I Installing and lUaintaining Tubing and Hose Systems

Lesson One

Tubing
Fundamentals

A division ol
TPC Training Systems Teiemedia, Inc.
 Lesson One
Tubing Fundamentals

Topics

Handling Tubing
Tubing or Pipe? Cutting Tubing
Tubing Specifications Sawing Tubing
Copper Water Tubing Filing and Deburring Tubing
Other Tubing Materials Calculating Tubing Length
Fittings Bending Tubing

Tubing or Pipe?
1.01 The decision of whether to use tubing or
pipe for a given application depends in part on the
substance to be carried and the pressures and flow
rates involved. However, other factors such as
the ease of installation and maintenance are also
important.
1.02 One basic difference between tubing and
pipe is that the wall thickness of pipe must be
sufficient to retain its strength after threading.
That is, since threading reduces the strength of a
pipe, the pipe wall must be thick enough to allow
for this reduction in strength and still withstand
the stress caused by fluid pressure.
1.03 Most tubing connections are made without
threading the tubing. This means that the waU
thickness of tubing is constant over its entire
length and is generally less than that required for
pipe. Consequently, a length of tubing is lighter
than an equivalent length of pipe.
1.04 There are at least three reasons why tubing
can be a better choice than pipe when all the fac
tors related to a system and its cost are considered:
• Tubing weighs less than pipe and is there
fore easier to handle and install. Supports
for tubing do not have to be as strong or as
numerous as those needed for heavier pipe.
• A run of tubing can be bent around ob
structions, whereas pipe would require a
number of straight sections joined by
fittings. This makes tubing preferable in
applications where the lines must change
direction frequently. The ability to bend
tubing not only eliminates many of the

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Seventh printing, June 1997. Printed in the United States of America.
 Tubing has many characteristics in
common with pipe. Most fundamen
tally, both are used to carry various
substances under pressure from one
location to another. This Lesson de
scribes some of the advantages of
tubing. It presents a number ofimpor
tant factors diat you must take into
consideration when you select tubing
for a particular application.
Different tubing materials and
dimensions are discussed, as well as
the various types of fittings and their
methods of connection. The Lesson
explains the proper procedures for
handling,cutting,filing, measuring,
and bending tubing. You will study
the correct way to calculate the
total length of tubing needed for
an instaUation.
In addition, the proper use of
cutters, benders, and deburring tools
is described. Mathematical calculations
are fllustrated by drawings. Study
these figures carefully. A small error
in measurement at one point in a tub
ing ^stem can result in a significant
problem else^ere. The next Lesson
will cover the installation of tubing
systems.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS IN THIS LESSON

Temper 1.10 the degree of hardness or resiliency of Anneal 1.27 to soften or make less brittle by heating
tubing Deburr 1.41 to break loose small chips of material left
Ferrule 1.22 a short tube or bushing used to make a by cutting
tight joint

extra fittings required by pipe, it also re Tubing Specifications

duces the resistance to flow that those
fittings cause. For this reason, a tubing
system often requires less pressure than a
piping system to produce a given flow rate.
The fewer the connections, the fewer
places there are for leaks to occur—which
means less installation and maintenance
work. Leaks can be costly, may affect sys
tem performance, and in some cases are
unsafe.
• Tubing is not as rigid as pipe. As a result,
it can withstand more vibration than pipe.
You should avoid short, straight runs of
tubing. They do not take advantage of the
natural tendency of tubing to deflect under
a load and to absorb vibration. The flexi
bility of tubing also means that a bend in
the line can be an advantage in installa
tions where the tubing must accommodate
thermal expansion or contraction.
1.05 One additional advantage tubing has over
pipe is that connections can be made without
rotating or disturbing the tubing lines. Since tubing
connections generally consist of compression fit
tings rather than threaded joints, installation,
maintenance, and repair are usually easier.
1.06 The three most important factors to con
sider when selecting tubing are the material the
tubing is made of, the inside diameter (I.D.), and
the wall thickness.
1.07 The tubing material is important because
there must be no interaction between the tubing
and the substance being handled. On the one hand,
the tubing must be able to resist any corrosion or
other chemical action caused by the substance it
carries. And on the other, the substance must not
be contaminated by the tubing material. For
example, the contact between a fluid and the
tubing that carries it must not affect the fluid's
odor, taste, or color.
1.08 The I.D. of tubing depends on the flow rate
and pressures required by the installation. Con
versely, the flow rate depends on the pressure and
the tubing I.D. The wall thickness and material
strength determine the bursting pressure of tubing
and therefore the safe operating limits of system
pressure.
Copper Water Tubing
1.09 Copper water tubing can be used to handle
4 Lesson One

Table 1-1. Types of copper water tubing

TypeK Type L Type M
Wall Weight ' Wall 1 Weight Wail Weight
Nominal Actual thickness. per foot; thickness. per foot. thickness. per foot.
size, in. O.D., in. in. lb in. 1 lb in. lb

1/4 0.375 0.035 0.145 0.030 0.126 0.025 0.106

3/8 0.500 0.049 0.269 0.035 0.198 0.025 0.145
1/2 0.625 0.049 0.344 0.040 0.285 0.028 0.204

5/8 0.750 0.049 0.418 0.042 0.362 0.030 0.263

3/4 0.875 0.065 0.641 0.045 0.455 0.032 0.328
1 1.125 0.065 0.839 0.050 0.655 0.035 0.465
1 1/4 1.375 0.065 1.04 0.055 0.884 0.042 0.682

1 1/2 1.625 0.072 1.36 0.060 1.14 0.049 0.940

2 2.125 0.083 2.06 0.070 1.75 0.058 1.46
2 1/2 2.625 0.095 2.93 0.080 2.48 0.065 2.03
3 3.125 0.109 4.00 0.090 3.33 0.072 2.68
3 1/2 3.625 0.120 5.12 0.100 4.29 0.083 3.58
4 4.125 0.134 6.51 0.110 5.38 0.095 4.66
5 5.125 0.160 9.67 0.125 7.61 0.109 6.66
6 6.125 0.192 13.9 0.140 10.2 0.122 8.92
8 8.125 0.271 25.9 0.200 i 19.3 0.170 16.5
10 10.125 0.338 40.3 0.250 1 30.1 0.212 25.6
12 12.125 0.405 57.8 0.280 40.4 0.254 36.7

steam, air, gas, and oil, but is most commonly used
for water (often underground). Table 1-1 gives the
nominal size, the actual outside diameter (O.D.),
the wall thickness, and weight per foot for the
three types of copper water tubing—K, L, and M.
1.10 Types K and L are available in both hard
and soft tempers. Hard temper tubing, called rigid
tubing, is most often used in straight lengths. A
standard length is 20 ft. Special bending equipment
must be used if it is to be bent. Type M is made in
a hard temper only.
Type K is sometimes used for more severe applica
tions and for underground service. Type L is
normally used for interior work.
1.13 Note the difference in wall thickness be
tween Types K and L. The thinner wall of Type L
requires a lower working pressure. This is shown
in Table 1-2, which lists bursting pressures and safe
working pressures for Types K and L. Type M is
used for tubing installations that are not under
pressure—such as vent, drain, and waste systems.
It is for use only with soldered fittings.

1.11 Soft temper tubing, sometimes called semi

rigid tubing, is used when bends are required and
are to be made at the installation site. Special
bending equipment may be used but is not neces
sary. However, care must be taken when handling
and transporting soft temper tubing since it can be
easily distorted or flattened. Although you can buy
soft temper tubing in shorter lengths, it is generally
available in 60-ft or 100-ft coils.
Other Tubing Materials
1.14 Tubing is manufactured in a variety of
materials in order to handle a variety of substances
at varying pressures. When you select tubing
material, you should consider both the pressure
that the tubing must withstand and the need to
avoid interaction between the tubing and the
substance carried.

1.12 Types K and L are available in either 1.15 Water is usually carried in copper tubing.
straight lengths or coils. Both are recommended However, if the pressure is too high, you may need
for general heating and plumbing applications. to use stainless steel tubing. The use of copper
 Tubing Fundamentals 5

Table 1-2. Copper water tubing pressures

w' Type K Type L
Nominal Bursting Safe working Bursting Safe working
size, in. pressure, psi pressure, psi pressure, psi pressure, psi
1/8 7680 1535 6000 1200
1/4 5120 1025 4800 960
3/8 5880 1175 4200 840
1/2 4700 940 3840 770
5/8 3920 785 3360 670
3/4 4460 890 3275 650
1 3460 690 2670 535
1 1/4 2830 565 2400 485
1 1/2 2660 530 2210 440
2 2340 470 1980 390
2 1/2 2170 435 1830 365
3 2090 420 1725 345
3 1/2 1980 395 1650 335
4 1950 390 1600 320
5 1870 375 1460 290
6 1880 375 1370 270
8 2000 400 1480 295
10 2000 400 1480 295
12 2000 400 1385 275

tubing is limited to pressures of about 1000 psi.
Steel tubing can be used for pressures up to 6000
psi. Stainless steel may also be needed to carry
corrosive fluids—not because corrosives require a
high operating pressure, but because stainless steel
resists corrosion better than plain steel or copper.
applications and to handle some corrosive fluids.
It is also frequently used to handle products in
tended for human consumption, such as foods,
beverages, and medicines. Nylon, vinyl, poly
ethylene, and polyvinyl chloride are some common
thermoplastic tubing materials.

1.16 Sometimes the environment in which tubing

is to be installed is as important as the substance
handled. The choice of tubing material may be
determined by the atmosphere outside the tubing-
corrosive fumes, for example. In other words,
check not only what goes through the tubing, but
also the conditions surrounding the tubing.
1.17 Common metallic tubing materials besides
copper include^^tags, carbon steel(SAEiOlQX and
^vpes 304 and 312), all of which
are used extensively in hydraulic systems. Alumi-
jimn_tubing, because of its light weight, has found
wide application in aircraft control systems. Most
tubing is available in both rigid and semi-rigid
tempers. The temper of tubing can also determine
the types of fittings required.
1.18 Plastic tubing is available for light-duty
Fittings
1.19 You should generally use fittings for tubing
that are made of the same material as the tubing-
stainless steel fittings for stainless steel tubing,
aluminum fittings for aluminum tubing, and so on.
A fitting can be made of a material that is harder
than the tubing. Steel fittings are sometimes used
with copper tubing. Brassiittines are often used on
plastic tubing. (But you may have to~Wrapbrass
litfiiiS'used^n plastic tubing with a plastic tape if
the operating atmosphere is corrosive to brass.)
1.20 The l.D. of a fitting should be, of course,
the same as the O.D. of the tubing that requires
the connection. As you have seen in Tables 1-1 and
1-2, however. Types K, L, and M of copper water
tubing have both "nominal" and "actual" O.D.s.
The nominal size is simply the standard way in
Fig. 1-1. Flareless compression fittings
Union elbow
Parker Hannifin Corporation
which these types of copper tubing are bought and
sold—it is not the same as the actual, measured
O.D. of the tubing. Thus when you buy "1/2-in."
Type K copper water tubing, you are buying tub
ing with an actual O.D. of 0.625 in. This can be
somewhat confusing. However, all other types of
tubing are sold by their actual O.D.s. Likewise,
when you wish to specify the dimensions of a
particular fitting (its I.D.), you should refer to the
actual O.D. of the tubing on which the connector
is to fit.
1.21 Flareless fittings. The flareless compression
fittings shown in Fig. 1-lA can be used in water,
coolant, lubrication, and instrumentation services.
Sizes range from 1/8 in. to 1 in. (again, these sizes
Fig. 1-2. Flareless mechanical grip fitting
Front ferrule
Fitting
Back ferrule
© 1978-1983 tjy Markad Service Co. All rights reserved.
Tubing Angle on seat
I Ferrule I
Fitting
refer to the actual O.D. of the tubing). They are
commonly made of brass and can be used with
plastic tubing.
1.22 Tightening the nut on a flareless fitting
moves the ferrule into the angle on the fitting seat
(see Fig. 1-lB). This causes the ferrule to compress
around the tubing and to "bite" into its outer
surface to make the seal.
1.23 Another design of flareless fitting acts
by compressing a two-piece ferrule around the
tubing (see Fig. 1-2A). This deforms the tubing
slightly and locks the ferrules in place. These
flareless mechanical grip fittings are available in
sizes up to 1 in. for most tubing materials.

Fig. 1-3. Flared fitting
Nut and sleeve on
flared tubing
Nut
Sleeve
Angle of
flare-37'
Fitting body
1.24 Figure 1-2B shows the installation of a
Swagelok® fitting. The nut, with the ferrules inside
it, should be fingertight on the body of the fitting
when you insert the tubing. Being careful not to
scratch the tubing, make a pencil mark on the nut
at 6 o'clock. Hold the fitting in place and tighten
the nut 1 1/4 turns. The mark on the nut should
make one complete revolution around to 6 o'clock,
and then an additional quarter turn to 9 o'clock.
1.25 Flared fittings. If a length of tubing is to
have its end flared or flanged to a larger diameter,
a flared fitting is necessary. The three-piece fitting
in Fig. 1-3 consists of a fitting body, a nut, and a
flanged sleeve. The nut is placed on the tubing
first, followed by the sleeve. The end of the tubing
is then flared to an angle of 37®. When the nut and
sleeve are screwed onto the body of the fitting, the
flared tubing is compressed between the nut and
the body, forming a tight seal. Flared fittings—they
are also available with a flare of 45®—are usually
made of brass or steel. They are widely used in
hydraulic systems and refrigeration lines.
Handling Tubing
1,26 Cutting, flaring, and bending can be diffi
cult with hard temper tubing. Tubing that has been
fully annealed to a soft temper is much easier to
work with, but even soft temper tubing has a
tendency to harden. This can happen if the tubing
is kept in storage for a long time, or if it becomes
©Swagelok is a registered trademark of Crawford Fitting Co.
Tubing Fundamentals 7
Tubing in position
for fitting assembly
Three-piece fitting
assembled on tubing
"work hardened." Any type of bending or "work
ing" can cause tubing to harden. You will then find
it difficult to flare or bend until you anneal it again.
1.27 Annealing is done by applying heat to the
affected areas. Copper tubing can be annealed by
heating it until it takes on a dull red color. It
should then be cooled in a water bath. The rapid
cooling in water helps prevent an oxide buildup on
the heated surfaces. Oxide can hinder a good
soldered or brazed connection. Do not heat copper
tubing above 1900®F (649®C)—the approximate
temperature at which it melts. Aluminum melts at
about 1200°F (1038®C), so keep the temperature
below this point when annealing aluminum tubing.
1.28 Steel does not work harden as easily as
other tubing materials. It can be annealed if it
does harden, but the methods are somewhat more
complicated. Always check the manufacturer's
recommendations for annealing temperatures and
procedures, regardless of the tubing material.
The Programed Exercises on the next page will tell
you how well you understand the material you
have just read. Before starting the exercises, re
move the REVEAL KEY from your Trainee's
Guide. Read the Instructions printed on the
Reveal Key. Follow these instructions as you work
through the Programed Exercises.
1-1 A +11 King often requires
(more/less)
pressure than a piping system to produce 1-1. LESS
a given flow rate.
1 Ref: 1.04

1-2. Short, straight runs of tubing do not take

advantage of its natural tendency to
withstand 1-2. VIBRATION

Ref: 1.04

1-3. The three most important factors to

consider when selecting tubing are the
material the tubing is made of, the I.D., 1-3. WALL THICKNESS
and the
Ref: 1.06

1-4. Copper water tubing Types K and L are i

available in two
1-4. TEMPERS

Ref: 1.10

1
1-5. Copper water tubing Type M is for use
1
onlv with fittings.
1-5 SOLDERED
■

Ref: 1.13

1-6. Corrosive fluids are most frequently

carried bv clastic or tubing.
1-6 STAINLESSiSTEEL

Ref: 1.15

1-7. What type of tubing is normally used to

handle products intended for human
consumption? 1-7 PLASTIC

Ref: 1.18

1-8. Can brass fittings be used with plastic

tubing?
1-8 YES

Ref: 1.19

Handling Tubing—Continued
1.29 Soft temper tubing is normally purchased
in coils because it is too flexible to be handled in
straight lengths. The proper way to unwind soft
temper tubing is to hold the end of the tubing
down on a flat surface with one hand while sup
porting the coil with your other hand. Then unroll
the coil by pulling the tubing straight ahead until
you have laid out the required length.
1.30 NEVER unwind tubing by pulling it side
ways off the coil. This causes work hardening and
can also twist and kink the tubing. Kinks in tubing
can sometimes be hammered out by placing the
tubing on a flat surface and carefully hitting the
high points with a blunt instrument. However,
there is a danger that you might strike the tubing
too hard and flatten it. Never leave kinks or dents
in an area where the tubing is to be bent. They
cause weak spots in the line which can collapse
and leak.
Cutting Tubing
1.31 Figure 1-4A shows a midget cutter used to
cut small-diameter tubing (up to about 1 in. in
O.D.). The rollers opposite the cutting wheel make
it easier to rotate the tool around the tube. This
cutter, because it is designed for use in extremely
close quarters, is more difficult to use than the
standard size cutters.
1.32 The cutter in Fig. MB is capable of cutting
copper, brass, aluminum, and plastic tubing with
diameters ranging from 1/4 in. to 6 in. A special
release nut allows the cutter to slide away from
the tubing when the cut is completed.
k:V-i
Courtesy of The Ridge Tool Company
Tubing Fundamentals 9
1.33 In Fig. MC you can clearly see the rollers,
cutting wheel, and handle of a tubing cutter. This
cutter also has an enclosed feed screw which keeps
chips from clogging and jamming the screw.
1.34 When using a tubing cutter, hold the tubing
in one hand and the cutter in the other. With the
tubing between the rollers and the cutting wheel,
tighten the handle until the cutting wheel just
touches the tubing. Rotate the entire cutter around
the tubing once, lightly scoring the tubing. Tighten
the handle slightly to feed the cutting wheel farther
into the tubing and rotate the cutter again.
1.35 Do not feed the cutting wheel into the
tubing too fast—you will dent the tubing or create
burrs on its l.D. Continue to rotate the cutter
while gradually feeding the cutting wheel into
the tubing until the cut is complete.
1.36 A typical cutting wheel tapers from its
center to the outer cutting edge. This produces
a corresponding angle on the end of the length
of tubing where it is cut. Leave this angle alone
for soldered joints and compression fittings-
it makes it easier to slip the fitting onto the end
of the tubing. If, however, the tubing is to be
flared, you should file the angled end to a 90°
straight cut.
Sawing Tubing
1.37 Carbon steel, stainless steel, and other
types of hard temper tubing should be cut with a
hacksaw^ Cutting with a'tubing cutter can be diffi
cult and has a tendency to work harden some of
these materials. Large-diameter or thick-walled
tubing should also be sawed.
 Fig. 1-5. Deburring tools
Knife reamer built
into cutter
Courtesy of The Ridge Tool Company
1.38 The most difficult part of cutting tubing
with a hacksaw is to get a straight cut. Most sawing
vises may be bolted to a bench or work table
and can be used for tubing from 3/16 in. to 2 in.
in diameter. The tubing rests in V-shaped grooves
while a handle is turned, lowering a clamp onto
the top of the tubing. Do not apply too much
pressure on the handle of the clamp or the tubing
could be damaged.
1.39 Slots in the vise on both sides of the tubing
hold the hacksaw blade in position. Use a fine-
tooth blade with the teeth pointing forward. Cut
ONLY on the forward stroke. The saw will tend to
leave a ragged edge, even though the cut is straight.
Filing and Deburring Tubing
1.40 After tubing has been cut with a hacksaw,
Fig. 1-6. Measuring tubing
I* -j 2 in.
3 in,
.i"- 1
jj 1/2-in. tubing
Inner and outer
reamer cleans both
inside and outside
of tubing
place it in a vise block with the ragged edge extend
ing just beyond the flat surfaces of the block.
Tighten the vise so that the tubing is held firmly
but will not be damaged. Then simply file the end
of the tubing until it is even with the flat surfaces
of the block.
1.41 Deburr the end of a length of cut tubing
both on the inside and on the outside to break
loose any small burrs or chips of material left by
the cutting. Burrs can interfere with soldered fit
tings or tubing ends that are to be flared.
1.42 Use a knife reamer to deburr the tubing
I.D. (Fig. 1-5A). Insert the point of the reamer
into the tubing as far as it will go. Always rotate
the reamer, not the tubing. Attempting to rotate
the tubing could cause kinks and bends in the line,
especially in long pieces. The end of the tubing
I 4 in.
|

