. BLOCKAGE

control valve outlet and the cylinder
indicates a(n) Ref: 9.17

9-8. When testing a cylinder, fluid flow after 9-8. LEAKAGE

the piston has completed its stroke
indicates intemal Ref: 9.17

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136 Lesson Nine
Cylinder Repair
9.23 Whenever your troubleshooting procedures
indicate that a cylinder must be disassembled and
repaired, follow these steps. First, obtain a detailed
parts or assembly drawing of the cylinder. A typical
exploded drawing is shown in Fig. 9-3. If none is
available, make sure that the replacement parts you
use are the same as the ones in the cylinder. Always
wear safety goggles when disassembling hydraulic
components.
Fig.9-3. A cylinder parts drawing
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9.24 Second, disassemble the cylinder, removing
the parts in the proper order. Do not try to remove a
part that requires a lot of force. Because the seals
tend to hold the parts together securely, a certain
degree of force is required to separate the joints.
But this force requirement does not mean that you
should use oversize tools or levers to separate two
parts forcibly. When you remove the parts, lay them
out in the order in which they are removed. This
will allow you to reassemble them in proper
sequence.

Fig.9-4. Piston construction
9.25 The major parts of a hydraulic cylinder are
the heads, cylinder tube, piston, piston rod, rod bear
ing, lie rods and seals. The materials used in the con
struction of each part depend on the manufacturer and
the application. Whenever you replace components
make sure that the same types are used, and that they
are installed properly and safely.
9.26 Cylinder heads are usually made of plate or
cast steel machined to close tolerances. The cylinder
tubes are usually plain or plated steel. Most of the
plating is on the tube I.D. and is chromium. The plat
ing prevents corrosion and increases the useful life of
the cylinder. Pistons vary slightly in shape and mate
rials, but most are cast iron and similar to those
shown in Fig. 9-4.
9.27 Piston seals are manufactured in a great vari
ety of materials and shapes. The reason for the variety
is the many hydraulic fluids that are used. Because of
the fire hazard associated with normal petroleum oils,
many systems use fire-resistant fluids. The most pop
ular types are water-base fluids, emulsion fluids, and
phosphate ester fluids. Sometimes the plant engineer
or maintenance engineer selects the fluid to be used,
because he is qualified to know the conditions in
which the cylinder is to operate. Many times the fluid
selection is dictated by safety standards or by plant
requirements.
9.28 When nonpetroleum fluids are used, the
selection of packings becomes quite important.
This matorial ts pfoteded by U S Copyright laiv
Troubleshooting Cylinders 137
because the various fire-resistant fluids generally are
not compatible with synthetic rubber or leather. A
popular material selected for seals in such situations
is Viton*^. This material is rated good or excellent for
most fire-resistant fluids.
9.29 Many times automotive-type cast iron piston
rings are used, thus eliminating the need for special
packing selection in this area. The extremely long life
of rings makes them a desirable choice for many
applications. However, if the cylinder is being used in
a holding operation or in a system where piston leak
age can be a problem, automotive-type rings cannot
be used because they normally allow a small amount
of fluid to pass. To prevent this, a formed soft packing
must be used. Here again, Viton^^ is a common
choice.
9.30 Piston rods are generally made of high ten
sile-strength steel, turned, ground, and polished. The
rods may be case-hardened or hard-chrome plated,
depending on the manufacturer. Some applications in
food processing areas require stainless steel piston
rods. If the rod material is not easily identified, a
magnet can be used to determine if the rod is steel or
9.31 The most commonly replaced items on a
hydraulic cylinder are the rod packings or seals.
Under normal operating conditions these items wear
out and require replacement frequently. In most
instances, the packing gland can be removed from the
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Copying by any optcal, alocironic.
aloetronic. or other means is iiiogai without permission
Fig.9-5. Piston rod boots
Cylinder Piston rod
cylinder head quite easily. After the gland has been
removed, the piston rod packing and wiper can be
removed and new parts installed.
9.32 For piston rod packings, Viton or Teflon® can
be used. Teflon is generally used in this area because it
has higher heat resistance. The cylinder manufactur
er's instructions can tell you what material is best-suit
ed for the unit and the application. While the gland is
removed, examine and clean it. If it is damaged,
replace it. Exercise care when installing the new pack
ing to prevent cutting or nicking the seal lip or edges.
9.33 A rod wiper or scraper is usually installed on
the outermost portion of the gland to remove any dirt
or contamination on the piston rod. This wiper or
scraper will keep harmful foreign material from being
drawn into the packings, thereby extending their
effective life.
9.34 After making sure that the piston is fastened
securely to the rod, reassemble the cylinder. It is
advisable to replace the lube seals whenever the
cylinder heads are removed from the unit. Exercise
care when the tie rods are retightened to prevent inter
nal misalignment and fluid leakage from the tube
ends. The amount of tightening torque required may
be found either on the cylinder nameplate or in the
manufacturer's instructions.
9.35 Tie rods are usually manufactured from high
tensile-strength steel. They are prestressed by the
manufacturer during assembly. The tie rod nuts may
or may not be self-locking. Generally, prestressing the
tie rod with the proper amount of torque eliminates
the need for locknuts.
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Cylinder Installation
9.36 Most manufacturers ship their cylinders with
the ports sealed by some form of port plug. These
plugs prevent damaging dirt and grit from entering
the cylinder during transit or storage. Do not remove
these plugs until you are ready to connect the cylinder
to the piping. Before connecting the cylinder, all pipe
and fittings .should be blown clean of dirt, scale, and
thread chips. Many seemingly sound installations
have failed to operate properly because of failure to
follow these elementary procedures.
9.37 Accurate mounting and alignment are essen
tial to proper cylinder performance. By eliminating
any and all side loading, the packing and bearing life
will be increased. Mounting .surfaces must be straight
and/or parallel for foot-mount units. Bearings for pin
or trunnion mountings must be in line.
9.38 For fixed-mounted cylinders, align the end of
the piston rod properly before rigidly bolting the
cylinder into position. Use shims where necessary.
Foot-mount, end-lug and other cylinders of this type
should be mounted on fitted bolts or dowels to pre
vent them from shifting position during their work
cycle.
9.39 In all cases, the action of the piston rod and
the device to which it is connected must be in the
same plane. Remember that deflection in an extend
ing piston rod can cause severe side loading. Also
remember that even though a pivot-mounted cylinder
arcs as it travels throughout its stroke, this arc is still
in a single operating direction.
9.40 If dirt or abrasive material adhering to the
piston rod is not removed, it can cause excessive wear
to the rod, gland, and wiper. The purpose of the wiper
is to remove such foreign matter, but many times the
accumulation is more than the wiper can handle.
(This frequently happens in welding shops and
foundries.) One way of solving this problem is by
using a piston rod boot, as shown in Fig. 9-5. Bear in
mind, however, that the boot can wear and must be
inspected regularly. The cylinder manufacturer will
usually recommend wiper and/or boot selections for
most applications.
9.41 Many times accessories like those in Fig.
9-6 , such as an eye, clevis, or bracket, are
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attached to the piston rod. These
items should either be pinned or
securely held in place with a jam nut.
It is not uncommon for an accessory
to unscrew itself from a piston rod.
Use two wrenches on the flats when
holding the rod, but never use a pipe
wrench on the rod itself. Pipe wrench
marks will damage the rod finish and
ruin the wiper and packings.
9.42 Cushion and speed control
valves are used to regulate cylinder
speed. There are very few problems
encountered when installing speed con
trol valves even though they are an external device.
The only problem may be the time required to adjust
the speed devices so the cylinder travels at the desired
rate of speed.
Shock Absorbers
9.43 Many hydraulic systems have external cylin
der-stopping devices that may or may not work in
conjunction with the control valves. These devices are
used to control the stopping of the load, and are
known as shock absorbers. A typical fixed-orifice
shock absorber is shown in Fig. 9-7. It consists of a
piston traveling inside a clo.sed, ported cylinder. The
ports regulate the amount of fluid passing through
Fig. 9-7. A hydraulic shock absorber
Return spring Metering orifice
Spring guide
Internal cylinder
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Troubleshooting Cylinders 139
Fig.9-6. cylinder accessory attachments
spin^
Clevis pin
Female clevis
Eye bracket Clevis bracket
Rod knuckle
them, and the internal spring is used only to return the
rod and not to stop the load.
9.44 A shock absorber stops a moving load by
metering hydraulic fluid through a series of orifices.
This metering of fluid converts the kinetic energy of
the moving load into heat through the friction of the
fluid. The heat energy thus generated is dissipated
into the atmosphere in most applications.
9.45 Excessive noise and banging is an indication of
shock absorber malfunction. A common cause of such
malfunction is a lack of fluid. Because proper action
requires immediate resistance to the load, any air in the
unit will cause problems. The air acts on the piston
Oil return passages
Bumper
cap
Metering orifice
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Fig.9-8. A shock absorber makeup oiler 9.47 The best way to compensate for any loss of
fluids is to install a makeup oiler similar to the one
shown in Fig. 9-8. Periodic inspection of the oiler can
enable you to keep the unit filled.

