Class XI Subject: Biology Chapter 17: Breathing & Exchange of Gases

CHAPTER 17. BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

NOTES
Respiration is the oxidation of nutrients in the living cells to release energy for biological work. Breathing is the
exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cells.
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
➢ General body surface: E.g. lower invertebrates (sponges, coelenterates, flatworms etc).
➢ Skin or moist cuticle (cutaneous respiration): E.g. earthworms, leech, amphibians etc.
➢ Tracheal tubes: E.g. insects, centipede, millipede, spider.
➢ Gills (Branchial respiration): E.g. fishes, tadpoles, prawn.
➢ Lungs (Pulmonary respiration): E.g. most vertebrates.
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
➢ It consists of a pair of air passages (air tract) and lungs.

Air passages:
➢ Conducting part which transports the atmospheric air into the alveoli, clears it from foreign particles, humidifies
and brings the air to body temperature.
External nostrils → nasal passage → nasal chamber (cavity) → pharynx → glottis → larynx → trachea →
primary bronchi → secondary bronchi → tertiary bronchi → bronchioles → terminal bronchioles → respiratory
bronchiole → alveolar duct.
➢ Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to many very thin and vascularised alveoli (in lungs).
➢ A cartilaginous Larynx (sound box or voice box) helps in sound production.
➢ During swallowing, epiglottis (a thin elastic cartilaginous flap) closes glottis to prevent entry of food into larynx.
➢ Trachea, all bronchi and initial bronchioles are supported by incomplete cartilaginous half rings.
Lungs:
➢ Lungs situate in thoracic chamber and rest on diaphragm.
➢ Right lung has 3 lobes and left lung has 2 lobes.
➢ Lungs are covered by double-layered pleura (outer parietal pleura and inner visceral pleura).
➢ The pleural fluid present in between these 2 layers lubricates the surface of the lungs and prevents friction
between the membranes.
Lungs= Bronchi + bronchioles + alveoli.
➢ Alveoli and their ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of the respiratory system.
➢ Alveoli are the structural and functional units of lungs.
Steps of respiration
1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing).
2. Gas exchange between lung alveoli & blood.
3. Gas transport (O2 transport & CO2 transport).
4. Gas exchange between blood & tissues.
5. Cellular or tissue respiration.
Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone
Class XI Subject: Biology Chapter 17: Breathing & Exchange of Gases

MECHANISM OF BREATHING (INSPIRATION & EXPIRATION)

a. Inspiration
➢ Active intake of air from atmosphere into lungs.
➢ During this, the diaphragm contracts (flattens) causing an increase in vertical thoracic volume (antero-
posterior axis).
➢ Contraction of external intercostal muscles (muscles found between ribs) lifts up the ribs and sternum causing
an increase in thoracic volume in the dorso-ventral axis.
➢ Increase in thoracic volume reduces thoracic pressure. So, lungs expand. Thus, pulmonary volume increases
resulting in decrease of intra-pulmonary pressure to less than the atmospheric pressure. So, air moves into
lungs.