Fig. 1-7. Calculating tubing length through a bend
•8 in.
1/2 in.
\ 8 in.
should always be pointed downward, so that burrs
and chips drop out of the tubing, not into it.
1.43 Another type of deburring tool, shown in
Fig. 1-5B, is designed so that one end deburrs the
I.D. of the tubing and the other end the O.D.
Position the tubing on the cutting blades and
rotate the tool. The blades are replaceable. This
tool can be used with tubing up to 1 5/8 in. in O.D.
1.44 Always exercise caution when deburring.
If you gouge the tubing or remove any of the
tubing wall, the tubing will be weakened and may
crack or split when flared.
Calculating Tubing Length
1.45 Obviously, it is easier to calculate the total
length of tubing needed for a straight run than it is
for a run with one or more bends in it. Figure 1-6A
shows a tubing run with two 90° bends. The hori
zontal distance from end to end is 16 in. The
vertical offset between points A and D is 8 in.
1.46 The distance from A to B is measured on
the horizontal centerline from the end of the
tubing (A) to the point of intersection (B) with
the centerline of the vertical leg at the first 90°
bend. The centerline is the reference for all tubing
measurements. Figure 1-6B illustrates this in a
tubing run with multiple bends.
1.47 Look at Fig. 1-6A again. Although the
measurement from A to B is 8 in. and the offset
distance from B to C is also 8 in., the total length
Tubing Fundamentals 11
of tubing needed from A to C is not 16 in. but
something less. How do you determine the amount
that must be subtracted from 16 in.?
1.48 In Fig. 1-7, the arc formed by the 90° angle
is considered as part of an imaginary circle. You
need to find the difference between XY + YZ(the
distance between X and Z when measuring straight
centerlines) and the arc XZ (the actual length of
tubing required to make the bend). Both XY and
YZ are equal to the radius of this imaginary circle,
so XY + YZ = 2r. The arc XZ forms one quarter
of the circumference of the circle. The total
circumference of a circle is 27rr, so
_ 27rr _ TTT
^^ 4 2
1.49 When 1/2-in. tubing is used to form a 90°
bend, the typical radius (XY or YZ) is 1 1/2 in.
Remember that n - 3.14. You can now insert the
values into the equation XY + YZ - XZ:
2r-^= 2 X 1.5 in.- 3.14X 1.5 in.
= 3 in.- 2.355 in.
= 0.645 in.
This is the amount to subtract from the original
16-in. distance:
16 in.- 0.645 in. = 15.355 in.
Thus, the actual straight length of tubing from
point A to point C in Fig. 1-6A is 15.355 in. To
calculate the straight length of tubing needed from
A to D, multiply 0.645 in. by 2(because there are
two 90° bends) and subtract your answer from
24 in.(3x8 in.):
24 in.- 1.29 in. = 22.71 in.
1.50 There is another formula you can use to
make this type of calculation. Regardless of the
angle of the bend, multiply the typical radius of
the bend by the included angle and multiply that
product by the constant 0.017453. This gives you
the length of the arc that is to be subtracted from
twice the radius. This may be written as
 Fig. 1-9. Lever-type tubing bender
Table 1-3. Standard bend radii

Tubing O.D., in. Standard radius, in. Handle #1

—

Clamp

3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
1/2 Tubing
5/8
3/4
7/8 Handle #2
1

Courtesy of The Ridge Tool Company

2r - (r X included angle x 0.017453) Bending Tubing

and is the measurement you wish to find.
1.51 Suppose that the drawing in Fig. 1-6A
represented 5/8-in. tubing instead of 1/2-in. tubing.
The typical radius for a 90° bend of 5/8-in. tubing
is 2 in. Table 1-3 lists standard bend radii for tub
ing of various O.D.s. Remember that the radius of
a bend is measured to the centerline of the tubing.
1.52 This 22.28-in. length of straight tubing can
now be marked for bending. Use a sharp pencil,
NOT a marker that makes a wide line. Draw a
clear, thin line all the way around the tubing, using
a sleeve or ferrule as a guide (Fig. 1-8A). Do not
scratch the tubing when you mark it. This weakens
the tubing, causing stress points where corrosion
can start.

2r- (r X included angle x 0.017453) =
2 X 2 in.- (2 in. x 90 x 0.017453)=
4 in. - 3.14 in. = 0.86 in.
Multiply this figure by 2 for the two bends and
subtract from 24 in. The straight tubing length
actually required is
24 in. - 1.72 in. = 22.28 in.
1.53 Make the mark for the first bend 8 in. from
the end of the tubing (see Fig. 1-8B). To deter
mine where to make the mark for the second bend,
you may again use the formula 2r - (r x included
angle x 0.017453). Recall that for 5/8-in. tubing,
this formula yielded an answer of 0.86 in. Subtract
0.86 in. from 8 in. and make your second mark
7.14 in. from the first mark. As you can see in
Fig. 1-8B, this divides the length of tubing into
three sections-8 in., 7.14 in., and 7.14 in.-which
add up to 22.28 in. When making multiple bends.

Fig. 1-8. Measuring and marking tubing

Sharp pencil
7.14 in.

Straightedge
22.28 in.
Ferrule or sleeve

C. Direction-of-bend mark

Fig. 1-10. Positioning tubing in a bender
Handle *2
Handle
90 tangent l ine 1
Length mark on tubing
however, you may find that as a general rule it is
better to measure and bend, measure and bend.
1.54 Manual tubing bend_eri operate in only one
directiorT and produce bends without wrinkling or
flattening the tubing. A direction-of-bend mark
can be made on the side of the tubing opposite the
direction in which it will be bent (see Fig. 1-8C).
Place the tubing in the bender with the mark
opposite the groove in the handle. This ensures
that you bend in the correct direction and also
gives you a reference mark to come back to in case
you must leave your work unfinished.
1.55 Figure 1-9 shows a typical lever-type tub
ing bender and a length of tubing. The tubing
is inserted along a groove in handle #1 and through
the link member. When the tubing is clamped in
place, handle #2 is used to bend the tubing until
the desired angle of bend is reached.
1.56 Figure I-1 OA shows how to position tubing
for a 90° bend. The mark you made on the tubing
must line up with a line tangent to the 90° mark
on the radius block. A tangent line is one that
touches a circle at a single point—the circle in this
case being the radius block and the point the 90°
mark.
1.57 For bending angles less than 90°, the
tangent line must touch the circle of the radius
block at the desired angle and intersect the mark
on the tubing at the centerline of the tubing. Fig
ure 1-lOB shows tubing positioned for a 60° bend.
Tubing Fundamentals 13
Length mark
60 tangent line Index mark on slide block
1.58 To make the 90° bend, handle #2 is pulled
down until the index mark on the slide block is
even with the 90° mark on the radius block (see
Fig. I-IOC). For a 60° bend, the handle is pulled
down until the index mark on the slide block
meets the 60° mark on the radius block.
1.59 For bends over 90°, the tubing is initially
positioned as it would be for a 90° bend. That is,
the tangent line at 90° is lined up with the length
mark on the tubing. The tubing is then bent past
90° to the desired angle.
1.60 Tubing has a tendency to spring back a
small amount after bending. The amount" varied
with the material, temper, and size of the tubing.
You can test a sample piece of tubing by making
a 90° bend and measuring the angle of the spring
back. You will then have some idea of how much
farther you need to bend the tubing so that it
springs back to the desired angle. However, it is
always safer to bend the tubing, check the angle,
and then bend a little farther if necessary. It is
very difficult, if not impossible, to straighten a
bend once the tubing is set at an angle.
1.61 It is most important that you measure
exactly and bend accurately. An error in measure
ment or an incorrect bend angle will result in the
end of the tubing being out of position so that it
cannot make its final connection. NEVER force
the end of a length of tubing into alignment.
This causes undue stress on the fitting and on the
tubing.
14 Programed Exercises

1-9. Which do you rotate when cutting tubing,

the tubing or the cutter?
1-9. CUTTER

Ref: 1.34

1-10. Hard temper tubing should be cut with

a{n)
MC). HACKSAW

Ref: 1.37

1-11. In order to remove any small chips of

material left by cutting, you should
the end of a length of tubing. 1-11. DEBURR

Ref: 1.41

1-12. The reference mark for all tubing

measurements is the of the
tubing. 1-12:. CENTERLINE

Ref: 1.46

1-13. In order to calculate tubing length

through a bend, you need to know the
tvoical of the bend. 1-12!. RADIUS

Ref: 1.48-1.51

1-14. Manual tubing benders operate in

direction(s).
1-14.. ONE

Ref: 1.54

1-15. When making a 120° bend in a length of

tubing, you should line up the scribed
mark on the tubing with a line tangent to 1-1£. 90°
the ° mark on the radius block.
Ref: 1.59

1-16. Tubing has a tendency to a small

amount after bending.
1-1€. SPRING BACK

Ref: 1.60
 Self-Check Quiz 15

Answer the following questions by marking an "X'

in the box next to the best answer.

1-1. Which of the following statements is NOT 1-6. Work hardened tubing can be, to

true? make it easier to bend.

□ a. Tubing weighs less than pipe □ a. swaged

□ b. Tubing is more flexible than pipe □ b. flared
□ c. Tubing requires fewer supports □ c. flanged
than pipe □ d. annealed
□ d. Tubing requires more fittings than
pipe 1-7. Copper tubing should not be heated above

□ a. 500° F
1-2. Which of the following types of tubing is □ b. 1000°F
most likely to be used in waste drainage □ c. 1200°F
systems? □ d. 1900°F

□ a. Copper Type K 1-8. When cutting hard temper tubing with a

□ b. Copper Type L hacksaw, you should follow all of the
□ c. Copper Type M following instructions EXCEPT
□ d. Aluminum
□ a. use a fine-tooth blade
□ b. make sure the saw teeth point
1-3. In order to specify the size of a fitting, you
forward
should refer to the
□ c. cut only on the forward stroke
W' □ d. cut on both the forward and
□ a. actual O.D. of the tubing
return strokes
□ b. nominal O.D. of the tubing
□ c. I.D. of the tubing
When deburring tubing, you should
□ d. O.D. of the fitting
□ deburr the I.D. only
a.

□ b. deburr the O.D. only

1-4. The short tube or bushing used to make a
□ c. point the end of the tubing
tight joint in a flareless fitting is called a
downward
□ d. hold the reamer and rotate the
□ a. nut
tubing
□ b. swage
□ c. ferrule
d.
1-10. Which of the following formulas should be
□ sleeve
used to calculate tubing length through
a bend?
1-5. Flared fittings are available at angles of
□ a. 2r- (r x included angle x 0.017453)
□ 30"^ and 60° □ b. r - (2r X included angle x 0.017453)
□ 37° and 45° □ c. 27rr-(r X included angle
□ 45° and 90° X 0.017453)
□ 54° and 75° □ d. 2r-(it X included angle)+ 0.017453
16 Lesson One
Lesson Summary
Tubing may be used as an altemative to pipe and,
in some applications, is better than pipe. Since
tubing is not threaded like pipe, tubing material is
generally thinner,lighter, and easier to handle. It
can be bent around obstacles and therefore needs
fewer connections. The flexibility of tubing also
offers advantages over pipe in certain installations.
Copper is perhaps the most common tubing mate
rial. Copper tubing comes in different wall thick
nesses and tempers and may be used for a variety
of applications, including water and air lines. Odier
tubing materials include stainless steel for high-
pressure installations and various plastics for food-
preparation applications.
Applications
1-1. Make a list of the tubing installations you
can find in your plant or shop. Do you
think that any of the piping systems in
your plant might benefit by having the
pipe replaced with tubing? Why or why
not? How would you go about planning
the change from pipe to tubing?
Answers to Self-Check Quiz
1-1. d. Tubing requires more fittings
than pipe. Ref: 1.04
1-2. c. Copper Type M. Ref: 1.13
1-3. a. Actual O.D. of the tubing.
Ref: 1.20
1-4. c. Ferrule. Ref: 1.22
1-5. b. 37®and45°. Ref: 1.25
Some tubing Httings can be soldered, welded, or
brazed. Others compress or swage the tubing. For
flared Httings, the end of the tubing must be flared
or flanged before the nut is tightened. Since tubing
fittings make union connections, installation, main
tenance,and repair are relatively simple. Tubing
cutters and saws leave burrs and rou^ edges which
you must ream or file before making a connection.
When measuring tubing,it is important that your
calculations are accurate. Always use the centerline
of the tubing as a reference for measurement. The
angle of a bend, the direction of the bend, the
radius of the bend, the O.D. of the tubing—you
must have a thorough understanding of all of these
in order to use a bending tool correctly.
1-2. Look at a tubing application in your shop.
What type of tubing is used? What type of
substance does it carry? How may bends
have been made? What type of fittings are
used to make connections? Do you see any
leaks or potential trouble spots in the
system?
1-6. d. Annealed. Ref: 1.27
1-7. d. 1900°F. Ref: 1.27
1-8. d. Cut on both the forward and
return strokes. Ref: 1.39
1-9. c. Point the^nd of the tubing
downward. Ref: 1.42
1-10. a. 2r - (r X included angle
X 0.017453). Ref: 1.50
TPC Training Systems 750 Lake Cook Road
Buffalo Grove, IL 60089 847/808-4000
Installing and Maintaining Tubing and Hose Systems

Lesson Two

Installing Tubing

A division of

TPC Training Systems Teiemedia, Inc

18

Lesson Two
installing Tubing

Topics

Selecting Tubing Material Using Flaring Tools

Determining Tubing Size installing Flared Fittings
Soldered Fittings Flareless Fittings
Brazed Fittings Installing Flareless Compression Fittings
Flared Fittings Tubing Supports and Clamps
Flaring Tubing Tubing Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Selecting Tubing Material • Will the tubing pass through a corrosive

atmosphere?
2.01 In Lesson One you read that the three most
important factors to consider when selecting tub • Is there a possibility that the fluid to be
ing for a given application are the material the carried may become contaminated due to
tubing is made of, the I.D., and the wall thickness. an interaction between the tubing and the
Before explaining the mathematical calculations fluid?
necessary to determine tubing size, we will con
sider tubing material. Be aware that the following • What fluid temperatures and pressures
is a very brief discussion of a very large subject. (maximum and minimum) must the tubing
Additional information on tubing materials and be able to withstand?
applications may be obtained from manufacturers
and from the American Society for Testing and • Which material will do the job most eco
Materials(ASTM). nomically?

2.02 When selecting tubing material, you must
know the answer to at least five questions:
• Is the substance or fluid to be carried by
the tubing corrosive?
2.03 C2E£er_and__^ass tubing may be used for
substances that are not corrosive, including water,
air, and some _oils. In most cases, the higher the
copper content of the tubing material, the greater
is the resistance to corrosion. Deoxidized copper

© Copyright 1985 by TPC Training Systems, a division of Telemedia, Inc.

All rights reserved, including those of translation.
Printed and videotaped courseware are subject to the copyright laws of the United States. You are not authorized to make any copies
of this material. If you do. then you are subject to the penalties provided under the copyright law, which include statutory damages up
to $50,000 for each infringement of copyrighted material, and also recovery of reasonable attorneys' fees Further vou could be
subject to criminal prosecution pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 2319. '
Seventh printing, June 1997. Printed In the United States of America.
 19

A number of factors must be con
sidered when planning a tubing appli
cation. For example,the tubing mate
rial must be able to withstand pressure
as well as corrosion from within and
without. This Lesson will explain
methods of determining tubing re
quirements for different applications.
The wide variety of connections
that can be made with tubing may
seem confusing at first. This Lesson
will provide information on how to
select the best type of connection for
a given application. The different
types of connectors are also identified
and discussed.
Additionally, this Lesson gives step-
by-step instructions on how to install
these fittings. The basic method of
soldering is shown,as well as the prep
aration of flared tubing. Finally, the
use of supports and clamps in an
overall tubing system is described.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS IN THIS LESSON

Constant 2.09 a numerical value that remains the same
and that performs a specific function in a calculation
Tensile strength 2.10 the amount of resistance a
material has to stress which could cause a rupture
or break
Flux 2.20 a substance used to clean metal surfaces and
free them from oxide before soldering
Braze 2.24 a high-temperature process for joining metals
that uses a nonferrous alloy,such as brass

has a greater resistance to corrosion than red brass.
Red brass, in turn, is more corrosion-resistant than
yellow brass. Copper, brass, and other similar
alloys should NOT be used with oxidizing acidic
w solutions or where free ammonia or mercury may
be present.
polyallomer, nylon, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
are resistant to both acids and bases. Polyallomer
and nylon also can be used for handling hydro
carbons, chlorinated and aromatic hydrocarbons,
and ketones. Aluminum alloy tubing has the ad
vantage of being both lightweight and inexpensive.