9.48 Another cause of shock absorber failure is

misalignment. Because these units are linear in
action, any side loading on the rod can cause the
internal parts to wear. This wear will cause internal
leakage, and it will be evidenced by polished areas on
the rod.

9.49 Misalignment of the rod can also be a source

of trouble in the piston, causing the rod to score the
metering tube. When the metering tube is scored, the
Shock absorber
oil will blow by the piston and reduce the resistance
force of the unit. The weakened resistance in the
shock absorber allows it to bottom out too quickly,
causing shock in the system. If this action is very
rings, causing ihem to break. The broken rings allow severe, the piston rod is likely to bend or break.
the oil to flow freely, which results in malfunction.
9.50 Shock absorbers are also made with
9.46 When troubleshooting a shock absorber, first adjustable orifices, to allow for changes in operating
check the locations of seals. The head-to-tube section conditions. Adjustment of the unit is usually made by
and the piston rod gland section are the easiest spots turning a selector knob on the side of the absorber.
for vi.sua! checks. Generally, any leaks there can be Normally, adjustable shock absorbers are set by trial
seen quite easily. Replacement of such packings and error, starting at the high mark and working down
requires no specialized skills, because shock to a satisfactory action. If an adjustable shock
absorbers are assembled in a manner similar to absorber does not have sufficient capacity at its maxi
hydraulic cylinders. mum setting, it must be replaced with a larger unit.

HYDRAULIC TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

CYLINDERS

Problem Catjse Solution 1

ERRATIC 1. insufficient flow. Check valves and pump for proper delivery.
ACTION
2. Cylinder stickir>g o binding, Check for dirt, gummy deposits, or air leaks. Check for misalignment, worn
parts, or defective packing.

3. Sluggish operation Viscosity of oil too high at starting temperature. Change to oil with lower
during warm-up period. viscosity or better viscosity index. Under severe cold conditions, heater
placed in the oil may help.

4. Pilot-control presstro Control line may be too small, or metering-choke vafve not working properly.
too low.

5. Internal leakage in Repair or replace worn parts and loose packing. Check oil to see that
cylinder. viscosity is not too low. Check for excessive contamination or wear.

6. Air in system. Bleed air and check for leaks. Check to see that oil intake is well below
surface of oil in resen/oir. Check pump packings and line connections on
intake side by pouring hydraulic oil over suspected leak.