b. Expiration
➢ Passive expelling of air from the lungs.
➢ During this, intercostal muscles & diaphragm relax causing a decrease in thoracic volume and thereby
pulmonary volume. So, air moves out.
➢ During forceful expiration, abdominal muscles and internal inter-costal muscles contract.
Respiratory volumes and capacities
➢ Tidal volume (TV): Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration. It is about 500 ml. i.e., 6000-
8000 ml per minute.
➢ Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) or complemental air: Additional volume of air that can inspire by forceful
inspiration. It is 2500-3000 ml.
➢ Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) or supplemental air: Additional volume of air that can expire by a forceful
expiration. It is 1000-1100 ml.
➢ Residual volume (RV): Volume of air remaining in lungs after a forcible expiration. It is 1100-1200 ml.
➢ Inspiratory capacity (IC): Total volume of air inspired after a normal expiration (TV + IRV). It is 3000-3500
ml.
➢ Expiratory capacity (EC): Total volume of air expired after a normal inspiration (TV + ERV). It is 1500-1600
ml.
➢ Functional residual capacity (FRC): Volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration (ERV +
RV). It is 2100-2300 ml.
➢ Vital capacity (VC): Volume of air that can breathe in after a forced expiration or Volume of air that can breathe
out after a forced inspiration (ERV + TV + IRV). It is 3500-4500 ml.
➢ Total lung capacity (TLC): Total volume of air in the lungs after a maximum inspiration. (RV + ERV + TV +
IRV or VC + RV). It is 5000-6000 ml.
➢ Part of respiratory tract (from nostrils to terminal bronchi) not involved in gaseous exchange is called dead space.
➢ Dead air volume is about 150 ml.
➢ Respiratory cycle= an inspiration + an expiration
➢ Normal respiratory (breathing) rate: 12-16 times/min.
➢ Spirometer (respirometer): To measure respiratory rate.
Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone
Class XI Subject: Biology Chapter 17: Breathing & Exchange of Gases

GAS EXCHANGE
➢ Gas exchange occurs between
1. Alveoli and blood
2. Blood and tissues
➢ Alveoli are the primary sites of gas exchange.
➢ O2 & CO2 are exchanged by simple diffusion. It depends upon the following factors:
➢ Pressure/ concentration gradient: The Partial pressures (individual pressure of a gas in a gas mixture) of O2
and CO2 (pO2 and pCO2) are given below.
Respiratory gas pO2 (in mm Hg) pCO2 (in mm Hg)
Atmospheric air 159 0.3
Alveoli 104 40
Deoxygenated blood 40 45
Oxygenated blood 95 40
Tissues 40 45
➢ pO2 in alveoli is more (104 mm Hg) than that in blood capillaries (40 mm Hg). So O2 diffuses into capillary
blood. pCO2 in deoxygenated blood is more (45 mm Hg) than that in alveoli (40 mm Hg). So, CO2 diffuses to
alveoli.
➢ Solubility of gases: Solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of O2. So, the amount of CO2 that can
diffuse through the diffusion membrane per unit difference in partial pressure is higher than that of O2.
➢ Thickness of membranes: The diffusion membrane is made up of 3 layers:
a) Squamous epithelium of alveoli.
b) Endothelium of alveolar capillaries.
c) Basement substance between them.
Its total thickness is only 0.5 mm. It enables easy gas exchange.
➢ Surface area: Presence of alveoli increases the surface area of lungs. It increases the gas exchange.

GAS TRANSPORT (O2 TRANSPORT & CO2 TRANSPORT)

➢ It is the transport of respiratory gases (O2 & CO2) from alveoli to the systemic tissues and vice versa.
O2 TRANSPORT
➢ It is the transport of O2 from lungs to various tissues.
➢ It occurs in 2 ways:
• In physical solution (blood plasma): About 3% of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma.
• As oxyhaemoglobin: About 97% of O2 is transported by haemoglobin (red coloured iron containing
pigment) on RBC. O2 binds with haemoglobin (Hb) to form oxyhaemoglobin. This is
called oxygenation. Hb has 4 haem units. So, each Hb molecule can carry 4 oxygen molecules. Binding of
O2 depends upon pO2, pCO2, H+ ion concentration (pH) and temperature.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XI Subject: Biology Chapter 17: Breathing & Exchange of Gases

➢ In the alveoli, high pO2, low pCO2, lesser H+ ion concentration and lower temperature exist. These factors are
favourable for the formation of oxyhaemoglobin.
➢ In tissues, low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ ions and high temperature exist. So Hb4O8 dissociates to release O2.
➢ Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml of O2 to the tissues under normal physiological
conditions.
Oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve
➢ It is a sigmoid curve obtained when percentage saturation of Hb with O2 is plotted against the pO2.