2.04 The steel used for steel tubing is normally

a low-carbon steel. The carbon content ranges
from 0.08% to 0.13% for a 1010 material. Steel
tubing is used extensively in hydraulic systems. It
is not affected by the hydraulic oil. Most mild
basic and acidic fluids also can be carried by low-
carbon steel tubing. The fluid's exact chemical
analysis must be known to determine if low-carbon
steel can be used. Tubing manufacturers will rec
ommend a material based on the fluid properties.
2.05 Stainless steels (Types 304, 316, and 317
are common) are rustproof and highly corrosion-
resistant. Stainless steel tubing is used for handling
foods and beverages because there is no interaction
with the substance being carried. That is, the
tubing does not cause a change in the color or odor
of the substance, or affect the taste.
2.06 Plastic tubing has good chemical resistance
for certain applications, and is also frequently
used for food and beverage handling. Polyethylene,
Determining Tubing Size
2.07 The service conditions that must be taken
into account when determining tubing size are
flow rate, fluid velocity, pressure, and temperature.
2.08 Flow rate and fluid velocity. Flow rate is a
measure of the amount of fluid flowing through a
tube in a specific amount of time. It is expressed
in gallons per minute (gpm). Fluid velocity is a
measure of how fast the fluid flaws through the
tube and is expressed in feet per second (ft/s).
2.09 The volume or amount of fluid in a given
length of tubing is dependent on its I.D., which is
measured in inches. This can be thought of as a
"cylinder" of fluid contained within the tube.
Using a constant which converts seconds into
minutes and cubic inches into gallons, you can
find any one of these three factors—flow rate
(gpm), fluid velocity (ft/s), or required tube l.D.
(in.)-if you know the other two. The formulas
20 Lesson Two
for doing this are:
flow rate = 2.448 x fluid velocity x (I.D.)^
^ flow rate
nuid velocity =
flow rate
D =! "
V 2.448 X fluid velocity.
2.10 Pressure. Both pressure and tensile strength
are measured in pounds per square inch (psi). The
pressure a tube can contain is dependent on the
tensile strength of the tube, which in turn is based
on the tubing material and the wall thickness. An
expression of the relationship between these
factors is known as "Barlow's Formula":
g-PXP
2t
where S = tensile strength, psi
p = line pressure, psi
D = tube outside diameter(O.D.), inches
t = tube wall thickness,inches.
2.11 Any tubing installation has a safety factor
which is determined by established codes and is
dependent on the application and service condi
tions. The safety factor is a number which may
range from 1 to 15, but which typically varies from
4, where the tube will not be subject to excessive
shock or vibration, to 6, where shock and strain
are significant, to 8, for critical or hazardous con
ditions. Barlow's Formula can be rearranged to
solve for the required wall thickness of the tube by
adding the safety factor:
t X safety factor.
Obviously, the higher the safety factor, the greater
the wall thickness becomes. The general rule is to
select the next thicker wall if the calculated num
ber falls between two standard sizes.
2.12 The tensile strength of various tubing mate
rials may be obtained from handbooks or manuals.
or can be provided by the supplier. Some typical
examples: soft copper can have a tensile strength
of 30,000 psi, annealed low-carbon steel 47,500
psi, and annealed stainless steel 75,000 psi.
2.13 Temperature. An increase in the operating
temperature of a tubing system reduces the
strength of the tubing material. For example,
the strength of copper tubing drops about 15% at
360°F. The same effect occurs with other mate
rials, but the decrease in strength is not always
so signiflcant.
2.14 Table 2-1 shows a graph for determining
allowable stress based on the temperature and
safety factor. Assume you wish to determine the
wall thickness required for a 1-in. O.D. copper tube
handling a fluid at 150°F and 600 psi. The safety
factor is 5.
2.15 Find the operating temperature of the
system on the bottom scale. Draw a vertical line
upward to intersect with the heavy line represent
ing copper. (Note that copper is not used over
400°F and 1010 steel over 800°F. You can also
see that the drop in tensile strength as the tem
perature increases is less for steel than for copper.)
Then draw a horizontal line left or right—to the
right, in this case—until it intersects a line drawn
vertically downward from the required safety
factor. Draw a line from this point downward and
to the right at 45° until it intersects with the allow
able stress on the scale at the right side of the
graph(5000 psi).
2.16 Now use the Barlow Formula to determine
the required wall thickness of the tube:
pD _ 600 X 1 600
= 0.06 in.
^ 2S 2 X 5000 10,000
Since Table 2-1 has already taken the safety factor
into account, you need not use it in the calculation
again. A 1-in. O.D., Type K copper tube has a wall
thickness of 0.065 in. (see Table 1-1 in Lesson
One). This choice is acceptable. Had it not been
acceptable—if, for example, the required wall thick
ness had been 0.070 in.—then Type K copper tub
ing could not be used and a different grade, mate
rial, or size of tubing would have to be considered
in order to meet the needs of this application.
 Installing Tubing 21

Table 2-1. Effect of temperature and safety factor on allowable stress

Safety factor
to 9 « 7 «

.•(XKQ

m ^0000

.iOOOO

.%0000

stainless steel
S9000. .40000

• iOOQq

Copper
^ bk >xoo CO
$
o

iiiilitti 111111111 uiilitii Iittlim I mill I imii t uumiu

Temperature (®F)

Soldered Fittings 2.18 A tube may be joined to a fitting or a valve

2.17 The selection of which type of fittings to
use in a tubing installation begins by determining
whether the line will have to be taken apart. If
not, soldered or brazed fittings may be selected.
Threaded fittings can also be used, but they are
more commonly chosen if the line is to be dis
assembled.
by soldering. Most soldering is done with copper
tubing. Figure 2-1 shows the soldering process. The
first step is to prepare the end of the tube. Cut the
tube with a hacksaw or a tubing cutter and deburr
and clean the cut end with a reamer or a file. Be
careful not to cut away the tubing wall. Keep the
open end of the tubing pointing downward while
you remove the burrs and rough edges.
22 Lesson Two
Fig. 2-1. Soldering a tubing joint
Parker Hannifin Corporation
2.19 Use emery cloth or medium-grade sand
paper to clean the outside of the tube for a dis
tance slightly greater than the depth of the fitting.
Remove all the particles left by the sandpaper or
emery cloth and any metal dust. Also clean the
inside of the fitting with a wire brush. The finish
should be bright. This step is critical—a tight con
nection cannot be made with a dirty joint.
2.20 Apply flux evenly with a brush to the out
side of the tube and the inside of the fitting. Place
the fitting onto the tube end and rotate it a few
times. This will ensure that the flux is spread
Fig. 2-2. Brazed fittings
Preinserted braze ring
Torch
A. Braze ring
evenly on the surfaces. Be sure no water is in or
on the tube.
2.21 Obtain the proper solder wire and straighten
out a length that can be easily handled. Use a gas
torch to apply heat to the fitting. Do not heat the
tube directly with the flame. Heat the fitting until
the solder melts freely when touched against it. If
the fitting becomes too hot, the solder may bum.
2.22 Feed solder to the joint between the fitting
and the tube. Moving the flame to the center of the
fitting will expand the fitting and help draw the
Face feed
Brazing alloy
Fitting
B. Methods of brazing
 Installing Tubing 23

solder into the joint. Move your torch and the

Fig. 2-3, Single and double flare(45°)fittings
solder around the fitting until the joint is com
pletely soldered.

2.23 Use a brush to knock off any excess solder

before it cools and hardens. Do not remove too
much. A small amount of solder should be visible
around the joint. Wipe the joint smooth and clean
with a wet cloth. Tube O.D.

Brazed Fittings
2.24 Brazing is similar to soldering, but brazing
operations are performed at temperatures above
800°F (427®C). Soldering temperatures never ex
ceed 800°F. Brazed joint designs usually include
an overlap of the two materials to be joined.(Butt
joints are possible but difficult to make, requiring
careful end preparation and fixturing.)
2.25 The length of lap in fittings is preset by the
depth of the socket. Some fittings (primarily stain
less steel) can be brazed with braze rings to differ
ent types of tubing (see Fig. 2-2A). The braze ring
is placed in the fitting, the tube inserted, and the
brazing done using a silver brazing flux. Without
braze rings, the normal face feeding of brazing
alloy must be done. When the brazing rod melts,
the alloy flows over and between the joint surfaces.
Figure 2-2B shows both methods.
Flared Fittings
2.26 Tubing systems that require disassembly
are usually joined with threaded connectors. The
two most common types of threaded fittings are
flared and flareless. Of course, flared fittings can
only be used with tubing which can be flared—
copper, aluminum, and thin-wall (low-carbon or
stainless) steel.
2.27 The two-part flared fitting has a body and
a nut with an angled seat to match the angle of the
flare on the tube. The three-part fitting uses a
sleeve between the nut and the flared tube end.
Single Double
Working pressures can be as high as 5000 psi,
depending on the size and type of flare and the
tubing material. Flared fittings can be used in
temperatures ranging from -65°F to 250°F, and
are often used to handle flammable liquids and
gases.
Flaring Tubing
2.28 Recall from Lesson One that the two com
mon angles for flared tubing are 37° and 45°. The
37° flare is used mostly for hydraulic and indus
trial tubing systems. The 45° flare is often used for
plumbing and heating applications, and for auto
motive and refrigeration systems.
2.29 The two types' of flares are the single
(shown at the left end of Fig. 2-3) and the double
(right end, Fig. 2-3). The double flare is formed by
folding the end of the tube back into the flare to
make a double thickness. The double flare is often
used on thin-wall tubing that may split when
flared. It is also used for joints that will be taken
apart, remade, and tightened frequently. The
double thickness is not as easily compressed and
thinned out as a single flare.
24 Programed Exercises

2-1. The the cooDer content in

(higher!lower)
copper tubing, the greater is the resistance
2-1. HIGHER
to corrosion.

Ref: 2.03

2-2. What type of tubing material is most

commonly used in hydraulic systems?
2-2. STEEL

Ref:2.04

2-3. What types of tubing materials are usually

used to handle foods and beverages?
2-3. STAINLESS STEEL or PLASTIC

Ref: 2.05, 2.06

2-4. The measure of the amount of fluid

flowing through a tube in a specific
amount of time is called the 2-4. FLOW RATE
i

Ref: 2.08

2-5. Fluid velocity is most often expressed in

2-5. FEET PER SECOND (FT/S)

Ref: 2.08

2-6. Tensile strength is measured in units of

2-6. POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH (PSI)

Ref: 2.10

2-7. Write Barlow's Formula for determining

tensile strength.
2-7.
2t

Ref: 2.10

2-8. An increase in the operating temperature

of a tubina system
(increases/decreases)
2-8. DECREASES
the strength of the tubing material.

Ref: 2.13
i

Using Flaring Tools
2.30 A number of flaring tools are available.
While they all perform the same basic task of form
ing a flare in the tube end, some tools are less
likely than others to thin out the flare wall or to
underscore the tube at the base of the flare. Make
sure that you place the nut, washer, ring, etc., over
the tube before beginning any flaring operation.
2.31 The block and pin flaring tool (Fig. 2-4A)
is used in combination with a vise. Place the tube
in the block with a maximum of 1/16 in. above
the top. Then secure the tube and block in a vise,
and insert the pin flaring tool into the tube (Fig.
2-4B). Strike the pin flaring tool with a hammer
to form the flare (Fig. 2-4C). Remove the block
from the vise and the tube from the block (Fig.
2-4D). This type of flaring tool requires a block
and pin for each size of tubing.
Fig. 2-4. Block and pin flaring tool
Photo courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corporation
T
Installing Tubing 25
2.32 A compression-type flaring tool has a
hinged bar with a yoke-mounted, screw-fed flaring
cone (Fig. 2-5A). Insert the tube into the die of
the proper size while the bars are loosened. Tighten
the wing nut nearest the tube first, then the
second wing nut. Put a small amount of oil on the
cone to prevent it sticking to the tube. Slide the
yoke over the bar. With the handle on the feed
screw, tighten the cone onto the tube end. Do not
overtighten or the tube wall at the flare could be
thinned out. It is better to under flare and allow
the fitting to complete the final forming and seat
ing of the completed joint.
2.33 The generating-type flaring tool (Fig. 2-5B)
forms the flare above the bar. This avoids the risk
of thinning out the flared wall and underscoring
the base of the flare. Some of these tools also pro
duce a burnished, or polished, flare face. This
forms a tighter joint that is less likely to leak.
f
s
26 Lesson Two
Fig. 2-6. Forming a double flare
■JnL Step 1 TIT Step 2 Step 3
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc.
2.34 The compression-type flaring tool forms
the flare by tightening the cone into the tube until
the tube end conforms to the shape of the counter
sink recess in the bar. The generating-type flaring
tool rolls the flare above the block. The proper
flare is made by turning the feed screw a specific
number of turns for the size of tube.
2.35 Always inspect the flare to be sure there
are no cracks or splits. The flare should be straight
and square. It must not be too long or too short-
either can cause problems when assembled. Particu
lar care must be taken with flared connections on
a system that is subject to vibration. These tend to
Fig. 2-7. Installing a flared fi tting
Step 4 Step 5
be more prone to leaks anyway, and if the flare is
work hardened already, the vibration can cause
cracks to start at hard spots.
2.36 Double flares are made by using a flaring
tool with a set of adapters. Both are shown in Fig.
2-6. Mount the tube in the proper size clamp
blocks with the end level with the top surface of
the flaring tool. Clamp the tube in position. Place
the adapter into the end of the tube. Position the
flare cone over the' tube end. Tighten the cone
onto the adapter. This will bell out the tube end
for a final flaring. Back the cone away and remove
the adapter. Lower the cone into the tube end and

tighten, forming the double flare. Double flares are
often used on thin-wall steel tubing that tends to
crack when single-flared. The entire process is
illustrated in Fig. 2-6.
Installing Flared Fittings
2.37 Again, remember that the first step in in
stalling any flared fitting is to slide the nut over the
tube before flaring the tube end. It cannot be put
on over the flare. Be sure the nut is turned in the
right direction to be screwed onto the fitting.
Three-part fittings require the nut and the sleeve
to be placed on the tube before flaring, and to be
turned in the right direction.
2.38 Flare the tube end to the same angle as the
fitting. Make sure the flare is free of burrs, cuts,
and splits. Slide the sleeve and nut up to the flared
end of the tube (Fig. 2-1K). Oil the nut threads,
sleeve, and fitting body threads. Place the nose of
the fitting body into the flare on the tube (Fig.
2-7B). Holding the fitting and tube in alignment,
push the sleeve against the flare and then the nut
over the sleeve. Tighten the nut by hand until it is
tight (Fig. 2-7C). For some fittings, the nut should
be tightened to a torque level. Follow the fitting
manufacturer's instructions.
2.39 Although there are differences in design,
the principle of installation is the same for all
flared fittings-compression holds the flared tube
end in place. A well-made flare is essential for a
tight connection. Equally important is the condi
tion of the fitting surfaces that contact the flared
end of the tube. Nicks, scratches, and burrs can
occur from handling. These must be removed to
ensure a tight, leak-free joint.
2.40 The fitting can be refaced with a refacing
tool. Adapters are used for various fitting sizes.
Turning the handle of the tool moves a cutter
which cleans the seat on the fitting.
Flareless Fittings
2.41 In Lesson One you studied flareless fittings
that rely on a ferrule contained inside the body
and a nut to grip and/or "bite" into the tube.
Many brass fittings for plastic tubing operate on
this principle (see Fig. 2-8). The insert of the
Installing Tubing 27
Fig. 2-8. Fitting for plastic tubing
Nut
Ferrule- Fitting body
Insert
Plastic tube
Angle on seat
Fig. 2-9. O-ring fitting
Union nut
0-ring
Fitting body
Tailpiece
Welded or
brazed tube
connection
fitting body supports the tube as the nut forces
the ferrule into the angle on the fitting seat.
Typical sizes of these fittings range from 1/8 in. to
1/2 in. They can be used with pressures of up to
150 psi and temperatures of 150°F.
2.42 Another type of flareless fitting uses a
welded or brazed connection of the tube to a tail
piece (Fig. 2-9). An O-ring forms a tight seal
between the tailpiece and the body. Styles are
available to fit tubes from 1/4 in. to 2 in. in O.D.
They can be used for vacuum applications or at
pressures of up to 3000 psi. The O-ring material
must be compatible with the fluid handled.
Installing Flareless Compression Fittings
2.43 Compression fittings for softer materials
such as brass, copper, aluminum, and plastic often
use a ferrule that is compressed around the tube
O.D. Figure 2-1 OA shows this type of fitting. After
cutting the tube squarely and cleanly, slide the nut
and the ferrule onto the tube. Insert the tube into
the fitting body and thread the nut until it is
fingertight. Be sure the end of the tube butts
firmly against the fitting body seat.
 Fig. 2-10. Compression fittings

Ferrule

Ferrule Bite and seal Seal

2.44 Alternatively, the nut, with the ferrule
inside, can be left loosely on the fitting. Insert the
tube into the open end of the nut until it seats on
the body of the fitting. Use an open-end wrench to
tighten the nut onto the fitting. One to one-and-a-
quarter turns is usually recommended. Check the
instructions for the style of fitting being used.
2.45 The majority of joints like these can be
taken apart and reassembled many times. Re-
tightening involves putting the tube end with the
ferrule into the fitting until it seats. Tighten the
nut by hand, then use a wrench to tighten it
another half-turn until snug.
wrench to tighten the nut about one full turn, de
pending on the fitting design and tubing material.
2.48 If you now loosen the nut and take the
fitting apart, you will see a ridge of material in
front of the cutting edge of the ferrule. It should
be uniform all the way around the tube O.D. The
ferrule may rotate but this is not a problem. It
will hold tight when the fitting is put back to
gether. This design provides two sealing points-
one where the ferrule bites into the tube, and one
where the ferrule shoulder tightens against the nut.
Tubing Supports and Clamps

2.46 Figure 2-1 OB shows a three-piece steel 2.49 The flow offluids under pressure can cause
flareless compression fitting. This type of fitting vibration and shock in a system. This can loosen
can be used on soft or hard materials, and with
heavy-wall tubing. The tube end must be properly
cut and cleaned. Place the nut over the tube with Fig. 2-11. Tube clamping
the open end facing toward the end of the tube.
Slide the ferrule onto the tube with the cutting
edges toward the tube end. The large end of the
ferrule must be inside the nut.

2.47 Oil the threads of the nut and fitting as

well as the ferrule. Put the end of the tube into
the fitting until it seats. Tighten the nut until the
ferrule starts to grip the tube. You will know when
you reach this point if you rotate the tube while
tightening the nut. The ferrule is gripping the tube
when the lube will no longer turn by hand. Use a

fittings and lead to leaks. Supports and clamps are
necessary to hold tubing in place and reduce the
load on the fittings, tubing, and bends. One of the
most critical support points is within approximate
ly 5 or 6 in. of a fitting. Vibrations must be ab
sorbed satisfactorily at this point—do not expect
the tubing to carry the weight of the fitting.
2.50 The simplest support is a tubing clamp
(Fig. 2-11). It is important to use the right size
clamp and to install it properly. The clamp must
be at a 90° angle to the centerline of the tube in
both directions. Misalignment can cause bending
and breakage of the clamp or excessive abrasion of
the tube. Tubing that moves because of surges,
thermal expansion, or other loads should be sup
ported with a number of single-hole clamps, com
bined to offset the thrust of the load. Even a static
load force causes bending due to gravity. For this
reason, clamps should be mounted from above the
tubing. Bracket mounting provides even better
support.
2.51 Due to the change of direction in fluid
flow, a tubing bend experiences greater stress
forces than adjacent straight portions of tubing.
The tube should be clamped securely to a rigid
structure on each side of the bend. The clamps
must be placed on a straight portion of tubing,
never on the bend itself. (The tube must be round
where the clamp is installed in order to achieve a
secure mounting.) Other methods of supporting
tubing are available. The design shown in Fig. 2-12
is typical. It can be stacked and bolted together to
accommodate single or multiple tubing runs.
Tubing Maintenance and Troubleshooting
2.52 As with all fluid handling systems, tubing
maintenance is generally limited to preventing or
repairing leaks. The most common cause of leaks
is a loose or improperly made fitting connection.
The first thing to check at a leaking connection is
the tightness of the fitting. Excessive force should
not be used or required. If reasonable tightening
does not stop the leak, take the joint apart and
inspect it. It may be that the tube is too short to
seat properly onto the fitting body.
2.53 Check the ferrule to be sure it is com
pressing evenly and completely around the tube
Installing Tubing 29
Fig. 2-12. Tubing supports
STAUFF CORPORATION OF NEW JERSEY
O.D. Bite-type fittings should have a visible ridge
in front of the ferrule. Lack of this ridge may be
due to the nut not being tight enough or the tubing
material being too hard. It may also be that the
tube did not bottom in the fitting, thus preventing
it from moving forward. Flared fittings should be
inspected for cracks or splits. The surface of the
flare seat should be free of any foreign material
which would prevent a tight seal. Check the tubing
for any sign of splitting or cracks.
2.54 Systems that experience a great deal of
vibration, surges, or movements may require addi
tional supports to reduce the load on the fittings.
Remember that tubing expands and contracts
with changes in temperature. Proper planning and
placement of bends should control this problem.
2.55 Tubing installed in an existing system
should be matched to that already in place. Replac
ing a tube with one that has a smaller I.D. can
cause a greater pressure drop and reduce the flow
rate. Tubing with a thinner wall may not be able to
handle the line pressure safely. Using a different
tubing material may cause corrosion at the connec
tions and may also affect the fluid being handled
and its flow characteristics. When making additions
to an existing system, be sure the original system
can provide the additional amount of fiow and
pressure required by the new line. Always check
the effects on the pressure drop and fiow to the
devices in the existing line.
30 Programed Exercises

2-9. A block and pin flaring tool should be

used in combination with a(n)
2-9. VISE

Ref: 2.31

2-10. Does a polished flare face make a joint

more or less likely to leak?
2-10. LESS

Ref: 2.33

2-11. When installing a flared fitting, you

should slide the nut over the tube
flarina the tube end. 2-11. BEFORE
(heforetafter)

Ref: 2.37

2-12. Can flar^less compression fitting joints

be taken apart and reassembled?
2-12. YES

Ref: 2.45

2-13. Tubing that experiences bending due to

gravity should be supported by clamps
mounted from the tubina. 2-13. ABOVE
(above!below)

Ref: 2.50

2-14. Does tubing undergo greater stress forces

in straight portions or in bends?
2-14. ^ BENDS
Ref: 2.51

2-15. Should a support clamp be placed directly

on a tubing bend?
2-15. NO

; Ref: 2.51

2-16. Bite-type fittings should have a visible

in front of the ferrule.
2-16. RIDGE

1 Ref: 2.53
I
 Self-Check Quiz 31

Answer the following questions by marking an "X'

in the box next to the best answer.