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 Troubleshooting Cylinders 141

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142 Programmed Exercises

9-9. Always make sure piston seals are 9-9. FLUIDS

comoatible with hvdraulic
used in the system. Ref: 9.27, 9.28

9-10. Dirt or other contaminants are usually 9-10. WIPER or SCRAPER

removed from the piston rod by a rod
Ref: 9.33

9-11. In reassembling a cylinder from which 9-11. TUBE SEALS

the heads have been removed, it is
advisable to replace the Ref: 9.34

9-12. When installing fixed cylinders, always 9-12. ALIGNED

make sure they are proper
ly- Ref: 9.38

9-13. When installing a hydraulic cylinder in 9-13. BOOT

an extremely dirty location, be sure to
use a oiston rod for protec Ref: 9.40
tion.

9-14. A clevis should be attached to the pis 9-14. JAM NUT

ton rod with a pin or afn)
Ref: 9.41

9-15. Shock absorbers are used to control 9-15. STOPPING

the of a loaded cylinder.
Ref: 9.43

9-16. The best way to compensate for loss of 9-16. MAKEUP OILER
shock absorber fluid is to install a(n)
Ref: 9.47

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 Self-Check Quiz 143

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

9-1. Which of the foliowing procedures should be 9-6. A cylinder parts or assembly drawing Is help
used to troubleshoot a hydraulic cylinder? ful when doing which of the following opera
tions?
□ a. Do It as quickly as possible
□ b. Follow a logical sequence □ a. Testing
□ c. Always use special tools □ b. Troubleshooting
□ d. Check the most difficult Items first □ c. Installing
□ d. Repairing
9-2. The best way to check for external cylinder
misalignment Is with the 9-7. Which of the following Items must be checked
when selecting a cylinder piston seal?
□ a. load disconnected
□ b. cylinder at full pressure □ a. Hydraulic fluid
□ c. cylinder at no pressure □ b. Piston speed
□ d. cylinder on a test stand □ c. Piston diameter
□ d. Piston rod boot
9-3. When pressure-testing a cylinder under a no-
load condition, an Increase In pressure Indl- 9-8. The material used for piston rods may be par
cates tially Identified with the aid of a

□ a. an undersized cylinder □ a. surface gauge

□ b. pump pressure too high □ b. prismatic gauge
□ c. an open return line □ c. magnet
□ d. Internal binding □ d. Brinell tester

9-4. A cylinder that requires additional fluid after It 9-9. Dirt or other contaminants on the piston rod
has completed Its stroke are prevented from entering the cylinder by a

□ a. Is too large for the application □ a. filter

□ b. has Internal leakage □ b. wiper
□ c. has Internal binding □ c. speed valve
□ d. requires a speed control valve □ d. cylinder cover

9-5. A blocked orifice on a speed control valve will 9-10. When Installed, fixed, flange-mounted cylin
cause a cylinder to ders must be

□ a. overspeed □ a. aligned properly

□ b. reverse □ b. keyed
□ c. stop □ c. mounted horizontally
□ d. bottom out □ d. allowed to pivot

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144 Lesson Nine

SUMMARY

The most common causes of cylinder malfunction repairing the cylinder must be the same as those
include cylinders that are too small for the job, in the cylinder.
misalignment,Inadequate fluid pressure, and
worn piston seals or piston rod packings. Begin When Installing a new cylinder, do not remove the
your inspection with the external parts of the port plugs until you are ready to connect the
cylinder, then go to check the pressure at the cylinder to the piping. Blow the pipe and fittings
cylinder. clean before you connect the cylinder.

If disassembly Is necessary, obtain a detailed On systems with shock absorbers, excessive

parts or assembly drawing of the unit, then be noise and banging Indicate shock absorber mal
sure to remove the parts of the cylinder In the function. Common shock absorber problems
proper order. Any replacement parts used In Include lack of oil and misalignment.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

9-1. b. Follow a logical sequence. Ref:9.04 9-6. d. Repairing. Ret: 9.23

9-2. a. Load disconnected. Ref;9.08 9-7. a. Hydraulic fluid. Ref: 9.27

9-3. d. Internal binding. Ref:9.16 9-8. c. Magnet. Ref: 9.30

9-4. b. Has internal leakage. Ref;9.17 9-9. b. Wiper. Ref:9.33

9-5. c. Stop. Ret: 9.21 9-10. a. Aligned properly. Ref:9.38

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 9-3. Westinghouse Air Brake Co., Ruid Power Div.

Figure 9-6. Parker-Hannifin, Inc.
Rgure 9-7. Hanna Div., REX Ruid Power Group

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DEVELOPING HYDRAUUC WOUBLESHOOnNG SKILLS

Lesson Ten

Tmubleshooting
Pumps
and Motors

TPC Training Systems

 146

Lesson
w

Troubleshooting Pumps
10 and Motors

TOPICS

Pumps and Motors Radial-Piston Pump Problems

Troubleshooting Pump and Motor Repair
Gear Pump Problems Pump Maintenance Checks
Vane Pump Problems Troubleshooting Chart(Pumps)
Vane Motors Troubleshooting Chart(Motors)
Axial-Piston Pump Problems

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to.