➢ It is used to study the effect of factors like pCO2, H+ concentration etc., on binding of O2 with Hb.
CO2 TRANSPORT
➢ It is the transport of CO2 from tissues to lungs.
➢ In tissues, pCO2 is high due to catabolism and pO2 is low. In lungs, pCO2 is low and pO2 is high. This favours
CO2 transport from tissues to lungs. It occurs in 3 ways:
• As carbonic acid: In tissues, 7% of CO2 is dissolved in plasma water to form carbonic acid and carried
to lungs.
• As carbamino-haemoglobin: In tissues, 20-25% of CO2 binds to Hb to form carbamino-haemoglobin. In
alveoli, CO2 dissociates from carbamino-haemoglobin.
• As bicarbonates: 70% of CO2 transported by this method. RBCs contain an enzyme, carbonic anhydrase.
(It is slightly present in plasma too).
➢ At tissue site, it facilitates the following reactions:

➢ In alveoli, the above reaction proceeds in opposite direction leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O.
➢ Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers about 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli.
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
➢ In brain, there are the following Respiratory centres:
• Respiratory rhythm centre (Inspiratory & Expiratory centres): In medulla oblongata. It regulates
respiratory rhythms.
• Pneumotaxic centre: In Pons. It moderates functions of respiratory rhythm centre. Impulse from this centre
reduces the duration of inspiration and thereby alter respiratory rate.
• Chemosensitive area: Seen adjacent to the rhythm centre. Increase in the concentration of CO2 and H+
activates this centre, which in turn signals rhythm centre. Receptors in aortic arch & carotid artery also
recognize changes in CO2 & H+ concentration and send signals to rhythm centre.
➢ Role of oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant.

DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

➢ Asthma: Difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles.
➢ Emphysema: Damage of alveolar walls. It decreases respiratory surface. Major cause is cigarette smoking.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XI Subject: Biology Chapter 17: Breathing & Exchange of Gases

➢ Occupational respiratory disorders: Certain industries produce so much dust. So, the defense mechanism of
the body cannot cope with the situation. Long exposure causes inflammation leading to fibrosis (proliferation of
fibrous tissues). It results in lung damage. Workers in such industries should wear protective masks.
NCERT SOLUTIONS
Question 1: Define vital capacity. What is its significance?
ANSWER: Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inspiration. It is about
3.5 – 4.5 litres in the human body. It promotes the act of supplying fresh air and getting rid of foul air, thereby
increasing the gaseous exchange between the tissues and the environment.
Question 2: State the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal breathing.
ANSWER: The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration is known as functional residual
capacity (FRC). It includes expiratory reserve volume (ERV) and residual volume (RV). ERV is the maximum
volume of air that can be exhaled after a normal expiration. It is about 1000 mL to 1500 mL. RV is the volume of
air remaining in the lungs after maximum expiration. It is about 1100 mL to 1500 mL.
∴FRC = ERV + RV
≅ 1500 + 1500
≅ 3000 mL
Functional residual capacity of the human lungs is about 2500 – 3000 mL.
Question 3: Diffusion of gases occurs in the alveolar region only and not in the other parts of respiratory
system. Why?
ANSWER: Each alveolus is made up of highly-permeable and thin layers of squamous epithelial cells. Similarly,
the blood capillaries have layers of squamous epithelial cells. Oxygen-rich air enters the body through the nose and
reaches the alveoli. The deoxygenated (carbon dioxide-rich) blood from the body is brought to the heart by the veins.
The heart pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation. The exchange of O2 and CO2 takes place between the blood
capillaries surrounding the alveoli and the gases present in the alveoli.
Thus, the alveoli are the sites for gaseous exchange. The exchange of gases takes place by simple diffusion because
of pressure or concentration differences. The barrier between the alveoli and the capillaries is thin and the diffusion
of gases takes place from higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure. The venous blood that reaches the alveoli
has lower partial pressure of O2 and higher partial pressure of CO2 as compared to alveolar air. Hence, oxygen
diffuses into blood. Simultaneously, carbon dioxide diffuses out of blood and into the alveoli.
Question 4: What are the major transport mechanisms for CO2? Explain.
ANSWER: Plasma and red blood cells transport carbon dioxide. This is because they are readily soluble in water.
(1) Through plasma:
About 7% of CO2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma. Carbon dioxide combines with water and forms
carbonic acid.