2-1. Which of the following is most likely to be 2-6. What is the maximum operating tempera
carried by copper tubing? ture for copper tubing?

□ a. An acidic solution □ a. 400° F

□ b. Water □ b. 600° F
□ c. Hydraulic oil □ c. 800° F
□ d. A food or beverage □ d. 1000°F

2-2. The measure of how fast a fluid flows

through a tube is called and is 2-7. Soldering operations should not be per
expressed in . formed at temperatures above

□ a. fluid velocity, ft/s □ a. 200° F

□ b. flow rate, gpm □ b. 400° F
□ c. flow rate, ft/s □ c. 600° F
□ d. line pressure, psi □ d. 800°F

2-3. The formulas for calculating flow rate,

fluid velocity, and tube I.D. all use the 2-8. Flared fittings can be used with all of the
same constant. What is it? following types of tubing EXCEPT

□ a. 2 □ a. copper
□ b. 2.448 □ b. stainless steel
□ c. 3.142 □ c. plastic
□ d. 5 □ d. aluminum

2-4. Solve for tensile strength in a hypothetical

application where line pressure is 300 psi, 2-9. In which of the following tubing applica
tube O.D. is 1 in., and tube wall thickness tions are you most likely to use a 37° flare?
is 0.05 in.
□ a. Plumbing system
□ a. S = 1500 psi □ b. Heating system
□ b. S = 3000 psi □ c. Automotive system
□ c. S = 4500 psi □ d. Hydraulic system
□ d. S = 6000 psi

2-5. The safety factor is a number which, in 2-10. One of the most critical support points in a
typical tubing installations, generally tubing system is within about of a
varies from fitting.

□ a. 1 to 15 □ a. 2 in.
□ b. 2 to 10 □ b. 6 in.
□ c. 4 to 8 □ c. 12 in.
□ d. 10 to 20 □ d. 24 in.
32 Lesson Two
Lesson Summary
The selection of the material to be used for a tub
ing application is based on the substance to be
carried and the requirements of the system. These
service conditions determine the wall thickness and
strength of the tubing based on flow rate, pressure,
and temperature. You must always allow for a
safety factor when you make these computations.
In addition to a variety of fittings, tubing connec
tions may be soldered or brazed. Most soldering is
done with copper tubing. Remember to wear
safety glasses or goggles when soldering or brazing.
Tubing systems that require disassembly are usu
Applications
2-1. Inspect several tubing installations in your
plant. How many different kinds of tubing
material are used? Can you tell why a
certain material was selected for a given
application?
Answers to Self-Check Quiz
2-1. b. Water. Ref: 2.03
2-2. a. Fluid velocity, ft/s. Ref: 2.08
2-3. b. 2.448. Ref: 2.09
2-4. b. S = 3000 psi. Ref: 2.10
2-5. c. 4 to 8. Ref: 2.11
ally joined with threaded connectors. These may
be either flared or flareless fittings. Various tools
can be used to flare tubing, but a properly made
flare is essential for a tight connection. Flareless
fittings rely on a ferrule inside die body to bite
into the tube and form the seal.
Because tubing is not rigid,long runs of unsup
ported tubing tend to sag. The use of clamps and
other types of tubing support reduces the excessive
strain put on fittings and bends. Properly placed
tubing supports provide a simple and inexpensive
means of preventing premature tubing failure.
2-2. What t3q}es of connections are used in each
of the applications you examined in 2-1
(soldered, brazed, flared, flareless, etc.)?
What types of tubing supports are most
commonly used? How far apart,on average,
are they spaced?
2-6. a. 400®F. Ref: 2.15
2-7. d. 8005F-. Ref: 2.24
2-8. c. Plastic. Ref: 2.26
2-9. d. Hydraulic system. Ref: 2.28
2-10. b. 6 in. Ref: 2.49
IPG Training Systems 750 Lake Cook Road
Buffalo Grove, IL 60089 847/808-4000
Installing and Wlaintaining Tubing and Hose Systems

Hydraulic
Tubing Systems

TPC Training Systems

34

Lesson Three
Hydraulic Tubing Systems

Topics

Selecting Tubing and Fittings

Force and Pressure Tubing Sizes
Hydraulic Fluids Fittings
Basic Hydraulic Circuitry Installing Hydraulic Tubing Systems
Hydraulic Line Components Maintaining Hydraulic Tubing Systems
Control Devices Troubleshooting Hydraulic Tubing Systems

Force and Pressure
3.01 The use of hydraulics allows machinery to
achieve a very high degree of force in relatively
small operating spaces. In industrial applications,
force is usually expressed in pounds. Pressure is
force per unit of area. It is expressed as pounds per
square foot, tons per square foot, pounds per
square inch, etc. Pounds per square inch (psi) is the
unit you will use most often when working with
hydraulics.
3.02 The mathematical relationship between
force, pressure, and area is expressed in the for
mula:
force (lb)
pressure (psi)=
area (in^)
tion, you can easily compute the remaining one.
For instance, if the pressure and area are known,
and you need to find the force, the equation is
force = pressure x area.
3.03 Because hydraulic fluids are practically
incompressible, they transmit the same pressure to
every square inch of the system in which they are
contained. In Fig. 3-1, for instance, the force on
piston A (200 lb) is distributed over an area of
2 in^. The same pressure(100 psi) is transmitted to
piston B, which has an area of 10 in^.
3.04 The force delivered by piston B is thus
computed as:
force = 100 psi X 10 in^

If you know any two of the factors in this equa = 1000 lb.

(D Copyright 1985 by TPC Training Systems, a division of Telemedia, inc.

All rights reserved, including those of translation.
Printed and videotaped courseware are subject to the copyright laws of the United States. You are not authorized to make any copies
of this material. If you do, then you are subject to the penalties provided under the copyright law, which include statutory damages up
to $50,000 for each infringement of copyrighted material, and also recovery of reasonable attorneys' fees. Further, you could be
subject to criminal prosecution pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 2319.
Seventh printing, June 1997. Printed in the United States of America.
 Hydraulics is used extensively in
modem industrial machinery. Heavy
parts of large machine tools are moved
by hydraulics, as are many of the mov
ing parts of construction and agricul
tural machineiy, aircraft and space
craft, and marine equipment. A review
of a few basic principles of hydraulics
will help you evaluate s>'stem installa
tion and replacement, as well as
troubleshooting projects.
Hydraulic tubing systems are very
similar to other pressure systems. The
major difference between hydraulic
systems and systems that operate at
lower pressures is the increased capa
bility of the hydraulic forces involved.
This, in turn, makes the strength and
reliability of the system's tubing and
fittings more important.
This Lesson explains the basic
formulas for computing the pressure
and force of hydraulic fluids through
a tubing system. It identifies the im
portant symbols used to designate
various components in a hydraulic
system, installation, testing, mainte
nance, and troubleshooting procedures
are also discussed.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS IN THIS LESSON

Force 3.01 the influence which causes a body at rest to
be put into motion or a body already in motion to
accelerate
Pressure 3.01 force exerted over a surface divided by
its area
psi 3.01 pounds per square inch—a unit for measuring
pressure
Hydraulic circuit 3.07 a tubing system incorporating
at least four basic components: reservoir, pump,
valve, and motor

This is one way in which hydraulics is said to in any hydraulic circuit. Figure 3-2 shows a simple
increase the force that a system can produce. circuit with these four components—reservoir,
pump, valve, and motor. '
Hydraulic Fluids
3.08 The reservoir contains the supply of hy
3.05 Oil is the most frequently used hydraulic draulic fluid. The pump draws the fluid out of the
fluid. It is very nearly incompressible, and it also reservoir and into the system. A valve is used to
serves to lubricate the various mechanisms in a control the fluid pressure and flow. The motor is
system. Hydraulic oils range in weight from 55 to the driven element in the system.
58 Ib/ft^ for most applications. The weight of the
oil varies with its viscosity.
Fig. 3-1. Force and pressure
3.06 The type of fluid used in a hydraulic tubing
system has a critical effect on the overall perform
200 lb
ance of the system. A high-quality fluid should
always be used, and the fluid must be kept clean at
1000 lb
all times. In order to eliminate excessive slipping
and leaking, select a fluid with the capacity to hold
its body over a wide range of temperatures. If you
have doubts about the type of fluid to use for a 2-m* area
specific application, consult a reputable supplier.

Basic Hydraulic Circuitry

1D-in* area
3.07 A hydraulic circuit may be quite simple in
design, or it may be very complex, depending on
the general application and on the number and
types of components that make up the circuit.
However, there are four basic components required
36 Lesson Three
Fig. 3-2. Typical hydraulic circuit
Valve
Pump Motor
Reservoir
3.09 Motors are used to produce rotary motion;
cylinders are used to produce linear motion. The
job of the motor or the cylinder is to convert the
energy of the moving fluid into mecliaiiical w^ork^
Hydraulic circuits may have two or more pumps,
several different types of valves, and more than one
driven motor or cylinder (or a combination of
both). Flexibility is one of the major advantages of
hydraulic arrangements.
3.10 Before beginning any kind of work on a
hydraulic circuit or its components, obtain a
diagram of the overall layout. The hydraulic circuit
diagram is to the hydraulic technician what the
schematic wiring diagram is to an electrician.
3.11 Figure 3-3 shows a circuit diagram in a cut
away format. This type of drawing shows not only
the general layout of the system, but also the con
struction of the various components. The cutaway
format is not very widely used in industry. Figure
3-4 shows the same layout in a graphic format.
This is the format in which most hydraulic circuits
are diagramed. It is composed of standardized
symbols designating the various components and
their locations in the system. Figure 3-5 identifies
some of these basic fluid power symbols.
Hydraulic Line Components
3.12 Each component in a hydraulic system
performs a specific function. Before you work on
a hydraulic system, be sure you understand the
purpose of the various components and the loca
tion of each.
3.13 Reservoir. In addition to being the main
storage vessel for hydraulic fluid, a properly de
signed reservoir can help keep the fluid clean by
sealing out air and other contaminants. It can also
aid in dissipating the heat that is absorbed by the
fluid as it circulates through the system. The
reservoir in Fig. 3-6 is raised, allowing for an air
space beneath the reservoir that helps to dissipate
heat.
3.14 Baffle plate. The baffle plate (see Fig. 3-6)
keeps the fluid leaving the reservoir and entering
the system separated from the fluid returning to
the reservoir at the end of the circuit. It thereby
slows the circulation process, allowing air and
other contaminants to escape from the return fluid
before it is recirculated through the system.
3.15 Mounting plate. In the design shown in
Fig. 3-6, the pump and motor can be mounted
on a sturdy plate directly on top of the reservoir.
This arrangement permits easy access for servicing
these components, and helps keep them in proper
alignment.
3.16 Breather. The air inside a reservoir must be
kept at atmospheric pressure at all times. The air
breather serves as a vent to keep air pressure from
building up inside the tank. It also has a built-in
filter to trap contaminants in the air before they
can enter the reservoir.
3.17 The size of the breather and the type of
filter it uses depends on the system application and
on the environment in which the reservoir is
located. It is important to inspect the breather
regularly. Keep its filter free of dust, grit, and
other contaminants which could clog the breather.
3.18 Strainers. The strainer in the reservoir in
Fig. 3-6 is located in the pump suction line. Its
function is to remove any foreign materials from
the fluid before it is sent back into the system. The
strainer must be cleaned regularly, and its cleaning
element must be replaced as necessary.
3.19 The cleaning element of a strainer may be a
fine-mesh wire screening or it may be of heavier

Fig. 3-3. Cutaway circuit diagram
|K
iw
Courtesy Vickers, Incorporated
wire mesh, depending on the type and size of con
taminants expected. As a general rule, strainers are
not as effective at cleaning fluids as filters are.
3.20 However, strainers do not slow the flow of
fluid as much as filters do. This is one reason why a
strainer is more frequently used on the suction side
of a hydraulic pump. It does not cause as great a
drop in pressure as a filter would at that location.
3.21 Many reservoirs have some type of door or
opening which allows removal of the strainer with-
Fig. 3-4. Graphic circuit diagram
Courtesy Vickers, Incorporated
Hydraulic Tubing Systems 37
List of components
A—Reservoir
B-Electric motor
C—Pump
D—Pressure relief valve
E-Directional control valve
F—Flow control valve
G—Check valve
H—Cylinder
out draining the fluid from the tank. Some hy
draulic systems use more than one strainer in the
reservoir. The number of strainers depends on the
application and on the capacity of the pump being
used. Figure 3-7 shows two arrangements involving
multiple strainers in a pump suction line.
3.22 Filters. A filter can remove finer particles
from hydraulic fluid than a strainer can. Its filter
ing elements are generally more dense than those
of a strainer, and may be made of any one of
several materials, including plastic, cellulose, wood,
activated clay, and fuller's earth.
3.23 Study the diagram for your hydraulic cir
cuit. Note the locations of all the filters in the
system. Determine-the-type of filter used at each
location so that you can establish a schedule for
periodic.inspection and cleaning.
3.24 If the hydraulic fluid used m your tubing
system contains additives, do NOT use activated
clay or fuller's earth as a filtering element. These
materials will remove the additive from the fluid
along with any foreign matter.
38 Lesson Three

Fig. 3-5. Basic fluid power symbols

Lines and line hinction Miscellaneous units—continued Valves, hydraulic

Solid line
main line
^ 1 Cooler —A— Check

Heater Pilot operated

Dashed line check
pilot line Temperature
controller On-off manual
-«XH
Dotted line shut off
exhaust or Quick i
drain disconnects! 2 position-
disconnected 2 way
Enclosure
outline Quick 2 position-
disconnects! 3 way
Lines crossing connected
2 position-
Sway
Valve operators
2 position-
Lines joining Solenoid 4 way
i
Uquid supply Detent ! 2 position
Imm
4 way-open
Gaseous supply VA Spring center cross
over

W Flexible line oc Mechanical { Pressure relief

a=C Rjsh buttor)

Pressure
Mechanical devices
Push-pull leVer reducing
Mechanical
connections EC Air pilot j
(shafts, Pumps and motors
levers, etc.)
Cylinders Hydraulic pump
Variable
component Single actinjg
0 fixed dis
placement
/ (run arrow
through Variable
Double acting
symbol at 45®) & single rod end
i
.0 displacement

Spring Double rod end Pressure com

pensated
Single rod end variable
Miscellaneous units & fixed cushion capacity pump
rod end only
Fixed capacity
©(C Reversing motor Adjustable j hydraulic pump
Station or cushion (two directional
test point rod end only flow)

Pressure Differentia Pressure

© indicator I! cylinder intensifier one
fluid type
Temperature
indicator Accumulator
hydro-
--IZ> Pressure switch pneumatic
 Hydraulic Tubing Systems 39

Pumps and motors—continued Flow control valves Miscellaneous

com ponents—continued
Hydraulic motor Flow control
-7^ adjustable -CZh
0 fixed
displacement
Silencer

Air receiver
Variable
displacement
Flow control
pressure
0 Flow control,
compensated
adjustable
Hydraulic
oscillator Flow control Flow control,
-m- adjustable adjustable with
(temperature and bypass check
pressure
Conditioning
compensated) Filter-regulator-
lubricator (FRL)
~0~ Filter

Filter regulator
Reservoir open Miscellaneous components
lubricator
to atmosphere
composite
Regulator
CD Pressurized (non-relieving)

Line to Regulator
1 reservoir below 4r (relieving)
fluid level
Rapid exhaust
Line to valve
reservoir above *ANSI
fluid level ■nso

Graphic symbols for fluid power diagrams with permission of the publisher.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers USAS Y 32.10-1967

Fig. 3-6. Hydraulic fluid reservoir Fig. 3-7. Multiple strainer arrangements

To pump intake
Motor/pump mounting plate
Pump suction line Oil level Disconnect pipe union
Return line to remove strainers
through cover for cleaning

To pump intake
Oil level

Pipe joints submerged

Legs

Drain plug

Strainer Baffle plate

Cleanout plate
Oil level gage ^ ^ ^

Courtesy Vickers, Incorporated Courtesy Vickers, Incorporated

40 Programed Exercises

3-1. Pressure may be defined as force per unit

of
3-1. AREA

Ref: 3.01

3-2. The most frequently used hydraulic fluid

is
3-2. OIL

Ref: 3.05

3-3. The weight of hydraulic oil varies with

its
3-3. VISCOSITY

Ref: 3.05

3-4. Name the four basic components in any

hydraulic circuit. 3-4. RESERVOIR, PUMP,
VALVE, ACTUATOR

Ref: 3.07

3-5. The job of a motor or cylinder is to

convert enerav into
3-5. WORK

Ref: 3.09

3-6. The type of drawing most frequently

used to diagram hydraulic circuits is the
format. 3-6. GRAPHIC

Ref: 3.11
1

3-7. Air pressure can be kept from building

up inside a reservoir by using a(n)
3-7. BREATHER or VENT

Ref: 3.16

3-8. In general, which are more effective at

cleaning fluids, strainers or filters?
3-8. ' FILTERS

Ref: 3.19

Control Devices
3.25 Control of the fluid is the key factor in any
hydraulic tubing system. Pressure, direction, and
flow rate are the three major areas of consideration.
If control is inadequate in any of these respects,
the system will not operate as designed.
3.26 Controlling pressure. The pressure in a
hydraulic system must be accurately controlled at
all times. Rams, pistons, and some motor parts
are designed to operate properly only when an
adequate amount of pressure is applied. Excess
pressure can cause damage to line components, and
may cause bodily injury to operators.
3.27 Figure 3-8A shows the construction of a
simple relief valve. This device is commonly used
to keep line pressures from building up to the
danger point. The inlet of the valve is connected
to the pressure line, the outlet to the reservoir.
Pressure exerted by an adjustable spring holds the
ball on its seat. Spring pressure is set by turning
the adjusting screw on the exterior of the valve.
3.28 When the line pressure exceeds the setting
of the spring force, the ball is moved off its seat,
allowing the fluid to flow through the valve and
return to the reservoir. When pressure drops below
the adjusted spring force, the ball reseats and the
valve closes. Whenever excess pressure causes a
relief valve to open, shut down the system at once,
determine the cause of the high pressure, and
correct the condition accordingly.
Fig. 3-8. Pressure control valves
B. Pressure-reducing valve
A. Relief valve
Adjusting screw
Hydraulic Tubing Systems 41
3.29 Although there are many variations of the
relief valve shown in Fig. 3-8A, all of them are
designed to protect the system from high pres
sures. Study the system on which you will be
working. Note the types and locations of relief
valves. Check the settings to be sure they are
within the limits specified for the valves. Relief
valves should be inspected frequently. Make sure
they are operating properly and that no parts stick
or bind.
3.30 Various components in one part of a hy
draulic circuit may operate at a pressure lower
than the operating pressure required in the main
circuit. Lowering the line pressure for these com
ponents is accomplished by installing a pressure-
reducing valve. Relief valves cannot be used for
this purpose, since they would prevent further
pressure buildup throughout the entire system.
3.31 Unlike a relief valve, a pressure-reducing
valve is normally open (see Fig. 3-8B). It senses the
pressure at its exit (low-pressure) port, and only
closes when the valve setting is reached.
3.32 Other valves, more complex than the one
shown in Fig. 3-8B, are also used to reduce and
control pressure. However, almost all of them
involve the use of mechanical spring pressure
against the fluid pressure in the line. The springs
and other internal parts of these devices must move
freely at all times.
3.33 Controlling direction. Controlling the flow
rUUvlOIDDflCD
Out to
pressure
component
42 Lesson Three

3.34 A rotary-spool valve is shown in Fig. 3-10.

Fig. 3-9. Sliding-spool valve
In drawing A, the spool is positioned to connect
the inlet line to port 1 and the reservoir to port 2.
In B, the inlet line is connected to port 2 and the
reservoir to port 1. In C, the spool is in the closed
position with all ports blocked. Other types of
directional control valves are capable of directing
fluid in more than two directions.