• List the proper procedures for troubleshooting Describe the effects of contaminants in axial-piston
pumps and motors. and radial-piston pumps.
• Name some common causes of pump failure. Explain the differences between a vane motor and
• Describe typical causes of cavitation. a vane pump.
• Discuss the major sources of problems in gear
pumps and vane pumps.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Cavitation 10.08 a void passing through a pump;

condition caused by excessive speed, restricted
pump inlet or restricted inlet filters

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Pumps are the heart of any hydraulic system. Hydraulic motors are important as
rotary actuators. Because of their similarity in design and construction, they
can be considered as one when discussing problems and troubleshooting.
Many of the problems are exactly the same as those in other hydraulic compo
nents-misalignment, careless or hasty installation, fluid difficulties, wear,
excessive temperatures, and pressures that cause trouble.
This Lesson explains the fundamental causes and effects of hydraulic pump
problems. Knowledge of these causes and their effects on the pump motor will
help you troubleshoot the system during a breakdown. The troubleshooting
charts at the end of the Lesson will also serve as a guide for future reference.
Pumps and Motors
10.01 As the source of energy in a hydraulic sys
tem,the pump must be operating before anything else
can happen. In many systems, in fact, it will be run
ning even when the system is not operating. As a
result, a pump has a more active performance life
than any other component in a hydraulic system. The
only exception to this is the hydraulic motor. This is
why pumps and motors require more maintenance
time than other components in the circuit.
10.02 The pumps and hydraulic motors described in
this Lesson include:
• gear pumps
• vane pumps
• axial-piston pumps
• radial-piston pumps.
Because of similarities in design and construction,
problems that occur in pumps also frequently occur
in motors. Although the text refers to pumps, the
same information applies to motors. If any of the
information does not apply to both, it is indicated
accordingly.
Troubleshooting
10.03 The procedures used to troubleshoot a
hydraulic pump or motor in service usually consist of
testing for pressure, flow, and temperature. Because
visual inspections while the pump is in operation are
limited, listening to the pump is the only other way of
determining what is happening inside the unit. After
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the pump has been disassembled, a visual inspection
of the components will give you a better idea of what
caused the malfunction.
10.04 The troubleshooting procedures used for the
rest of the hydraulic system also apply to pumps and
motors. As before, trying to determine the reason for
the pump failure must be approached in a logical,
step-by-step sequence. The most obvious causes
should be checked out first and the more difficult
items checked last. The final step in troubleshooting
involves disassembling the pump for a visual inspec
tion.
10.05 Some of the more common causes of pump
failure are contamination, cavitation, incompatible
fluid, and extreme temperatures. Usually, their symp
toms and the damage they do are the same in all types
of pumps. Each of the symptoms is described in the
following paragraphs. The effect of these symptoms
in the different pumps is discussed later in this Les
son.
10.06 The presence of solid contaminants in a
pump normally shows up as a pitted or pocked
appearance of the gears, and circular grooves on the
side wear plates. External gear pumps can pass a
large amount of contamination without immediate
severe damage. Harder particles, especially metallic
ones,cause the most damage to a pump. Wear caused
by contaminants reduces a pump's ability to maintain
the proper level of fluid flow and the correct pres
sure.
10.07 Air in a hydraulic pump results in a loss of
lubrication and a spongy (slightly compressible) sys
tem. Normally, noise during operation is an indication
of air in the pump. If the air leak is corrected soon
 Fig. 10-1. Gear pumps

enough, little or no damage will result. If it is not cor
rected, the entire system can become airbound and
inoperative.
10.08 Cavitation is sometimes mistaken for air in
the pump because it also increases the operating noise
level. This condition is most noticeable near the inlet
section, and it sounds as though the pump has marbles
in it. Actually, cavitation is a void passing through the
pump. As the void moves from inlet to outlet, the oil
collapses rapidly, something like an explosion in
reverse. The forces at work during the collapse cause
metal particles to break away from the pump parts.
Parts affected have the appearance of being pocked or
pitted with tiny craters. Cavitation is not only harmful
in itself, but it creates the further problem of contami
nation right in the pump.
10.09 Typical causes of cavitation include: exces
sive speed, restricted pump inlet, and dirty or restrict
ed inlet filters. On units using hose for the inlet line,
collapsing of the hose will cau.se an inlet restriction.
Runaway loads can also cause cavitation at the gear
motor.

Fig. 10-2. Internal gear pumps

Discharge

Inner
(driven) Externa
gear

Crescent

Crescent gear pump Gerotor gear pump

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10.10 If the fluid viscosity is too low, wire drawing
occurs on the outer sealing surfaces of the wear
plates. Even if the fluid has good lubricity, low oper
ating viscosity will cause problems. The low operat
ing range for fluid viscosity in gear pumps is general
ly from 30 to 60 SSU. Low viscosity caused by
excessive operating temperature can be corrected by
reducing the operating temperature. If a higher oper
ating temperature is acceptable, use a higher-viscosity
fluid. Always be sure that the fluid meets the pump
manufacturer's recommendations.
10.11 Low viscosity and poor lubrication frequently
allow metal-to-metal contact between rotating and
nonrotating parts. The metallic contact increases oper
ating temperature and allows short surface cracks
(heat checks) to form. These cracks may be bluish in
color, indicating that heat has been generated. Mis
alignment, end thrust, or distortion of the body from
incorrect mounting are additional causes of metallic
contact.
10.12 Pressure shocks, although infrequent, do
occur. If a port plate is cracked all the way through,
it indicates that high-pressure shocks are being
transmitted back to the pump. Pressure shocks may
cause other failures such as a fractured pressure
ring, repeated shaft-seal blowout, broken rotor seg
ments, cracked and broken vanes and teeth, or a
fracture in the pump housing. Although all pumps
are designed with a safety factor, these failures
occur occasionally.
Gear Pump Problems
10.13 As shown in Fig. 10-1 gear pumps vary in
construction, size, and capacity (flow volume and
pressure). Other differences are in the types of the
gears used, and the design features required to allow
the pump to operate at higher or lower pressure.
10.14 Gear pumps transfer fluid by the meshing of
two gears. The gears may be positioned side by side
(external), or one inside another (internal). In all
cases, the surface finish of the gear teeth is important
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Troubleshooting Pumps and Motors 149
to the efficient performance of the pump. Inspection
of the mating tooth surfaces, the side faces of the
gears, and also the pump housing can quickly reveal
any problems with the pump. Excessive wear,
scratches, or roughness mean that solid contaminants
have been introduced into the pump.
10.15 Wear taking place within a gear pump nor
mally is distributed evenly on all sealing and wearing
surfaces of the gear teeth and side pressure plates. If
the pump body shows evidence of severe wear,it may
be advisable to discard the pump rather than repair it.
Determining when a pump is worn enough to justify
replacement is a matter ofjudgment based on experi
ence. Consult your supervisor before making a deci
sion.
10.16 Many gear pumps designed for higher-pres
sure applications have separate wear plates, which
may be pressure-balanced. Replaceable bearings and
shaft seals are common. Close tolerance machining,
stronger materials, and tighter heat-treat specifica
tions provide a better, longer-lasting pump needed for
such applications. Because such pumps are also more
expensive, more serious consideration should be
given to reworking or repairing them.
10.17 Because all gear pumps and motors are con
stant-displacement units, the only control used with
them is an occasional built-in relief valve. For this
reason, contamination, improper fluid conditions,
cavitation, and bearing and shaft wear are the major
sources of gear pump troubles.
10.18 Internal gear pumps, like the crescent or
gerotor pumps and motors shown in Fig. 10-2, are
used widely in industry. Crescent gear pumps (not
manufactured as motors) are used for low-pressure
(100 to 300 psi) applications and for transfer or
booster circuits. Gerotor pumps are often driven at
higher speeds (2000 to 5000 rpm) and operate
between 1500 and 2000 psi. Gerotor motors that
operate at higher speeds usually have built-in reduc
tion gears to increase the torque at the output shaft
for lower speeds.
150 Programmed Exercises