3.35 Controlling flow rate. The rate at which

hydraulic fluid is allowed to flow through the sys
tem is critical to overall performance. Flow rate is
most often controlled by means of valves of
various types and adjustable devices that establish
and maintain the desired rate. There must always
be enough fluid moving through the system to
niet line provide the required operating pressures, but any
excess may cause overloading of pumps and other
components.
To reservoir

3.36 The number of different control devices

Courtesy Vickers, Incorporated
for flow rate is too great to be covered here. In
general, study the schematic drawings carefully
of hydraulic fluid in the direction of the various when installing or repairing a hydraulic system.
cylinders, motors, and other mechanisms it is in Identify the types of flow-control devices and
tended to operate is as important as controlling the determine their locations. Learn the correct
pressure. The simplest type of directional control settings for each, and be certain they are adjusted
valve is shown in Fig. 3-9. A sliding spool may be to these values.
shifted either to the left, closing exit port 2 and
opening port 1, or to the right (as shown in the
Selecting Tubing and Fittings
illustration), closing port 1 and opening port 2.
Leakage of fluid is returned to the reservoir through 3.37 Tubing, as opposed to pipe, is usually used
the ports labeled R. for hydraulic systems with line diameters of 2 in.

Fig. 3-10. Rotary-spool valve

To reservoir To reservoir Tn rp^prvnir

I i \
I {Spool

Inlet line Inlet tine

Courtesy Vickers. Incorporated

 Hydraulic Tubing Systems 43

or less. Tubing is generally lighter in weight than
piping and is easier to work with because of its
flexibility. There are several factors to be consid-
ered when selecting hydraulic tubing for a system.
3.38 Tubing materials used in hydraulic systems
vary with the application. The most significant
factor in selecting tubing material is the operating
pressure in the hydraulic line. The presence of
vibration and shock from hydraulic fluid are other
factors. If you are replacing an existing line in a
system, use tubing of the same material as that in
the original installation. In new installations, use
the following guidelines for selecting tubing
materials.
3.39 If the operating pressure in the hydraulic
systenwioes not exceed 1000 psi, and if the system
is not subject to excessive vibration or shock,
copper tubing is most often used as the main
carrier. Seamless tubing is best, because it elimi
nates potential weak areas. Use brass fittings with
copper tubing.
3.40 There are two types of steel used for hy
draulic lines. Carbon steel (SAE lOlO) is most
often used in systems with operating pressures
above 1000 psi and with noncorrosive fluids. If
cost is a factor, butt-welded steel tubing may
sometimes be used instead of the more costly
seamless type. Be sure that the butt-welded tubing
will hold up under the bending and flaring neces
sary in installation.
3.41 For hydraulic installations involving ex
tremely high pressures and moderately corrosive
fluids, alloy-steel tubing is most popular. It must
be annealed so that it can be shaped, bent, and
flared as required by the system design. The most
commonly used alloying metals are chrome (18%)
and nickel (8%).
3.42 Whenever an application requires light
weight tubing and line fittings, as in aircraft con
struction, aluminum alloys are used. In general,
consult with a reputable tubing manufacturer for
special applications, such as those involving very
high line pressures or highly corrosive fluids.
3.43 Table 3-1 shows the specifications for
copper, carbon steel, and aluminum alloy tubing.
Also shown are the recommended materials for
fittings, nuts, and sleeves for each type of tubing.
Never mix the tubing and accessory materials
within a single installation.
Tubing Sizes
3.44 When replacing tubing in a hydraulic sys
tem, be sure to measure and check the wall thick
ness of the old line. Use the same size for the
replacement tubing. On new installations you can
determine the correct tubing size and wall thick
ness from engineering drawings or written specifi
cations. Adhere to these specifications to ensure
that the tubing and fittings can handle the require
ments of the application.

Table 3-1. Tube and fitting materials

Tube Fitting Nut Sleeve

Copper, ASTM 875 Brass. QQ-B-611' Brass, QQ-B-611' Aluminum bronze,

AN-B-16^
Carbon steel, SAE 1020 Carbon steel, Carbon steel, Carbon steel,
SAE 1020 SAE 1020 SAE 1020
Alloy steel, Alloy steel, Alloy steel,
SAEX4130 SAE X4130 SAE X4130

Aluminum alloy, 528-0^ Aluminum alloy, Aluminum alloy, Aluminum bronze,

QQ-A-367' QQ-A.367' AN-B-16^
or aluminum
alloy, QQ-A-367'
'Federal specifications.
^ Army-Navy Aeronautical Board specification.
^Aluminum Company of America designation.
44 Lesson Three
Fittings
3.45 As mentioned earlier, always use fittings
compatible with the tubing material. Mixing mate
rials can cause damaging electrolytic action at the
joints in certain applications. Many different types
of fittings are used in hydraulic lines. Like tubing
materials and sizes, the types of fittings to be
selected for an application are usually the respon
sibility of the design engineers.
3.46 When replacing existing fittings, use iden
tical types and sizes. There is a degree of inter-
changeability among certain types of fittings and
their components. However, it is generally best to
replace the complete fitting as a unit.
3.47 Use the same assembly techniques when
installing hydraulic tubing systems as used for
assembling tubing lines for other fluids. First,
tighten fitting nuts by hand, and then use only
moderate torque to finish tightening the joint.
Certain compounds may be used to facilitate
assembly and make a more effective joint. The
use of these materials will be generally dictated
by the joint design—flared, threaded, etc.
3.48 Study drawings, schematics, or other
specifications carefully before starting work on an
assembly project. When you are required to replace
parts in an existing system, be sure to match the
sizes and materials used for the old components.
Note how the tubing ends are prepared for installa
tion in the fittings.
Installing Hydraulic Tubing Systems
3.49 There are generally three distinct elements
that make up a complete hydraulic tubing system.
These are;
• the power package
• the machine (linear or rotary actuator) to
be operated
• the tubing itself and such line accessories
as valves, filters, strainers, etc.
Inspect all of these carefully before starting the
actual installation.
3.50 Check all openings of pumps, valves,
reservoirs, and other components. Plugs inserted
by the manufacturers to keep out foreign material
during shipment should be in place when these
parts arrive at the installation site. If a plug is
missing, check to be sure the inside of the part is
not contaminated. Make the installation site as
clean as possible—to keep dust in the air to a mini
mum—before assembling the various parts. Cover
those parts not ready for installation with a clean
cloth or store them in a closed storage cabinet.
3.51 Use only those tools designed for the job
at hand. Do not try to improvise. Hydraulic com
ponents are fragile and can easily be damaged by
rough or improper handling. Be sure fittings and
tubing are aligned correctly before tightening.
Always use established procedures for avoiding
damage to threads when preparing and installing
tubing and fittings.
3.52 Inspect all filters and strainers to be certain
that they are in good condition and contain no
residual foreign matter. Check the breather on the
reservoir. If it is an oil bath type, be sure it con
tains oil. Inspect the interior of the reservoir for
debris before filling it to the correct level with the
hydraulic fluid specified for the application.
Maintaining Hydraulic Tubing Systems
3.53 Develop a schedule for periodic inspection
and maintenance of hydraulic tubing systems. List
the major components of your system and sched
ule maintenance work on these at intervals recom
mended by the manufacturers or dictated by
personal experience. Between regular maintenance
shutdowns and overhauls, inspect the lines, fittings,
and accessories frequently. Watch especially for
signs of leakage and overheating.
3.54 Always replace lost hydraulic fluid with the
same kind of fluid. Do not substitute any other
kind. Some installations require special fireproof
or chemically resistant fluids. Substitution of the
wrong kind of hydraulic fluid could be hazardous
in these cases.
Troubleshooting Hydraulic Tubing Systems
3.55 The following section identifies several of

the most common problems that may occur in
hydraulic tubing systems, and lists the possible
causes of each.
3.56 Pump is noisy. The most probable cause for
this condition is an insufficient fluid supply. Check
fluid viscosity and pump speed. Also look for a
blocked line or a clogged filter or strainer. Another
common cause for pump noise is that air is being
allowed to enter the pump. Check the fluid level in
the reservoir. Look for faulty pump seals or loose
inlet fittings. Other possibilities, depending on the
type of pump used, include cavitation, misaligned
shafts, damaged gears, sticking vanes, and bad
bearings.
3.57 Low or fluctuating pressure. Check for
contaminated fluid. Take a sample of the hydraulic
fluid and have it analyzed. A malfunctioning relief
valve may also be responsible for erratic pressure.
Repair or replace as necessary. It may also be that
the pressure setting is incorrect. Check setting and
readjust as needed.
3.58 Loss of pressure. Pressure loss is often
caused by pump failure. Shut down the system and
repair or replace pump. A valve malfunction may
be involved. Repair or replace faulty valve. Also
check the reservoir level to be sure the supply of
fluid is adequate. Be alert for improper fluid
viscosity.
3.59 Actuator will not move. Pump failure is
frequently the cause of this problem also. Follow
procedures previously outlined. Check for direc
tional control valve failure. Repair or replace faulty
Hydraulic Tubing Systems 45
valve as necessary. Low pressure is a possible cause.
If so, follow procedures previously outlined. Make
sure no mechanical parts are binding. Inspect
motor or cylinder and repair accordingly.
3.60 Actuator moves too slowly. Check for
faulty pump operation, especially for incorrect
pump speed. Inspect the fluid level in the reservoir.
It may be too low. Also check for incorrect fluid
viscosity or air in fluid. Inspect the circuit for any
leaks in the system and repair as needed.
3.61 Overheating. A common cause of overheat
ing is the failure of heat-dissipating devices. Inspect
heat exchangers and coolers and repair or replace
as necessary. Excessive line pressure can also result
in overheating. If it is high, reduce line pressure to
desired level, and check for excessive reservoir
pressure. Finally, be sure the circuit is using a
hydraulic fluid of a suitable viscosity.
3.62 In general, problems in hydraulic tubing
systems are most often caused by one or more of
the following conditions:
• improper pressures
• loose line fittings and accessories
• incorrectly installed power drive package
• unsuitable hydraulic fluid
• dirty or clogged strainers and filters
• low fluid level in the reservoir.
46 Programed Exercises

3-9. What is the first thing you should do

when excess line pressure causes fluid
3-9. SHUT DOWN THE SYSTEM
to flow through a relief valve and return
to the reservoir?
Ref: 3.28

3-10. In its normal position, a pressure-reducing

Wfllv/e is
(openlclosed) 3-10. OPEN

Ref: 3.31

3-11. Tubing is generally used instead of pipe

for hydraulic systems with line diameters
of less than 3-11. 2 IN.

Ref: 3.37

3-12. The most significant factor in selecting

tubina material is the of the
hydraulic system. 3-12. OPERATING PRESSURE

Ref: 3.38

3-13. Copper tubing can be used for hydraulic

applications with operating pressures
below 3-13. 1000 PSI

1 Ref: 3.39

3-14. What type of tubing material is usually

used for hydraulic installations with
extremely high operating pressures? 3-14. ALLOY-STEEL-

Ref: 3.41

3-15. What type of tubing is commonly selected

for hydraulic applications that call for
light-weight material? 3-15. ALUMINUM

Ref: 3.42

3-16. The most probable cause of a noisy pump

is
3-16. INSUFFICIENT FLUID SUPPLY

Ref: 3.56
 Self-Check Quiz 47

Answer the following questions by marking an "X'

in the box next to the best answer.

3-1 In hydraulic applications, force is usually 3-6. The strainer in a typical reservoir is located
expressed in in the

□ a. psi □ a. pump suction line

□ b. ft/s □ b. pump discharge line
□ c. lb □ c. pressure relief valve
□ d. in^ □ d. cleanout plate housing

3-2. If a pressure of 200 psi is transmitted to a 3-7. Hydraulic systems must have provisions for
piston with an area of 6 in^, the force controlling all of the following EXCEPT the
delivered by the piston is
□ a. direction of the fluid
□ a. 30 lb □ b. viscosity of the fluid
□ b. 33.3 lb □ c. pressure of the fluid
□ c. 1200 lb □ d. flow rate of the fluid
□ d. 7200 lb
3-8. If one component in a hydraulic system
3-3. Which of the following is NOT one of the operates at a pressure lower than that re
four basic components that make up all quired by the main circuit, pressure can be
hydraulic circuits? lowered for this component by installing a

□ a. Pump □ a. rotary-spool valve

□ b. Filter □ b. sliding-spool valve
□ c. Valve □ c. relief valve
□ d. Motor □ d. pressure-reducing valve

3-4. Which of the following symbols represents 3-9. What type of tubing material is most often
a filter? used in hydraulic systems that handle non-
corrosive fluids at operating pressures
□ a. above 1000 psi?

□ b. © □ a. Plastic
□ b. Aluminum
□ c. □ c. Carbon steel
□ d. Copper
□ d.
0 3-10. Which of the following is probably LEAST
3-5. One important function of a well-designed likely to cause loss of pressure in a
reservoir is to help hydraulic line?

□ a. increase line pressure □ a. Misaligned shafts

□ b. reduce line pressure □ b. Improper fluid viscosity
□ c. heat the fluid □ c. Valve malfunction
□ d. keep the fluid clean □ d. Insufficient fluid supply
48 Lesson Three

Lesson Summary

The maintenance of hydraulic tubing systems re
quires a knowledge of some basic hydraulics
terminology. This Lesson reviews such concepts
as force and pressure, and describes the procedures
for calculating these factors in a hydraulic tubing
system.
Oil is probably the most commonly used fluid in
hydraulic circuits. All hydraulic circuits consist of
at least four major components—a reservoir that
contains the fluid supply,a pump that conveys the
fluid from the reservoir to the system, a valve that
controls the flow of the fluid, and an actuator that
converts the energy of the moving fluid into
mechanical work.
Always inspect the power package, the actuator,
the tubing itself, and such line accessories as valves,
filters, and strainers before installing a hydraulic
tubing system. Establish a regular schedule for the
periodic inspection and maintenance of all hy
draulic circuits. This Lesson concludes by describ
ing a number of common problems that are typical
of many hydraulic tubing systems. Use this section
as a guide to some probable causes and cures for
these problems.

Applications

3-1. Examine one or more hydraulic circuits in
your plant and identify the four major
components of each. What are some of the
features of the reservoir? Is more than one
pump used? What types of valves control
the pressure,direction, and flow rate of the
hydraulic fluid? What kind of work is pro
duced by the actuator?
3-2. Study the fluid power symbols identined in
Fig. 3-6, and in similar charts and tables in
other tubing manuals and handbooks.
Memorize the most important symbols,
and become familiar with as many of the
less common ones as you can. This will
help you become proflcient in reading
graphic layouts of hydraulic circuitry.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

3-1. c. Lb. Ref: 3.01 3-6. a. Pump suction line. Ref: 3.18

3-2. c. 1200 lb. Ref: 3.02 3-7. b. Viscosity of the fluid. Ref: 3.25

3-3. b. Filter. Ref: 3.07 3-8. 1 d. Pressure-reducing valve.

1 Ref: 3.30
3-4. a. Ref: Fig. 3-5
3-9. 1 c. Carbon steel. Ref: 3.40

3-5. d. Keep the fluid clean. Ref: 3.13 3-10. a. Misaligned shafts. Ref: 3.58

TPC Training Systems 750 Lake Cook Road

Buffalo Grove, tL 60089 847/808-4000
Installing and H/laintaining Tubing and Hose Systems

A division of
TPC Training Systems Tetemedia, Inc
50

Lesson Four
Hose Systems

Topics

General Fitting Classifications

Hose Selection Factors Measuring Assembly Length
Hydraulic Hose Calculating Hose Length for Bends
General Applications Installing Hose Systems
Hose Construction Testing and Inspecting Hose
Hose Fittings Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Hose Selection Factors uals, and other valuable technical information

4.01 Hoses function as a flexible transport
medium in many types of industrial machinery,
handling various liquids and gases (including air).
Generally, hoses transfer these materials from
point to point over relatively short distances within
the plant.
4.02 The selection of the components that make
up a hose system depends on several factors, which
can vary from application to application. The
nature of the material to be handled, the operating
pressures, the required flow rate, the environment
in which the hose will be installed—these are just a
few of the important considerations that must be
taken into account when planning a hose system
for a given task.
4.03 Hose manufacturers publish catalogs, man
regarding their products. Use these guides to help
you choose the correct hose for a specific applica
tion. Some manufacturers also publish step-by-step w
instructions for assembling hoses and fittings. If
your application is so specialized that no available
technical material covers the conditions, consult
several reputable hose suppliers for their recom
mendations.
4.04 A large percentage of hose failures are the
direct result of using the wrong hose for the job.
It is important to analyze carefully all aspects of
an installation when selecting hose. Each of the
major factors affecting the selection of hose dis
cussed in the following paragraphs should be
clearly defined before you make your choice.
4.05 Inside diameter. Figure 4-1 identifies the
I.D. of the inner tube of a hose. This is one of the

O Copyright 198S by TPC Training Systems, a division of Teiemedia, Inc.

Aii rights reserved, including those of translation.
Printed and videotaped courseware are subject to the copyright laws of the United States. You are not authorized to make any copies
subfoct to the penalties provided under the copyright law, which include statutory damages up
to $50,000 for each infringement of copyrighted material, and also recovery of reasonable attorneys' fees. Further, vou could be
subject to criminal prosecution pursuant to 18 U.S.C.§ 2319. '
Seventh printing, June 1997. Printed in the United States of America.
 51

Hoses of various kinds are used to
transfer liquids, gases,and some fluid
like solids(such as sand)from one
point to anoriier. This Lesson defines
the basic terminology of hose installa
tions, discusses the materials of which
hoses are made and how they differ
from application to application, and
describes the many types offittings
used on hose ends.
This Lesson also explains how to
measure and install a hose and fitting
assembly properly,and how to main
tain a hose system in good working
order. Troubleshooting techniques,
system testing procedures,and safety
precautions to be foUowed when
working on hose installations are
covered as well.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS IN THIS LESSON

Saturated steam 4.18 a mixture of steam and water Mandrel 4.30 a shaft that serves to support a fitting
in equilibrium during assembly
Superheated steam 4.18 steam that is removed from
contact with water and further heated at a
constant pressure

critical dimensions of a hose which you must Fig. 4-1. Hose dimensions
know. The O.D. of the hose is not always as
significant, but it should be kept in mind if the
hose is to pass through close clearance openings Inside diameter

or between machine parts.

4.06 Nature of the material to be transported.

The material to be handled by the hose is impor
tant to the selection of the inside tube compound.
Air, water, acid, oil, and steam all have different
effects on the tube material. The exact composi
tion of acids, oils, solvents, foods, and beverages
must be known so that you can select a hose with
the proper chemical resistance. If chemicals or
corrosives are to pass through the hose, determine
their concentration.
4.07 Interior pressure and temperature. You
must also know the maximum temperature of the
substance as it passes through the hose, and the
maximum pressure that the hose must be able to
Outside diameter T
Inner tube
hose cover as well. If, for example, the hose is to
be used in an area where oils, greases, acids, or
solvents might be present, you must be aware of
the effects of these elements when you select the
hose cover. The outer cover protects the inner
parts of the hose. Analyze your application in light
of the following external and environmental condi
tions, all of which can shorten the life of a hose
cover.

withstand. This should include any potential surges

or back pressure. In the case of a suction hose
application, it is important to know the degree
of vacuum created.
4.08 The above factors relate primarily to the
inner tube of the hose. However, there are factors
to consider in the selection of the proper outer
4.09 Abrasion.. Abrasion, is one of the major
causes of failure of the outer cover. Dragging the
hose over the floor or rubbing it against other
machine parts—particularly in a dirty or gritty
atmosphere-will shorten the hose cover life con
siderably. Abrasion-resistant covers are available
and should be used under these conditions.
52 Lesson Four

4.10 Heat and cold. The surrounding tempera exposed is direct or radiant. Extreme cold can
ture is another major consideration in hose selec cause the cover to harden and crack prematurely.
tion. Extreme heat can have an adverse effect on
an improperly selected hose cover. Further, you 4.11 Hose end, flexing, and bending conditions.
should determine if the heat to which the hose is Certain mechanical factors can influence the selec
tion of the right hose cover for a job. If the hose is
to be secured by fittings on both ends, determine
the amount of end loading that will be encoun
Table 4-1. Pressure-temperature equivalents tered. Also consider the degree of flexing and the
of saturated steam number of flexing cycles to be endured. If the
Temperature Temperature installation requires bends in the hose, determine
Pressure, Pressure,
psi psi the degree of bending under the worst possible
0 212.0 344.1 173.4
conditions. Some hose materials resist bending
100.0 110
5 227.1 108.4 115 347.2 175.1 more than others; some could cause kinking or
10 239.4 115.2 120 350.1 176.7 crushing of the inner tube.
15 249.8 121.0 125 352.9 178.3
20 258.8 126.0 130 355.6 179.8 4.12 Safety factors. All unusual or adverse con
22 261.2 127.8 135 358.3 181.3 ditions that could affect the life of a hose should
24 265.3 129.6 140 360.9 182.7
be taken into consideration when you select a
26 268.3 131.3 145 363.4 184.1
28 132.9
hose cover. This is especially important for hose
271.2 150 365.9 185.5
30 274.1 134.5 155 368.2 186.8 applications in hazardous or corrosive atmospheres
32 276.8 136.0 160 370.6 188.1
or in environments where a bursting hose could
34 279.3 137.4 165 373.9 189.4 endanger equipment or human life.
36 281.8 138.8 170 375.3 190.7
38 284.4 140.2 175 377.4 191.9
40 286.7 141.5 180 379.6 193.1 Hydraulic Hose
42 289.0 142.8 185 381.7 194.3 4.13 Hoses are used to carry hydraulic fluids in
44 291.2 144.0 190 383.7 195.4
many industrial machines. The extreme flexibility
46 293.5 145.3 195 385.9 196.6
of a hose makes it a practical choice for hydraulic
48 295.5 146.4 200 387.9 197.7
50 297.7 147.6 205 398.8 198.8 applications in which space may be limited, or in
which moving parts or severe vibrations could dam
52 299.9 148.7 210 391.6 199.8
54 301.6 149.8 215 392.9 200.5
age a more rigid medium,such as piping or tubing.
56 303.6 150.9 220 395.4 201.7
58 308.4 151.9 225 397.2 202.9 4.14 When you replace a hydraulic hose, inspect
60 307.4 153.0 the old hose carefully. -Note the markings on the
230 399.0 203.9
62 309.2 154.0 235 400.7 204.8
cover and study the construction features of the
64 310.8 154.9 240 402.5 205.8 old hose. Unless there have been service problems
66 312.6 155.9 245 404.2 206.8 with the original hose, always replace a hose with
68 314.2 156.8 250 406.1 207.8 an exact duplicate.
70 316.0 157.0
255 407.7 208.7
72 317.7 158.7 260 409.4 209.7
4.15 The inner tube of a hydraulic hose must be
74 319.3 159.6 265 411.0 210.6 compatible with the hydraulic fluid used in the
76 320.9 160.5 270 412.6 211.4 system. Some hydraulic fluids are fire-resistant,
78 322.3 161.3 275 414.2 212.3 and some contain synthetic materials. These fluids
80 323.8 162.1 usually require a special tube material capable of
280 415.7 213.2
85 327.6 164.2 300 421.0 216.1 handling the chemicals involved.
90 331.2 166.2 350 436.5 224.7
95 334.6 168.1
100 337.8 169.9 General Applications
105 341.1 171.7
4.16 Steam. Three common applications for
hoses in most plants are the conveyance of steam,

water, and air. Of these, steam is the most severe
in its effect on the hose lines.
4.17 The n^aximum steam {^ssure is the most
critical factor'To consider in^lKr"selection of a
hose, although the temperature of the steam must
also be taken into account. At high temperatures,
steam will affect all types of rubber hose. A com
bination of high pressure and high temperature
can cause rapid breakdown in some hose reinforce
ment materials.
4.18 When saturated steam is used, there is a
direct relationship between steam pressure and
temperature. Table 4-1 shows that the temperature
Hose Systems 53
of saturated steam rises dramatically as pressure is
increased. For example, there is an increase of
125°F in saturated steam temperature when the
pressure increases from 0 to 100 psi. If a hose
must handle superheated steam, make sure you
know the actual temperature the hose must be
able to withstand.
4.19 Water. Follow the same general rules for
selecting water hose that you would for steam or
air. Once again, the operating prgssx^re is the
primary factor to be cohsiaefedTRemember, too,
that water may contain particles of grit or other
contaminants that could shorten the life of the
inner tube.
54 Programed Exercises
i
4-1. List four factors upon which the selection 4-1. MATERIAL HANDLED,
of hose systems is based. OPERATING PRESSURE,
FLOW RATE, ENVIRONMENT

Ref: 4.02

4-2. Which dimension is more important in

the selection of a hose, I.D. or O.D.?
4-2. I.D.

Ref: 4.05

4-3. If acids are to pass through a hose, you

must know their
4-3. CONCENTRATION

Ref: 4.06

4-4. A major cause of failure of the outer

cover of a hose is
4-4. ABRASION

Ref: 4.09

4-5. Extreme cold can cause a hose cover to

4-5. HARDEN AND CRACK

Ref: 4.10

4-6. What is the most important factor to

consider when selecting a hose to
convey steam? 4-6. MAXIMUM STEAM PRESSURE

Ref: 4.17

4-7. The temperatu re of satu rated steam

as oressure is increased.
(risesldrops)
4-7. RISES

Ref: 4.18

4-8. When selecting hose for handling water,

the most critical factor to be considered
is 4-8. OPERATING PRESSURE

Ref: 4.19

Genera] Applications—Continued
4.20 Air. Be sure to take pressure conditions
into account when working with air. In addition,
be aware of any other materials transmitted by
air passing through the hose. For instance, some
types of air-operated tools are lubricated by an
oil mist carried in the air supply. The inner tube
of the hose must then be oil-resistant to prevent
rapid failure of the hose.
4.21 Because of their natural working environ
ment, pneumatic tool hoses are often exposed to
abrasion, sharp objects (such as rocks or broken
concrete), and extreme flexing. These factors must
be considered in the selection of hoses for air-
operated tools.
4.22 Most suction hoses are designed to handle
full vacuum. The chief danger is in the selection of
a vacuum hose with walls too weak or thin for the
application. Such walls may collapse when full
vacuum is applied to the system. Follow the hose
manufacturer's recommendations if you are unsure
about a particular vacuum application.
4.23 Generally, manufacturers of industrial hose
offer both written and personal assistance for mak
ing hose selections of any kind. The information
they provide is often the result of extensive re
search and product testing. Follow the suggested
selection procedures carefully, and do not hesitate
to obtain professional advice in choosing hoses for
special applications.
Outer cover Inner tube
Dayco Rubber Products Co.
Hose Systems 55
Hose Construction
4.24 The individual components that make up a
typical industrial hose are shown in Fig. 4-2. The
outer cover material is usually a rubber compound
selected to withstand abrasion, harmful chemicals,
severe weather conditions, etc. The inner tube of
the hose is the part in direct contact with the
material being handled. The tube material must be
capable of withstanding line pressures, and must be
compatible with the material passing through it.
Many different compounds are used in making
inner tubes. The choice of inner tube material is
critical, since the wrong one could dissolve, be
come gummy,or disintegrate during use.
4.25 Two layers of braided reinforcing material
separate the outer cover from the inner tube, and
are in turn separated from each other by a thin
tube of rubber or similar substance. The braided
layers may be of fabric or wire, depending on the
type of hose and its application. They provide
overall strength to the hose, helping the inner tube
withstand operating pressures and protecting it
from external damage and kinking.
4.26 There are numerous variations of this basic
construction design. The multipurpose industrial
hose shown in Fig. 4-3 is available with I.D.s rang
ing from 3/8 to 1 in. It is used to handle air, water,
and some chemicals at up to 1000 psi working
pressure. It can also carry saturated steam at
pressures of up to 150 psi and temperatures as
high as 368°F(187°C).
Dayco Rubber Products Co.
 4.27 The vacuum hose shown in Fig. 4A is
Fig. 4-4. Vacuum hose
manufactured with I.D.s ranging from 1 1/4 to
12 3/4 in., and has a coil of flat wire in its rein
forcement layer. This feature protects against hose
collapse and reduces the chance of the hose kink
ing during service.
mm
mm/ Hose Fittings
4.28 Many types of fittings are used to connect
m hoses to valves and other components in industrial
applications. Because it would be impossible to
describe all of them in a few paragraphs, this
Lesson will concentrate only on the general types
of fittings used on industrial hoses.

4.29 Most hose manufacturers also manufacture

The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Fig. 4-5. Fitting assembly machine
Mandrel assembly
fittings for use with their own product. If possible,
select fittings made by the same manufacturer as
the hose you are using. This ensures compatibility.
The threads and general contours of the fitting
sections, however, are standardized by the Ameri
can National Standards Institute (ANSI), providing
some degree of interchangeability between one
type of fitting and another.

4.30 Assembly tools for installing fittings on

Clamp
I Actuating lever
hose ends vary by manufacturer. A typical fitting
assembly machine, used for inserting certain types
of fittings into the ends of textile-braided, re
inforced, low-pressure hoses, is shown in Fig. 4-5.
The hose is gripped by a manually operated clamp.
The fitting (not shown) is placed on the mandrel
assembly. When the actuating lever is depressed,
the fitting is forced,into the hose. Mandrels are
available for several sizes of fittings. Before using
any fitting assembly equipment, study the operat
ing instructions carefully. If you can, practice by
Aeroquip Corporation
installing a fitting on a piece of scrap hose before
working on the finished product.
Fig. 4-6. Reusable fitting
Socket General Fitting Classifications

4.31 Hose fittings are generally divided into two

major groups:

• permanent fittings are attached to the hose

through the use of 2lSlPk?£---'^^''''swa^hg
devices. Permanent fittings usually require
special assembly equipment for proper
installation.
Aeroquip Corporation
Fig. 4-7. Barbed fitting
Table 4-2. Standard tolerances for hose and
fitting assemblies
Length, in. Tolerance, in.

Up to 12 ± 1/8
12 - 18 ±3/16
18-36 ± 1/4
Over 36 ± 1% of length to
nearest 1/8 in.

Steps. First, the socket is installed on the

outer cover of the hose. Then the nipple
Aeroquip Corporation
is threaded into the socket. When the hose
needs to be replaced, simply reverse the
procedure and remove the fitting.
Fig. 4-8. Measuring assembly length
4.32 A variation of the reusable fitting is one
in which a barbed insert is pushed into the bore of
the hose. A female version of this type of fitting is
shown in Fig. 4-7. Male threads may also be used
on the fitting end.

Measuring Assembly Length

4.33 A hose and fitting assembly must be the

proper length for the installation. If you are
replacing a hose in an existing installation, it is
easiest to measure the old assembly and make a
duplicate. Remember, however, to allow for some
extra length if the old hose has contracted or is
too tight. A straight-run assembly, like the one
shown in Fig. 4-8A. is measured from end to end
of the fittings.

4.34 If the assembly has angled fittings, take the

• Reusable fittings, an example of which is
shown in Fig. 4-6, are assembled in two
measurement from the centerlines of the fittings,
as shown in Fig. 4-8B and Fig. 4-8C. Standard
tolerances have been established for hose and
fitting assemblies. These vary with the overall
length of the assembly, and are listed in Table 4-2.
58 Programed Exercises

4-9. Most suction hoses are designed to with

stand full . 1
4-9. VACUUM
i

Ref: 4.22

4-10. The outer cover of a typical industrial

hose is usually made of a(n)
compound. 4-10. RUBBER

Ref: 4.24

4-11. What separates the outer cover of a hose

from the inner tube?
4-11. BRAIDED REINFORCING LAYERS

Ref: 4.25

4-12. Can a typical multipurpose industrial

hose carry water at pressures as high
as 800 psi? 4-12. YES

i
1
Ref: 4.26

4-13. The part of a fitting assembly machine

that supports the fitting during installa
tion is called a(n) 4-11 MANDREL
i
Ref: 4.30

4-14. Name the two major groups into which

hose fittings are generally divided. 4-14. PERMANENT FITTINGS,
REUSABLE FITTINGS

Ref: 4.31

1
4-15. What methods are used to attach
permanent fittings to hose?
4-15. CRIMPING or SWAGING
1

Ref: 4.31

4-16. If a hose and fitting assembly has angled

fittings, you should measure the overall
lenath of the assemblv from the 4-16. CENTERLINES
of the fittings.
Ref: 4.34

Calculating Hose Length for Bends
4.35 Many hose applications require the hose to
be bent to a given radius. The flexibility of the
hose and the minimum bend radius it can safely
withstand are important factors in selecting a hose
for such an application. Bending a hose to a smaller
radius than is recommended can cause it to kink or
^flatten, deforming the reinforcement material and
reducing hose life.
4.36 Most hose manufacturers publish the mini
mum allowable bend radius for each of their
products. Remember that the radius of the bend
in your hose application must be within these
published limits. Figure 4-9 illustrates the prin
ciple that the minimum bend radius is always
measured at the inside of the arc formed by the
bend in the hose.
4.37 Assume that a 45° bend is to be made in a
hose and that the radius of the bend is 7.5 in. When
you check the manufacturer's data, you find that
this particular hose has a minimum allowable bend
radius of 7.25 in. Therefore, you are within the
recommended limits. In order to compute the re
quired hose length for this bend section, you can
now use the formula:
L= X 27rB
360
where L = minimum hose length required, in
inches
A = angle of the bend,in degrees
B = bend radius of the application, in
inches.
4.38 In the example above, then, the length of
hose needed to make the bend is:
45
L= X 2 X 3.14 X 7.5
360
= 5.89 in.
Add this figure to those of any other hose lengths
in the run in order to compute total hose length
for the application.
Hose Systems 59
Fig. 4-9. Minimum bend radius
Installing Hose Systems
4.39 Improper installation of hose and fitting
assemblies is a common cause of early hose failure.
Be careful when handling hose prior to installation,
and when cutting and preparing it. Fittings should
be installed in strict accordance with the hose and
fitting manufacturer's specifications, and good
workmanship should be used at all times.
4.40 Handling hose. Always store hose in a clean,
dry area and protect it from sharp or moving
objects. Unless the hose is on a storage reel, it
should be laid flat, with its coils in a horizontal
position. It is also a good idea to insert plugs in
both ends. When you uncoil the hose for use, keep
it from twisting or kinking. Most hoses have a
colored stripe running lengthwise on the outer
cover. If the line is straight, so is the hose.
4.41 Cutting hose. The ends of a length of hose
must be perfectly square in order to hold fittings
properly. NEVER try to cut a hose by simply
holding it in your hand (Fig. 4-10). Be sure the
hose ends are aligned squarely in the holder if a
mechanical holding device is used to hold the hose
for cutting. If not, place the hose on a workbench
or other flat surface (Fig. 4-10). After cutting, re
move any scraps from the interior of the hose.
4.42 Assembling fittings. The method of assem
bling a fitting into a hose varies, depending on the
type of fitting and hose. Follow the recommenda
tions of the manufacturer or the instructions found
Fig. 4-10. Cutting hose Fig. 4-11. Allowing slack in a straight run

Correct
Incorrect

ncorrect

on the fitting installation equipment. If lubrication
is needed to facilitate assembly, use water rather
than oil or grease. Oil and grease may react to the
inner tube of a hose if the rubber compound is not
suited for handling petroleum products.
4.47 The hose must be restrained during the
test. You can do this with steel rods or straps
fastened securely to the testing bench. These
should be placed at each end of the hose and at
approximately 10-ft intervals along its entire

4.43 Installing hose and fitting assemblies. The

length of a hose sometimes changes under pressure. Fig. 4-12. Allowing slack in a bend
Therefore, some slack should be provided to allow
for changes in length (Fig. 4-11). If a bend exists in
the line (Fig. 4-12), allow enough hose for a wide-
radius arc. This will help prevent kinks that restrict
fluid flow through the hose.