10-1. Problems that occur In hydraulic pumps 10-1. MOTORS

also occur in hydraulic
Ref: 10.02

10-2. Troubleshooting hydraulic pumps and 10-2. FLOW,TEMPERATURE

motors usually consists of testing for
oressure. . and Ref: 10.03

10-3. Pitted gear teeth and grooves on the 10-3. SOLID

side wear plates of a hydraulic pump
Indicate the oresence of con Ref: 10.06
taminants.

10-4. Air can be Identified In a hydraulic sys 10-4. SPONGY

tem bv Dumo noise and afn)
system. Ref: 10.07

10-5. Wire drawing on the wear plates In a 10-5 LOW

hydraulic pump occurs when the fluid
viscosity becomes too Ref: 10.10

10-6. MISALIGNMENT, END THRUST,

10-6. Name at least three causes of metallic
BODY DISTORTION, POOR LUBRI
contact In a hydraulic pump.
CATION, LOW VISCOSITY

Ref: 10.11

10-7. Repeated shaft-seal blowout, cracked 10-7. PRESSURE SHOCKS

or broken teeth, and broken rotor seg
ments In a hydraulic pump all Indicate Ref: 10.12
the presence of

10-8. The only controls used with gear 10-8. RELIEF

pumps are valves.
Ref: 10.17

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Vane Pump Problems
10.19 Vane pumps and motors are similar in con
struction, but there are distinct differences in their
operation. A vane motor is always a constant-displace
ment unit, and its vanes are held in place mechanically.
A vane pump cannot be used directiy as a vane motor,
although most vane motors can operate as pumps.
10.20 Vane pumps are either constant-displacement
or variable-displacement. The difference between
them is that the constant-displacement pump has an
elliptical-shaped (oval) ring and the variable-displace
ment pump has a circular ring.
10.21 In the pump with an elliptical ring, opposing
inlet and outlet ports tend to balance the pressure
loads on the shaft and shaft bearings. As a result,
smaller shaft bearings are used in a balanced vane
pump than in an unbalanced vane pump. The actual
pumping cartridge, or the area where the vanes and
rotors are located, is similar for both types of pumps.
The rotor and shaft may be a one-piece forging or
separate pieces fastened together with a key or spline
arrangement.
10.22 In a variable-displacement vane pump, the
movement of the circular ring is controlled by a com
pensator. The compensator permits the displacement
or flow volume to change while the drive speed
remains constant. To designate this type of pump con
trol, the term pressure compensator is used, because
the compensator responds to a pressure signal.
10.23 Because the pressure compensator allows the
pump to shift to a zero or no-flow position, no relief
valve is required. Other controls are provided on vari
able-displacement vane pumps to vary the flow vol
ume in relation to pressure, select multiple flow or
pressure valves, control the pump remotely and
unload the pump.
10.24 In troubleshooting a pressure compensator,
the secret is to understand just what the control is sup
posed to make the pump do. When you come across a
control such as this, you will be able to understand its
operation better if you refer to the instmction or infor
mation sheets supplied by the manufacturer.
10.25 The greatest amount of wear for all vane
pumps occurs at the tip of the vanes where they con
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Troubleshooting Pumps and Motors 151
tact the ring. By using the proper fluid, the ring and
vanes will always be separated by a liquid film.
Although manufacturers'fluid recommendations vary,
an operating viscosity of 80 SSU is the low limit for
lower-speed applications (1200 rpm and below). For
operation between 1200 and 2400 rpm, 100 to 120
SSU is generally the low limit of operating viscosity.
10.26 The effect of wear and damage from solid
contaminants is the same as in a gear pump. If the
port or side plate has deep groves that look as though
they were cut by the vanes, check closely for shaft
misalignment or end thrust transmitted along the
shaft. Occasionally, poor internal alignment is the
cause. To minimize the possibility of misalignment,
many manufacturers use doweled construction and
self-aligning bearings.
Vane Motors
10.27 The major difference between a vane motor
and a vane pump is that the vanes in a motor must be
held positively against the ring (usually by springs).
In a pump,the vanes are held against the ring by cen
trifugal force. The reason that the vanes in a motor are
held in position is that the motor must start up from
zero speed, when no centrifugal force is available to
hold the vanes in contact with the ring.
10.28 Vane motors are constant-displacement units,
and they can rotate in either direction. Motor speed is
regulated by varying the rate of fluid flow to the
motor. Because the housing of the motor is pressur
ized, it is common to provide a drain line to return
excess fluid to the reservoir. To prevent blowout of
the motor shaft seal, the pressure on the drain line
should be kept below 15 psi.
Axial-Piston Pump Problems
10.29 Axial-piston pump and motors can be either
constant-displacement or variable-displacement units.
The basic construction is much the same for pumps
and motors. The differences are in the port plate,
cylinder barrel, and piston design. Figure 10-3 on the
next page shows a basic axial-piston pump with a
nonrotating cylinder barrel.
10.30 The port plate of the axial-piston pump
shown remains flat against the rotating cylinder bar
rel. A series of equally spaced,radially located pistons
 Fig. 10-3. An axial-piston pump
Piston return spring
Housing
Drive shaft
Wobble plate
Piston cap
are placed within the cylinder barrel. TTie pistons are
attached to the wobble or cam plate, and as it rotates,
the pistons are stroked in and out. Stroke movement is
regulated by the wobble plate which may be fixed in
place or movable (see Fig. 10-4).
10.31 Axial-piston pumps are designed for higher-
pressure applications and are manufactured with close
tolerances. It is important that contaminants are kept
out of the pump —even small amounts of dirt will
cause poor performance, or no performance at all.
Very fine mesh filters installed just ahead of the pump
remove the contaminants.
10.32 If contaminants are allowed to get into the
pump, their presence shows up quickly. Wear of only
Fig. 10-4. Cam plate for axial-piston pump
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Inlet port Outlet port
Outlet
check ball
Inlet check ball
a couple of thousandths of an inch may cause separa
tion of the barrel and port plate because pressurized
oil gets into the wear paths and forces the two parts
apart. This is called barrel "blowoff." To correct this
condition, relap the wearing surfaces of both the bar
rel and plate.
10.33 Because of the very close tolerances between
pump parts, oil losses from leakage are generally
quite low. This can cause pumps to run hot, especially
when flow volume is at or near zero and the pressure
setting is low. Heat checks or heat cracks can result,
which lead to further pump wear. A circuit change
usually is needed to correct this problem. Be sure to
follow the pump manufacturer's instructions.
Radial-Piston Pump Problems
10.34 Radial-piston pumps operate in much the
same way as axial-piston pumps with check valves,
except that the pistons are positioned like spokes on
a wheel, and are stroked by a rotating cam, as
shown in Fig. 10-5. Each piston is a separate pump
in itself. This allows the pump to operate more than
one circuit, reducing power requirements and heat
losses.
10.35 Although radial-piston pumps are made dif
ferently than axial-piston pumps, their problems are
similar. Close manufacturing tolerances and low fluid
losses cause heat problems and allow contaminants to
accelerate wear within the pump.
 Troubleshooting Pumps and Motors 153