4.44 Protecting hose. Many hose lines are in

stalled in areas where they are subject to high tem
peratures from surrounding equipment. In such Correct Incorrect

cases, protect the hose by installing a heat-deflecting

device (Fig. 4-13) made of heat-resistant material.

Fig. 4-13. Protecting hose

Testing and Inspecting Hose

4.45 Establish periodic inspection and testing

procedures for each hose line under your super Metal plate serves as heat-deflecting device
vision. Look for loose or damaged outer covers,
and for soft spots in the hose. Soft spots usually
indicate broken or displaced reinforcement. Exam
ine all fittings for leakage or damage. If a hose
has shifted on the fitting, remove the hose and re
place it with a new one. Look for pinhole leaks
that may occur when the system is pressurized.
Correct

4.46 Periodic testing is a major safeguard against

bursting. If possible, lay the hose out flat and
straight, removing any kinks in the line. Use water
to conduct a hydrostatic test for one minute at a
pressure of 150% of the recommended working
pressure of the hose. Watch for leaks, bulges, and
Incorrect
other signs that the hose may be weak. Replace
any sections of hose that do not pass the test.
 Hose Systems 61

length, but should not touch the hose. It must be

free to move but not to whip. Table 4-3. Probable causes of premature
hose failure
4.48 Remove air from the hose by bleeding it
Symptoms Possible causes
through an outlet valve while the testing medium
Tube is hard and cracked. Material carried is
is entering. Erect a barrier of wood or metal at the
too hot, or oil has
discharge end of the hose to keep a blown fitting oxidized in the tube.
from striking anything or injuring bystanders. Hose bursts, reinforcement Cover has contacted
wires are rusted,and abrasives, acids, a
4.49 Many plants are unable to disconnect hoses cover is cut or abraded. cutting edge,or has
been exposed to
from hydraulic units and pneumatic systems, lay extreme heat or cold.
them out, and assemble a testing apparatus as Oil-fiiied blisters High pressure oil from
described above, complete with special pump and appear on outer cover. the tube is seeping
restraining straps. Realistically, hoses often must out to the cover.
Hose bursts on outside Minimum bend radius
be checked for leaks, wear spots, soft areas, cover
of bend. has been reduced with
separation, and old age while on the machine. no change in pressure.
Pressure can be raised at the relief valve to 150% Hose fittings pull out. Hose is not supported
of the operating pressure, and the system watched. Hose has stretched properly, causing its
This saves maintenance time, allows a check of considerably. weight to be transmitted
to the fittings.
hoses using the fluids they normally carry, and
also tests system fittings.

4.51 If a particular hose fails frequently, it is

Maintenance and Troubleshooting
4.50 Normal hose failures due to length of
service are to be expected, as with any other piece
of industrial equipment. Regular inspection and
testing of the hoses in your plant will help you
discover potential failures before they become
serious breakdowns. Keep the hoses clean, and
away from sources of heat, chemical contamina
tion, and vehicular traffic. Air hoses frequently are
ruined by having forkhfts run over them.
time to check the hose against the application
specifications. Check the maximum operating pres
sure in the line against the hose rating. Also com
pare the operating temperature of the application
to the hose manufacturer's recommendations.
Make sure the fluid carried by the hose is chem
ically compatible with the inner tube material.
Some of the more common reasons for premature
hose failures and their possible causes are listed in
Table 4-3.'
62 Programed Exercises

4-17. What will happen if you bend a hose

beyond Its minimum allowable bend
radius? 4-17. IT WILL KINK OR FLATTEN

Ref: 4.35

4-18. The minimum bend radius of a hose is

alwavs measured at the
(insidefoutside)
4-18. INSIDE
of the arc formed by the bend in the hose.
Ref: 4.36

4-19. Calculate the approximate length of hose

needed to make a 40® bend with a 10-in.
radius. 4-19. 7 IN,

Ref: 4.37

4-20. When storing unused hose, it is a good

idea to insert in both ends.
4-20. PLUGS

Ref: 4.40

4-21. In order to allow for changes in the length

of a hose, some should alwavs
be provided. 4-21. SLACK

Ref: 4.43

4-22. A hose line located in a high-temperature

area should be protected by a(n)
device. 4-22 HEAT-DEFLECTING

Ref: 4.44

4-23. Soft spots in a hose usually indicate

broken
4-23. REINFORCEMENT

Ref: 4.45

1
4-24. What will happen to a hose if the material
carried is too hot? 4-24. THE TUBE WILL HARDEN
AND CRACK

1 Ref: Table 4-3

 Self-Check Quiz 63

Answer the following questions by marking an "X"

in the box next to the best answer.

4-1. In general, which of the following dimen 4-6. Assume that you are to make a 30° bend in
sions of a hose is the most significant? a hose and that the bend radius is 15 in.
The length of hose needed to make the
□ a. I.D. bend is
□ b. O.D.
□ c. Length □ a. 7.8 in.
□ d. Circumference □ b. 15.0 in.
□ c. 71.6 in.
□ d. 94.2 in.

4-2. Which of the following materials is most

4-7. If lubrication is needed to make the
severe in its effect on hose lines?
assembly of a fitting into a hose easier,
□ a. Water
you should use
□ b. Air
□ a. oil
□ c. Steam
□ b. alcohol
□ d. Hydraulic fluid
□ c. grease
□ d. water

4-3. Braided reinforcing layers in industrial hose Hydrostatic tests should be carried out at
4-8.
help protect the of the recommended operating
pressure of a hose.
□ a. inner tube from corrosion
□ b. inner tube from kinking
□ a. 50%
□ c. outer cover from abrasion
□ b. 100%
□ d. outer cover from excessive ambient
□ c. 150%
temperatures
□ d. 200%

4-9. For hydrostatic testing, air in a hose

4-4. If you must measure a length of hose for
an assembly with two angled fittings, you □ a. should not be bled
should take the measurement □ b. should be bled before the testing
medium enters
□ a. from end to end of the hose □ c. should be bled after the testing
□ b. from end to end of the fittings medium has entered
□ c. from the centerlines of the fittings □ d. should be bled while the testing
□ d. from the centerline of one fitting medium is entering
to the end of the other
4-10. If a hose bursts on the outside of a bend,
the most likely reason is that
4-5. If the overall length of a hose and fitting as
sembly is 10 in., the established tolerance is □ a. the material carried is too hot
□ b. the minimum bend radius has been
□ a. ±1/8 in. reduced with no change in pressure
□ b. ±1/4 in. □ c. the hose is not supported properly
□ c. ±1/2 in. □ d. the outer cover has come into
□ d. ±1 in. contact with acids or abrasives
64 Lesson Four
Lesson Summary
The selection of which type of hose to use for a
given application depends on a number of variable
factors. Among the most important of these are
the hose I.D., the nature of the material to be
handled,the interior pressure and temperature,
the environmental conditions in which the hose
will be located,and the flexing and bending re
quirements of the installation.
Most plants use hoses to transport steam, water, air,
and hydraulic fluids over short distances. Each ap
plication must be analyzed individually, and a hose
must be selected which is compatible with the sys
tem specifications.
Applications
4-1. Examine several hose installations in your
plant. What types of hoses are used? What
do they carry? If the material carried were
to be changed, would the hoses have to be
changed too? What types of fittings are
used? How long does a hose normally last
before it needs to be replaced?
Answers to Self-Check Quiz
4-1 a. I.D. Ref: 4.05
4-2. c. Steam. Ref: 4.16
4-3. b. inner tube from kinking.
Ref: 4.25
4-4. c. F rom the centerlines of the
fittings. Ref: 4.34, Fig. 4-88
4-5. a. ±1/8 in. Ref: Table 4-2
Fittings may be permanent, which usually require
special assembly equipment,or reusable, which
consist primarily of a socket and a nipple that is
threaded into the socket. When measuring a hose
and titting assembly,take into account bends,
angles,and possible changes in the length of a hose.
Always exercise care in handling, cutting,and pre
paring hose. Use water if lubrication is needed to
aid in assembling fittings. Protect hose from high
temperatures. Establish periodic inspection and
testing procedures and follow them regularly. In
this way,potential problems can be spotted before
they lead to hose failure.
4-2. The RMA publishes a series of technical
bulletins dealing with all aspects of hose
applications and testing procedures. Study
them and keep them on hand as reference
materials. Bulletins may be obtained by
writing:
Publications Desk
Rubber Manufacturers Association
1901 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20006
4-6j a. 7.8 in. Ref: 4.37
4-7JI d. Water. Ref: 4.42
4-8.1 c. 150%. Ref: 4.46
4-9. d. Should be bled while the testing
medium is entering. Ref: 4.48
4-10. b. The minimum bend radius has
been reduced with no change in
pressure. Ref: Table 4-3
TPC Training Systems 750 Lake Cook Road
Buffalo Grove. IL 60089 847/808-4000
Installing and 11/laintaining Tubing and Hose Systems

Gaskets,
Sealants,
and Adhesives

A division of
TPC Training Systems Telemedia, Inc
66

Lssson Five
Gasketsf SealantSf and Adhesives

Topics

Cleaning Flange Surfaces

Gaskets Coatings
Gasket Materials Installing the Gasket
Critical Dimensions Tightening the Joint
Preparing to Install a Gasket Replacing Old Gaskets
Making a Gasket Gasket Ropes, Tapes,and Strips
Preparing the Contact Surfaces Sealants and Adhesives

Gaskets 5.04 Temperature and pressure. The gasket

5.01 The major function of a gasket is to make
an effective seal between two relatively stationary
components. Generally, the thinnest material that
will perform this task adequately makes the most
efficient gasket. Figure 5-1 shows a typical gasket
installation with the gasket located between two
mating pipe flanges.
5.02 Gaskets can be made to practically any
configuration to suit the application. Figure 5-2
shows several gasket shapes, ranging from the very
simple to more complex designs. Gaskets may be
made by hand to meet a single need, or by machine
stamping for mass-produced quantities.
5.03 In order to create a gasket that will main
tain a tight joint for a reasonable length of time, a
designer must consider many different factors.
material must be able to withstand the tempera
tures and pressures to which the piping system is
exposed. For example—at extremely low tempera
tures, gaskets must maintain some elasticity; at
high pressures they must retain adequate strength.
5.05 Resistance to chemical attack. A gasket
must be made of a material that will not be af
fected by the fluid or other matter being handled
by the system. When chemicals are being carried,
the gasket's contact areas must be impervious to
chemical reactions which could affect the gasket's
stability.
5.06 Contamination of material. A gasket must
not contaminate the material being handled by a
pipeline or machine. Also, it must not cause or
promote corrosion of any machine parts with
which it comes in contact.

O Copyright 1985 by TPC Training Systems, a division of Teiemedia, Inc.

All lights reserved, including those of translation.
Printed and videotaped courseware are subject to the copyright laws of the United States. You are not authorized to make any copies
of this material, if you do, then you are subject to the penalties provided under the copyright law, which include statutory damages up
to $50,000 for each Infringement of copyrighted material, and also recovery of reasonable attorneys' fees. Fuither, you could be
subject to criminal prosecution pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 2319.
Seventh printing. June 1997. Printed In the United States of America.
 67

Many piping installations require are flanged. tight,leak-proofjoints, not only in

flanged joints to connect lengths of
piping to each other or to various
types of fittings. This is especially true
of steel and iron pipelines that have
bolted fittings and pipe ends. In addi
tion,certain pump parts,such as hous
ings and suction or discharge fittings.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to
obtain a leak-proof seal at flanged
joints, particidarly when the contact
surfaces are metal-to-metal. This Les
son covers the various types of gaskets
and other sealing agents used to achieve
piping inst^ations but in other appli
cations as well. It also explains the
terminology used to describe gaskets
and sealing elements, the critical
dimensions of die components,and
the preparation techniques needed to
ensure effective joints or connections.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS IN THIS LESSON

Gasket 5.01 a packing device used to make pipe or
other joints fluid-tight
Template 5.22 a pattern or mold used as a guide to the
shape of a piece being made
Profilometer 5.27 an instrument used to measure
surface characteristics
rms 5.27 abbreviation for root-mean-square, the square
root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of a set
of numbers
Waviness 5.29 in flange surfaces, a warping, bowing, or
deviation from flatness
Lay 5.31 the direction of the prevailing surface pattern
on a piece of metal after machining or cutting

5.07 Strength. A gasket must be able to sustain Fig. 5-1. Typical gasket installation
the required bolt-tightening pressures without
crumbling or deforming. It must, however, be
capable of sufficiently "reshaping" itself to dis
Connecting _e
tribute pressures uniformly across the mating bolt—'—
rX
j Flange
surfaces and to compensate readily for slight
/ ,
surface irregularities. 1 •T? > ^

5.08 Elasticity. The gasket material must have

enough elasticity to perform properly even when
1,
\h
' -
; - r.=. - 1
_ Pipeline
movement of the joint has not been completely
eliminated. Slight shifting of the applied bolt loads
Gasket E
1
must not cause any permanent set in the gasket
surfaces.

Fig. 5-2. Common gasket shapes

68 Lesson Five
Fig. 5-3. Complex gasket design
5.09 Contact friction. A gasket should be capa
ble of developing enough flange-to-gasket friction
to prevent excessive creep or gasket extrusion.
5.10 Physical shape. A gasket should be easy to
install and remove. The less handling a gasket
undergoes during installation, the less chance there
is of damaging the part.
5.11 These are a few of the important factors to
be considered when designing or selecting a gasket.
There are others that apply only to a particular
gasket material. You will notice, however, that
practically all of the selection factors relate in one
way or another to the material used to make the
gasket.
Gasket Materials
5.12 Every material used to make a gasket has
its own advantages and disadvantages. At certain
times, the limitations of a particular material may
be offset by using reinforcing elements (such as
wire) or by combining one material with another.
The basic design of the flanges or other parts to be
sealed may also be somewhat modified to permit
the use of a preferred gasket material.
5.13 If there is any doubt regarding a gasket
material for a particular application, it is best to
consult with a reputable gasket manufacturer. Most
gasket manufacturers provide accurate, detailed
information concerning the capabilities of their
products under various conditions.
Fig. 5-4. Making a template
w
Paper template stock
Pipe flange
5.14 If chemicals or solvents are to be handled
by the piping system, the gasket material must not
react, expand, soften, or break down. When gases
are to be transmitted through the system, a mate
rial such as rubber, or one of its compounds, is
usually needed to seal the joints properly.
5.15 Some of the most commonly used materials
for making gaskets include compressed fibers,
various grades of rubber and synthetic rubber com
pounds, reinforced nonmetallic materials, and
combinations of all of these. With the extremely
wide range of compounds available today, there is
a gasket material to suit almost any application. If
you must replace a gasket, it is advisable to use the
same material to make the replacement seal as was
used in the original installation. This, of course,
holds true only if-the -old gasket provided satis
factory service.
Critical Dimensions
5.16 The most important dimension of a gasket,
from a total performance standpoint, is its thick
ness. This dimension, combined with the type of
material used to make the gasket, is a major factor
in the overall efficiency of the joint seal. As stated
earlier, the thickness should be the minimum re
quired to create a tight joint and still sustain the
loadings imposed by tightening the bolts.
5.17 The general profile of a gasket is also an
important consideration. The gasket must make
contact with the total surface where a seal is

desired, and it must not obstruct the flow of
materials through the system. The gasket profile
may be as simple as the circular one shown in
Fig. 5-2, or it may be a very complex design, as
shown in Fig. 5-3. Naturally, the profile should be
kept as simple as possible for the application. This
makes fabricating replacements a much easier task.
5.18 The spacing and size of the bolt holes must
be such that the bolts can clear the gasket without
tearing the material, but the holes must also be
small enough to ensure proper contact with the
sealing surface. Sufficient space must be left around
the bolt holes to maintain strength in these areas.
Preparing to Install a Gasket
5.19 Gaskets are relatively low-cost components
when compared to other parts of a piping system.
However, their performance during operation of
the system is critical. Leaky joints, caused by im
properly selected or installed gaskets, can create
numerous operating problems and result in expen
sive shutdowns while lines are repaired.
5.20 Before you install a new or replacement
gasket, be sure you have all the proper tools at
hand and ample room to work. Protect the gasket
from damage until you are ready to actually install
it. Clean the work area and the pipe surfaces near
the flanges.
Making a Gasket
5.21 The techniques described in the following
Gaskets,Sealants, and Adhesives 69
paragraphs apply mainly to gaskets made of com
mon sheet materials, such as fabrics and fiber
compounds. Metal-clad gaskets and those made of
ceramics or other more exotic materials should
usually be obtained from a reputable supplier as
prefabricated units.
5.22 For small and moderate-sized pipe joints, a
paper template can be made by using the flange
itself as a pattern, as shown in Fig. 5-4. After the
pattern for the new gasket has been traced on the
paper, check the dimensions to be sure they are
accurate—make sure that the bore is correct and
that the bolt holes are the right size and in their
proper locations. This can be done by measuring
and comparing the dimensions of the template
with those of the flange.
5.23 Lay the new gasket material flat on a table
or workbench surface. Transfer the outline of the
gasket from the paper template to the new mate
rial. It is best to tape the paper pattern to the
material to prevent slippage while tracing. After
the tracing is completed, remove the paper pattern
and carefully cut out the new gasket. Trim all
edges neatly.
5.24 Whether gaskets have been cut from stock
or purchased ready-to-fit, care must be taken in
handling them. Keep the gasket clean and dry, free
from dust and dirt, until you are ready to install it.
Be sure to keep liquids away from new gaskets,
since most gaskets soak up liquids like a blotter-
do not, for instance, install an oil-soaked gasket
into a system that pipes,water.
70 Programed Exercises

5--1. The major function of a gasket is to form

a{n) between two mating
components. 5-1, SEAL

1 Ref: 5.01
5-2. The characteristic of a gasket that resists
permanent set is called its
5-2.i ELASTICITY

Ref: 5.08

5-3. 1 n order to prevent gasket creep or

1
extrusion, a sufficient amount of
must exist between a aasket 5-3. FRICTION
and its contact surfaces.
Ref: 5.09

5-4. Most of the factors that must be con i

sidered when selecting a gasket concern i

the aasket 5-4. MATERIAL

Ref: 5.11

5-5. The most common gasket material in

i
piping installations that carry gases is
5-5.' RUBBER i
i

Ref: 5.14

5-6. Is it true that you should ALWAYS

replace an old gasket with a new one
made of the same material? 5-6. NO

Ref: 5.15

5-7. The dimension of a gasket that most

significantly affects its total performance
is its 5-7. THICKNESS
j
i Ref: 5.16

5-8. A gasket pattern or mold drawn on paper

stock is called a(n)
5-8. TEMPLATE

Ref: 5.22
 Gaskets, Sealants, and Adhesives 71

Preparing the Contact Surfaces Fig. 5-6. Measuring surface roughness

5.25 The primary function of any gasket is to
help seal two relatively imperfect surfaces that are
held in contact by some mechanical means. The
most commonly used fasteners for holding pur
poses are bolts and nuts. However, there are
certain surface faults, such as nicks, dents, and
severe gouges in the flange contact faces, that
cannot be sealed by a gasket.

5.26 The condition of a flange face can be de Starting point

scribed in three respects—roughness, waviness, and
lay. Each is a consideration when inspecting the
flange faces in preparation for installing a gasket.

5.27 Roughness. Roughness refers to the finely

spaced surface irregularities (minute peaks and
valleys, measured in millionths of an inch) caused
by machining. If an application requires precisely
machined surfaces, a check of the surface condi
tion can be made with a profilometer, shown in
Fig. 5-5. This instrument uses a stylus to translate
surface irregularities into an electrical signal which
is then presented as an averaged "roughness factor"
{rms) reading. Should such a measurement be
necessary, it should be taken from a centerline on
the flange surface (see Fig. 5-6).
5.28 Flange surfaces that are to be in contact
with a gasket should be approximately 125 to
150 rms for normal service. Finer surfaces (32 or
64 rms) are acceptable, but very fine finishes
should NOT be used. Generally, maintenance crews
replacing gaskets on equipment or in piping sys
tems will not measure flatness with anything other
than a straightedge rule. Some roughness is desir
able to provide "grip" between the gasket and the
flange. This helps prevent the gasket from extrud
ing out of the joint when the flanges are tightened.
5.29 Waviness. Waviness in flange surfaces is
basically a deviation from perfect flatness (surface
irregularity of greater spacing than occurs in
roughness), and is usually expressed in thousandths
of an inch. Under normal conditions, waviness is
not a major problem. However, when flanges be
come warped from heat or internal stresses, exces
sive waviness may develop. In these cases, the
flanges should be remachined to bring them back
to flatness.
 5.30 Even flanges that are initially flat may warp
Fig. 5-7. Bowed flanges
during assembly of pipe joints. This condition is
commonly called '*bowing" and is the result of
Flange excessive bolt tightening or the use of flanges that
are too light in cross-section to handle the bolt
loads without warping. Figure 5-7 shows a typical
bowing condition. When this occurs, the heavier
flanges should be used or bolt pressures reduced.

5.31 Lay. Lay is the direction of the predomi

nant surface pattern caused by roughness or wavi-
Gasket
ness patterns. In pipe flanges, a desirable lay
pattern takes the shape of concentric circles, as
shown in Fig. 5-8. Avoid surface roughness across
flange faces. A scratch or gouge, for example, that
Fig. 5-8. Lay
cuts across the face of a flange may form a groove
where leakage can occur. This can happen if you
use a file to clean the flange surfaces and it cuts in
too deeply.
Flange O.D
Cleaning Flange Surfaces

5.32 The flange surfaces must be clean and free

of rust. Scrape off any residual gaskeTmaterials or

Lay circles I adhesives from the flange faces, using proper

solvents when necessary. Pay particular attention
to the insides of bolt holes. Any foreign material
lodged within can easily be pushed into the joint
when the bolts are inserted. Keep the pipe openings
plugged while cleaning the flange surfaces. This will
prevent foreign matter from getting into the lines.
Fig. 5-9. Flange with a raised Up

Coatings

5.33 Coatings are. used in some gasket applica

tions to reinforce the joint seal and to keep the
gasket from creeping under load. The use of a
coating will depend on the application, the type
of gasket material used, and the material that will
be handled in the piping system.

5.34 In general, the chief concern in selecting or

using a coating in a gasketed joint is to be sure that
the coating is compatible with the material handled
by the system. Chemical reactions between the
Raised lip coating and the substance in the pipeline can create
problems and affect the sealed area of the joint.
Check with a coating supplier for assistance in
selecting the proper coating for special applica
tions. Apply the coating in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions.

Installing the Gasket
5.35 Installation techniques for gasketed pipe
joints are similar to those for plain joints. However,
there are certain additional considerations to be
taken into account when the joint contains a
gasket. The gasket is a relatively fragile component
of the installation, and it must be handled with
great care. Damage to the gasket will cause a poor,
leaky joint.
Gaskets,Sealants, and Adhesives 73
5.36 Be certain the gasket lies perfectly flat
against the flange face. If the flange has a raised
lip around its bore, as shown in Fig. 5-9, the gasket
must clear the raised area. When the gasket is posi
tioned on the flange, inspect its inside and outside
edges to be sure that there are no tears or pinched
surfaces. Remember to check that the bolts will
clear the openings in the gasket. After you are
satisfied that these conditions have been met,
tighten the joint.
74 Programed Exercises

5-9. Name the three characteristics of contact

surfaces which you should consider when
installing a new gasket. 5-9. ROUGHNESS, WAVINESS, LAY

Ref: 5.26

5-10. The condition of contact surfaces can be

checked with an instrument called a{n)
5-10. PROFILOMETER

Ref: 5.27

5-11. The rougher a contact surface is, the

its rms read inc.
(higherllovoer)
5-11. HIGHER

Ref: 5.28

5-12. Warping of flanges as the result of

excessive bolt tightening is sometimes
referred to as 5-12. BOWING

Ref: 5.30

5-13. In pipe flanges, a desirable lay pattern

usually takes the shaoe of
5-13. CONCENTRIC CIRCLES

Ref: 5.31

5-14. Should you ever use cleaning solvents

on flange faces?
5-14k YES

Ref: 5.32

5-15. A joint seal can be reinforced and a

gasket can be kept from creeping by
the aoolication of a(n) 5-1E;. COATING

Ref: 5.33

5-16. The primary concern in selecting a coating

for a gasketed joint is compatibility be 5-16. MATERIAL HANDLED
tween the coatinq and the BY THE SYSTEM

Ref: 5.34
 Gaskets,Sealants, and Adhesives 75

Tightening the Joint
5.37 In most piping installations, the bolts join
ing two flanges act like a spring. The elasticity of
the bolts allows them to stretch, developing a load
on the flanges as they are clamped together. The
bolt stretch is measured in thousandths of an inch
per inch of bolt length.
5.38 Bolts must not be elongated (stretched) too
much, or the elastic limit of the bolt material will
be exceeded, causing permanent deformation. Con
tinued tightening will cause the bolts to break or
the flange to crack.
5.40 Most machinery service manuals and many
pipeline specifications or drawings will include the
torque value required for the components which
are to be installed. After a joint has been installed,
wait 12 to 24 hours, check it again, and retorque
the bolts if necessary."
5.41 Tightening flange bolts in a definite pattern
helps to eliminate bowing or uneven loading and^
ensures an effective joint. Figure 5-10 shows tight
ening sequences for several common flange and
cover configurations. Apply the same amount of
torque on each bolt for uniformity of pressure.

Replacing Old Gaskets

5.39 Always use a torque wrench when you
tighten flange bolts. This removes the guesswork
from the operation. If you know the amount of
load desired on the flanges (as exerted by the
bolts), the torque needed to produce that load can
be checked in published tables. Table 5-1 is typical
of the tables found in various handbooks and
reference manuals. It shows the relationship be
tween torque and compression for machine bolts
and cold-rolled steel stud bolts at different stress
ratings.
5.42 In some cases, the old gasket in a joint may
be reused. However, it is not generally considered a
good practice to reuse an old gasket, since a new
one will provide a better seal and is relatively inex
pensive. Frequently the old gasket is used as a
pattern for making a replacement.
5.43 Whether the old gasket is to be reused or
not, it must be removed carefully from the joint. If
a coating was used on the gasket, insert a flat.

Table 5-1. Torque and compression

Stress
Nominal Diameter Area at
diameter Number of root of root of 7500 psi 15,000 psi30,000 psi
of bolt of threads thread thread Torque Compression Torque Compression Torque Compression
(in.) per inch (in.) (in.=) (ft/lb) (lb) (ft/lb) (lb) (ft/lb) (lb)
1/4 20 0.185 0.027 1 203 2 405 4 810
5/16 18 0.240 0.045 2 338 4 676 " 8 1350
3/8 16 0.294 0.068 3 510 6 1020 12 2040
7/16 14 0.345 0.093 5 698 lb 1395 20 2790
1/2 13 0.400 0.126 8 945 15 1890 30 3780
9/16 12 0.454 0.162 12 1215 23 2430 45 4860
5/8 11 0.507 0.202 15 1515 30 3030 60 6060
3/4 10 0.620 0.302 25 2265 50 4530 100 9060
7/8 9 0.731 0.419 40 3143 80 6285 160 12,570
1 8 0.838 0.551 62 4133 123 8265 245 16,530
1 1/8 7 0.939 0.693 98 5190 195 10,380 390 20,760
1 1/4 7 1.064 0.890 137 6675 273 13.350 545 26,700
1 3/8 6 1.158 1.054 183 7905 365 15,810 730 31,620
1 1/2 6 1.283 1.294 219 9705 437 19,410 875 38.820
1 5/8 5 1/2 1.389 1.515 300 li;363 600 22,725 1200 45,450
1 3/4 5 1.490 1.744 390 13,080 775 26,160 1550 52,320
1 7/8 5 1.615 2.049 525 15,368 1050 30,735 2100 61,470
2 4 1/2 1.711 2.300 563 17,250 1125 34,500 2250 69,000
Fig. 5-10. Typical bolt-tightening sequences
o o o
(
o
1
o\
3 1
I 4 2 /
\o P O O Q,
1 3 jx
Circular four-bolt Noncircular multibolt
ho /^\o
Square four-bolt Circular multibolt
sharp blade between the flange and the gasket to
facilitate removal. Torn areas can be flattened and
then taped to hold them for tracing purposes.
Trace the profile of the old gasket onto a piece
of new gasket material.
5.44 Be certain the specifications of the new
material match those of the old one, or at least
meet the requirements of the application. Carefully
cut out the new gasket and put it in a safe place
until you are ready to install it. Clean the flange
gasket seating surfaces, using solvents when neces
sary. Make sure that coating residues and fragments
of the old gasket are removed. Inspect the flange
surfaces for severe nicks, gouges, or other damage
that could interfere with the proper seating of the
new gasket.
5.45 When you install the replacement gasket,
follow the same general procedures used for an
entirely new installation. Be sure the gasket is
aligned correctly with the pipe bore and flange
bolt holes before you tighten the bolts.
Gasket Ropes, Tapes, and Strips
5.46 Certain types of fittings and piping installa
tions prohibit the use of flat gaskets, such as those
used for flanges and similar applications. For exam
ple, the packing around the stem of a valve must
follow a circular path. While it is not a gasket in
the strict sense of the word, the packing serves the
same general purpose—to keep the valve from leak
ing excessively.
5.47 Packing may be obtained in rope form or in
precut rings for applications such as pump glands.
The basic fabric materials used for the rope are
saturated with graphite or other lubricants. The
extreme flexibility of these materials makes them
applicable for even the most unusual joint sealing
requirements.
5.48 Gasket tapes are used for sealing irregular
shapes and sizes of duct openings, boiler doors, fan
access openings, etc. Newer products contain no
asbestos and are readily available to fit practically
any application. Some tapes are made with a
pressure-sensitive backing strip that allows them to
be applied to metal, ceramic, glass, and certain
plastic compounds.
5.49 Gasket strips come in a variety of sizes and
materials. One popular type is made of a TFE
(tetrafluoroethylene) base. This material resists
sticking and can handle pressures of up to 200 psi.
Operating temperatures for this material range to
approximately 250°F. TFE-based strips and tapes
are often selected because they do not stick to
surfaces or gum onto metal parts.
5.50 Installation techniques for ropes, tapes, and
strips are basically the same as for flat gaskets. The
surfaces to be joined must be clean and free of
defects so that the gasketing material can make
contact with as much of the surface as possible.
Sealants and Adhesives
5.51 Sealants and adhesives for piping joints
usually take the form of paste, liquid, or free-
flowing plastic compounds. These various com
pounds can be used singly or in combination with
gaskets, depending on the application. Before you
select a sealant or adhesive for a job, you must
know certain basic facts about the application.
5.52 The operating temperatures and pressures
that the joint must withstand are two important
considerations. The chemical nature of the product

flowing through the pipeline is another. Certain
chemicals, under various conditions of temperature
and pressure, can shorten the hfe of a joint drasti
cally. Known characteristics should be checked
against the sealant or adhesive capabilities as pub
lished by the manufacturers of these compounds.
5.53 Sealants. The main function of a joint
sealant is two-fold in nature—to prevent leakage of
the material from within the line, and to keep dirt,
dust, and other contaminants out of the flange
area. A sealant is not, strictly speaking, an adhesive.
However, sealants and adhesives perform some of
the same functions, and recent advances by sealant
manufacturers have extended their uses to include
moderate dampening of noise and vibration, as well
as resistance to outside chemical contamination.
5.54 When you select a sealant, the major feature
to consider is the base material used in the com
pound. Because of the numerous combinations of
materials available today—and the wide range of
apphcations—it is impractical to attempt to list
them all in this Lesson. Dozens of sealant manufac
turers offer hundreds of compounds designed to
suit even the most difficult service requirements.
Manufacturers' recommendations regarding use of
their products should be followed closely.
5.55 Adhesives. An adhesive is an agent that
bonds or holds together two pieces, either of the
same or of different materials. The general methods
used to apply adhesive to a joint will vary with
Gaskets,Sealants, and Adhesives 77
the adhesive being used and the curing process
required. Some adhesives are applied in a cold (as
received) state; others must be heated.
5.56 One of the more popular uses of an adhe
sive in a pipe joint installation is to tack or hold
gaskets or other components in place prior to final
positioning. This is especially true if you are work
ing with a large gasket and tapes. Adhesives nor
mally are used in conjunction with preformed
gaskets. However, some applications may permit
the use of speciahzed adhesives to form the gasket
as well.
5.57 Like sealants, adhesives should be selected
on the basis of the operating conditions, such as
temperature and pressure, to which they will be
subjected. Curing and drying times and ease of
application should also be considered. Adhesives
should not be used alone in a pipe joint that is
not closely supported by hangers or other stress-
relieving devices.
5.58 Pay particular attention to the shelf life of
an adhesive (or sealant) before you use it for an
installation. If the original container has been
opened, check to be sure the material is still in an
acceptable condition. Even unopened containers
can, over a period of time, allow sUght evaporation
of certain elements, rendering the sealant or adhe
sive useless. If there is any doubt as to the mate
rial's usefulness, it is wise to discard it and obtain
a new container.
78 Programed Exercises

5-17. To tighten flange bolts, you should

always use a(n)
5-17. TORQUE WRENCH

Ref: 5.39

'

5-18. Flange bolts should always be tightened

in a definite
5-18. SEQUENCE or PATTERN

' Ref: 5.41

5-19. Name a common lubricant with which

packing materials are saturated.
5-19. GRAPHITE
,

Ref: 5.47

5-20. Irregularly shaped duct openings may be

sealed by usinq qasket
5-20. TAPES or STRIPS

Ref: 5.48

5-21. Must sealants and adhesives always be

used in conjunction with a gasket?
5-21. NQ

Ref: 5.51

5-22. What are the three most important things 5-22, OPERATING TEMPERATURE,
you need to know about an application OPERATING PRESSURE,
before selecting a sealant or adhesive? CHEMICAL-MAKEUP OF
MATERIAL BEING HANDLED
Ref: 5.52

5-23. The major feature to consider in the

selection of a sealant is the
used in the compound. 5-23. BASE MATERIAL

Ref: 5.54

5-24. Can adhesives ever be used to join two

components made of dissimilar materials?
5-24. YES
•

Ref: 5.55
 Self-Check Quiz 79

Answer the following questions by marking an "X'

in the box next to the best answer.

5-1 In general, the most efficient gasket is the 5-6. After the flange bolts in a pipe joint have
one that will do the job with the been tightened to the proper torque,
they should be checked again in
□ a. smallest diameter
□ b. greatest chemical resistance □ a. 4 to 8 hours
□ c. least thickness □ b. 12 to 24 hours
□ d. fewest bolt holes □ c. 1 to 3 days
□ d. 2 to 4 weeks
5-2, Almost all of the factors considered in the
selection of a gasket relate to its 5-7. When is it advisable to reuse an old gasket?

□ a. size □ a. Never
□ b. material □ b. Always
□ c. shape □ c. Rarely
□ d. coating □ d. Frequently

5-3. Which of the following terms refers to the

5-8. TFE-based strips and tapes can withstand
finely spaced surface irregularities, mea
operating pressures of up to psi,
sured in mil Months of an inch, caused by
and temperatures of up to °F.
machining?
□ a. 200,250
□ a. Roughness
□ b. 300,300
□ b. Waviness
□ c. 350,500
□ c. Profile
□ d. 500, 1000
□ d. Lay

5-4. For normal service, the surface finish of a 5-9. The main functions of a joint sealant are
flange at the gasket contact point should to keep contaminants out of the flange
be approximately area and to prevent

□ a. 0 to 10 rms □ a. overheating
□ b. 50 to ICQ rms □ b. freezing "
□ c. vibration
□ c. 125 to 150 rms
□ d. 250 to 500 rms □ d. leakage

5-5. The desired lay on pipe flange faces is 5-10. A gasket may be held in place while the
usually in a pattern of bolts are tightened by applying a(n)

□ a. intersecting diagonal lines □ a. sealant

□ b. parallel straight lines □ b. solvent
□ c. elongated ovals □ c. adhesive
□ d. concentric circles □ d. coating

w
80 Lesson Five
Lesson Summary
The major function of a gasket is to make a tight,
leak-proof seal between two relatively stationary
components. In piping installations,a gasket is
frequently located between two mating pipe
flanges. Such gaskets come in a variety of shapes
and sizes—the one you select for a particular appli
cation will depend,among other factors, on the
temperatures and pressures involved, the material
being handled by the piping system,and the
strength and elasticity required.
Gaskets can be bought as prefabricated units or cut
from stock, using an old gasket as a pattern. Re
move old gaskets carefully. Inspect the condition
of the surfaces that will be in contact with the new
gasket. Three surface characteristics should be con
sidered—roughness, waviness, and lay. Surface
Applications
5-1. If you have access to a profilometer,famil
iarize yourself with its operation. What
range of rms reading is acceptable for a
typical gasket installation in your plant?
Answers to Self-Check Quiz
5-1. c. Least thickness. Ref: 5.01
5-2. b. Material. Ref: 5.11
5-3. a. Roughness. Ref: 5.27
5-4. c. 125 to 150 rms. Ref: 5.28
5-5. d. Concentric circles. Ref: 5.31
irregularities can be checked with a proHlometer.
If you need to use a coating in a gasketed joint,
make sure the coating is chemically compatible
with the substance in the pipeline. When tightening
the joint, remember to always use a torque wrench
and to tighten flange bolts in the proper sequence
(to avoid uneven loading).
Gasket ropes, tapes, and strips are sometimes used
in place of gaskets or in conjunction with gaskets.
Make sure the surfaces to be joined are clean and
free of defects. Sealants and adhesives can also be
used to improve the quality of a gasketed joint. Se
lect sealants and adhesives on the basis of the oper
ating conditions to which they will be subjected.
5-2. The next time a gasket replacement is
called for in your plant, examine the old
gasket carefully. What signs of wear does it
show? What material is it made of? Was a
coating, sealant, or adhesive used with it
originally? Is it reusable? Is it possible to
use it as a pattem for a new gasket?
5-6. b. 12 to 24 hours. Ref: 5.40
5-7. c. Rarely. Ref: 5.42
5-8. a. 200,250. Ref: 5.49
5-9. d. Leakage. Ref: 5.53
5-10. c. Adhesive. Ref: 5.56
TPC Training Systems 750 Lake Cook Road
Buffalo Grove,IL 60089 847/808-4000