Fig. 10-5. Radial-piston pumps

&

Pump and Motor Repair on. A sample of a pump parts drawing is shown in
Fig. 10-6. This drawing will aid you in determining
10.36 The first thing to do when you have to exactly where the various components are placed
repair a pump or motor is to obtain a drawing or and how they fit with each other. In addition,
parts assembly sketch of the unit you are working always lay out the parts in the order in which they

Fig. 10-6. Pump parts drawing

20-35178-02 Key

83-63037-01 20-35157-02 Key

Snap ring (2 req'd)
82-20213-07
-07 0-ring
0-rinq
83-32404-02
Screw (2 req'd) 20-60905-02
*20-45012-02
Bearing (2 req'd)
Flange mounting
20-67200-02
20-35166-02
Name plate Shaft

82-01015-21
Seal (2 req'd)

20-11748-02
83-130904-03 Locating pin
Screw (12 req'd)
Torque to 40 ft-lb
20-69061-02
Gerotor set

Jfel
20-45401-03
Cap Gerotor set
80-55012-01 Thrust bearing Direction of rotation Head Body
20-27003-02 Clockwise 20-44701-02 20-44700-02
9^ Gasket Counterclockwise 20-44704-02 20-44703-02
83-13009-03 83-63436-01 Snap ring
Screw (8 req'd)

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were removed from the pump. In the long run, this
will make your job easier.
10.37 When any type of gear pump or motor is
being repaired, it is good general practice to replace
all antifriction bearings, shaft seals, and gaskets. This
is true even if the unit has not failed completely. The
cost of such parts is low, and to inspect them for evi
dence of wear or damage is both difficult and time-
consuming. Care should be exercised that the replace
ment bearings are duplicates of the ones that were in
the unit. Also, all thrust and tapered roller bearings
must be placed correctly to do their job properly.
Pump Maintenance Checks
10.38 If plain sleeve bearings are used, close inspec
tion of the I.D. surfaces usually will indicate if replace
ment is necessary. Even when the bearings do not show
much evidence of damage or wear, check them closely.
When reinstalling sleeve bearings, be sure to line up
the lubrication grooves or slots properly. Improper
location of the.se grooves can result in rapid failure
after the unit has been put back into service.
10.39 Be sure to use seals that are compatible with
the hydraulic fluid in the system. Many pumps
require seal or bearing changes if fire-resistant fluids
are to be used.
10.40 When working on vane pumps, be sure the
vanes are put back correctly. In some pumps you will
be able to turn the vanes around in the vane slot and
use the opposite edge as a new wearing surface. In
others, the vanes have a beveled edge and can only be
inserted one way. Because of the variations, it is nec
essary to make sure that the vanes are installed cor
rectly.
10.41 In pressure-compensated pumps where the
controls act upon the ring through a guided piston,
the condition of the piston bore is important to prop
er pump operation. If piston rings are used, remove
all ridges and scratches from the bore of the cylinder
with a hone. Then replace the rings. Building up the
diameter of the original piston to fit the honed-out
bore should also allow the pump to perform like
new.

HYDRAULIC TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

PUMPS

Problem Soiut on

EXCESSIVE 1. Pump rotating in wrong direction. See arrow on pump case. Direction of rotation must agree.
PUMP NOISE
2. Oil level low. Fill reservoir until surface of oil is well above end of suction
line during all of work cycle.

3. Wrong type of oil. Use good clean hydraulic oil of recommended viscosity.

4. Pump running too fast. Reduce speed. Speeds above rating are harmful and cause
early pump failure.

5. Coupling misalignment. Realign pump and motor to manufacturer's recommendation

6. Reservoirs not vented. Vent reservoir through breather air filter.

7. Air leak in suction side of pump. Pour hydraulic oil on joints and around shaft, listening for
change in sound of operation. Tighten as required. Replace
seal.

8. Flow through suction piping restricted. Check suction piping and fittings. Are they full size through
out? Be sure suction line is not blocked with foreign
material. Avoid excessively long suction lines.

9. Pump alrtx}und. Air locked in pumping chamber has no way to escape. Stop
pump immediately. Bleed pump before restarting.

10. Pressure ring worn. Replace. This condition caused by hot, thin, dirty oil, or no
oil at all.

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 Troubleshooting Pumps and Motors 155

HYDRAULIC TROUBLESHOOTING CHART (continued)

PUMPS

Problem Soiution

EXCESSIVE 11. Filter or strainer restricted. Clean or replace filter or strainer.

PUMP NOISE
12. Air bubbles In Intake line. Provide reservoir with baffles. All pressure return lines to
reservoir must be below oil surface, and on opposite side of
the baffle from intake lines.

13. Two pumps to common manifold. Check valve must be placed in the discharge line of the
pump which has the lowest pressure to prevent backflow
and surging.

LEAKAGE 1. Abrasives on pump shaft. Protect shaft from abrasive dust and foreign material.
AT OIL SEAL
2. Improper fluid. Use special seals for synthetic fluids.

3. Packing damaged when installed or worn. Replace oil seal assembly. Ease packing on shaft carefully
to avoid cutting on keyway.

4. Coupling misalignment. Realign pump and motor shafts.

5. Oil too hot. Provide cooling.

OVERLOADING 1. Motor not correctly sized for pressure and Check.

MOTOR volume requirements.

2. Starting pump at full pressure and volume. Use higher starting torque motor or start pump with valve
closed so no oil will flow.

3. Inadequate motor-overload protection. Install larger capacity unit and bigger heaters.

4. Low voltage. Larger wire leads.

5. Motor wired for wrong voltage. Check motor leads for proper voltage connections.

6. Starting pump at full pressure. Reduce pump pressure before starting motor. Readjust
pressure to system requirements after motor is up to re
quired speed.

PUMP NOT 1. Loose pressure on adjusting screw. Tighten adjusting screw to manufacturer's recommendations.
DELIVERING
OIL 2. Pump running in wrong direction. Check arrow on pump housing or nameplate.

3. Reservoir oil level low. Maintain oil in reservoir at recommended level.

4. Pump running too slowly. Increase to proper speed.

5. Air leak in suction line. Tighten joints and apply good pipe compound, nonsoluble
in oil.

6. Oil too heavy for proper priming. Thinner oil should be used, per recommendations for given
temperatures and service.

7. Bleed-off in other section of drcuK. Check for open center valves or other controls connected
with a tank port.

8. Suction line or suction filter blocked. Clean lines and filters. Periodic checks should be made as a
preventive maintenance precaution.

9. Broken pump shaft or rotor. Replace broken parts. Check for signs of excessive shock,
dirt, foreign material, or other probable causes of failure.

10. Key sheared at rotor or coupling. Check and replace if required.

11. Not enough oil in pump. Check volume of oil that will free-flow through pump inlet.

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 HYDRAULIC TROUBLESHOOTING CHART (continued)
FLUID MOTORS

Problem Cause Solution

PUMP NOT 12. Pump a!rtx>und. Back out cylinder sleeves until oil flows freely, and pump
DELIVERING free of air.
OIL

LACK OF 1. Dirt or chips blocking pump. Pump should be dismantled and inspected for dirt or chips.
VOLUME

PUMP NOT 1. Pump not delivering oil. See "Pump Not Delivering Oil."
DELIVERING
PRESSURE 2. Pressure adjusting screw set too low. Set adjusting screw to obtain desired operating pressure.

3. Oil bypassing to reservoir. Test circuit pressure progressively. Look for open-center
valves or other valves open to reservoir.

4. Defective pressure gauge. Gauge line is Install pressure gauge known to tire accurate in a line open to
shut oft. pump pressure.

5. Pump speed too slow. Check minimum speed recommendations.

6. Relief valve set too low. Relief valve regulates the maximum pressure the pump will
put out.

7. Relief valve not functioning properly. Seat may be worn or springs may be broken. Replace.

BEARING 1. Chips or other contaminants in bearings. Be sure that oil is clean. Essential for efficient operation and
FAILURE long life of bearings.

2. Coupling misalignment Realign pump and motor shafts.

3. Excessive or shock loads. Reduce operating pressure. Follow maximum rating.

4. Inadequate lubrication. Cool hydraulic fluid and check for proper fluid.

5. Overhung load. Pumps are not designed to handle high overhung loads or
side thrust on the drive shaft. Provide outboard bearings.

MOTOR 6. Electric motor shaft end play. Driving or Eliminate all end play on electric motors. Couplings should
TURNING IN hammering coupling on or off pump shaft. be a slip fit onto the pump shaft.
WRONG
DIRECTION 7. Pump running too fast. Check maximum allowable speed.

MOTOR WILL 1. Incorrect piping between control vedve and Check circuit to determine correct piping.
NOTTURN motor.
OVER

MOTOR WILL 1. Overload relief valve adjustment set too low. Check system pressure. Reset relief valve.
NOT DEVELOP
PROPER 2. Relief valve sticking open. Remove dirt under pressure adjustment ball or piston.
SPEED OR
TORQUE 3. Free recirculatlon of oil to reservoir through Directional control valve may be in open center, neutral.
system. Other return line may unintentionally be open. Repair or
replace valve.

4. Misalignment causing driven mechanism to Remove motor. Check torque and alignment requirement of
bind. driven shaft.

5. Pump not delivering enough pressure or Check pump delivery and pressure.
volume.

EXTERNAL OIL 1. Gaskets leaking or reservoir drain Replace. Drain line must be piped directly to the reservoir.
LEAKAGE (If supplied) not connected.
FROM MOTOR

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 Troubleshooting Pumps and Motors 157

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158 Programmed Exercises

10-9. Name the two types of vane pumps. 10-9. CONSTANT-DISPLACEMENT,

VARIABLE-DISPLACEMENT W

Ref: 10.20

10-10. In a variable-displacement pump, the 10-10. COMPENSATOR

circular ring movement is controlled by
a pressure Ref: 10.22

10-11. Wear in a vane pump can be reduced to 10-11. FLUID

a minimum by using the proper
Ref: 10.25

10-12. How are the vanes in a vane motor 10-12. MECHANICAL DEVICES(USUALLY
held in contact with the motor ring? SPRINGS) ARE USED

Ref: 10.27

10-13. Axial-piston pumps can produce higher 10-13. TOLERANCES

discharge pressures because of their
close Ref: 10.31

10-14. In a radial-piston pump, each piston 10-14. PUMP

acts as afn^
Ref: 10.34

10-15. The first thing to do when you must 10-15. DRAWING,or PARTS ASSEMBLY
repair a pump or motor is obtain a(n) SKETCH
of the unit.
Ref: 10.36

10-16. When reinstalling sleeve bearings, be 10-16. GROOVES or SLOTS

sure to line up the lubrication
Ref: 10.38

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 Self-Check Quiz 159

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

10-1. When troubleshooting a hydraulic pump, 10-6. Constant-displacement gear pumps are usu
which of the following should you do LAST? ally controlled by a(n)

□ a. Test for fluid flow □ a. overload trip

□ b. Test for fluid temperature □ b. relief valve
□ c. Test for fluid pressure □ c. pressure regulator
□ d. Visually inspect components □ d. variable-speed motor

10-2. Air in a hydraulic system is indicated by 10-7. A variable-displacement pump does not
require a relief valve because the pump can
□ a. a tripped overload switch
□ b. short cycling □ a. start and stop independently
□ c. soft or spongy action □ b. shift to a no-flow position
□ d a stopped pump □ c. shift to a full-flow position
□ d. bypass excess fluid
10-3. Voids similar to trapped air passing through a
pump are referred to as pump 10-8. The vanes in a vane motor are held against
the side of the motor ring by
□ a. cavitation
□ b. excavation □ a. centripetal force
□ c. excitation □ b. centrifugal force
□ d. entrainment □ c. mechanical force
□ d. magnetic force
10-4. Evidence of pressure shocks usually includes
10-9. Vane motors are classed as units.
□ a. fractured or broken parts
□ b. overheated motor □ a. constant-displacement
□ c. cavitation □ b. variable-displacement
□ d. dirty inlet filters □ c. pressure-compensated
□ d. pressure-drained
10-5. Any solid contaminants that enter a pump
cause 10-10. Because of the close tolerances in axial-
piston pumps, low-volume pumping can
□ a. cavitation cause

□ b. entrained air
□ c. excessive wear □ a. slow down
□ d. excessive noise □ b. overspeed
□ c. shut off
□ d. run hot

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160 Lesson Ten

SUMMARY

The pump is the key to the operation of the plates is the result of low fluid viscosity. Low vis
hydrauiic system. It must operate or the system cosity and poor lubrication can allow metal-to-
cannot. The hydraulic motor is equally important. metal contact between parts. The results are sur
Both units are subject to the same problems.The face cracks, misalignment,end thrust, and body
basic rules for troubleshooting both units are the distortion. A crack through a port plate indicates
same as for troubleshooting any device:follow a that high-pressure shocks are being transmitted
logical sequence and check the more apparent back to the pump.
causes first.
Before you try to repair a pump or motor, you
Contamination, cavitation, incompatible fluids, should obtain a drawing or parts assembly sketch
and extreme temperatures are common causes of of the unit you are working on. As you disassem
pump failure. Wear caused by contaminants ble the motor or pump,lay out the parts in the
reduces fluid flow and pressure. Noise during same order as they were removed from the unit.
operation may be a sign of air In the pump. Cavi Make sure that all replacement parts are identical
tation also causes noise during operation. Wire to the ones they replace.
drawing on the outer sealing surfaces of the wear

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

10-1. d. Visually inspect components. 10-6. b. Relief valve. Ref: 10.17

Ret: 10.03
10-7. b. Shift to a no-flow position.
10-2. 0. Soft or spongy action. Ref: 10.07 Ref: 10.23

10-3. a. Cavitation. Ref: 10.08 10-8. c. Mechanical force. Ref: 10.27

10-4. a. Fractured or broken parts. 10-9. a. Constant-displacement. Ref: 10.28

Ref: 10.12
10-10. d. Run hot. Ref: 10.33
10-5. 0. Excessive wear. Ref: 10.14

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 10-1. Racine Hydraulics Figure 10-5. Racine Hydraulics, Div. REX Ruid Power Group
Figure 10-3. Oynex DIv., Applied Power Industries Rgure 10-6. Double A Products Co., Subsidiary Brown & Sharpe
Mfg. Co.

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