Since the process of forming carbonic acid is slow, only a small amount of carbon dioxide is carried this way.
(2) Through RBCs:
About 20 – 25% of CO2 is transported by the red blood cells as carbaminohaemoglobin. Carbon dioxide binds to the
amino groups on the polypeptide chains of haemoglobin and forms a compound known as carbaminohaemoglobin.
(3) Through sodium bicarbonate:
About 70% of carbon dioxide is transported as sodium bicarbonate. As CO2 diffuses into the blood plasma, a large
part of it combines with water to form carbonic acid in the presence of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic
anhydrase is a zinc enzyme that speeds up the formation of carbonic acid. This carbonic acid dissociates into
bicarbonate (HCO3–) and hydrogen ions (H+).

Question 5: What will be the pO2 and pCO2 in the atmospheric air compared to those in the alveolar air?
(i) pO2 lesser, pCO2 higher
(ii) pO2 higher, pCO2 lesser
Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone
Class XI Subject: Biology Chapter 17: Breathing & Exchange of Gases

(iii) pO2 higher, pCO2 higher

(iv) pO2 lesser, pCO2 lesser
ANSWER: (ii) pO2 higher, pCO2 lesser
The partial pressure of oxygen in atmospheric air is higher than that of oxygen in alveolar air. In atmospheric air,
pO2 is about 159 mm Hg. In alveolar air, it is about 104 mm Hg.
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in atmospheric air is lesser than that of carbon dioxide in alveolar air. In
atmospheric air, pCO2 is about 0.3 mmHg. In alveolar air, it is about 40 mm Hg.
Question 6: Explain the process of inspiration under normal conditions.
ANSWER: Inspiration or inhalation is the process of bringing air from outside the body into the lungs. It is carried
out by creating a pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere. When air enters the lungs, the diaphragm
contracts toward the abdominal cavity, thereby increasing the space in the thoracic cavity for accommodating the
inhaled air. The volume of the thoracic chamber in the anteroposterior axis increases with the simultaneous
contraction of the external intercostal muscles. This causes the ribs and the sternum to move out, thereby increasing
the volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorsoventral axis. The overall increase in the thoracic volume leads to a
similar increase in the pulmonary volume. Now, as a result of this increase, the intra-pulmonary pressure becomes
lesser than the atmospheric pressure. This causes the air from outside the body to move into the lungs.

Question 7: How is respiration regulated?

ANSWER: The respiratory rhythm centre present in the medulla region of the brain is primarily responsible for the
regulation of respiration. The pneumotaxic centre can alter the function performed by the respiratory rhythm centre
by signalling to reduce the inspiration rate.
The chemosensitive region present near the respiratory centre is sensitive to carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions. This
region then signals to change the rate of expiration for eliminating the compounds. The receptors present in the
carotid artery and aorta detect the levels of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in blood. As the level of carbon dioxide
increases, the respiratory centre sends nerve impulses for the necessary changes.
Question 8: What is the effect of pCO2 on oxygen transport?
ANSWER: pCO2 plays an important role in the transportation of oxygen. At the alveolus, the low pCO2 and high
pO2 favours the formation of haemoglobin. At the tissues, the high pCO2 and low pO2 favours the dissociation of
oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin. Hence, the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen is enhanced by the decrease of
pCO2 in blood. Therefore, oxygen is transported in blood as oxyhaemoglobin and oxygen dissociates from it at the
tissues.
Question 9: What happens to the respiratory process in a man going up a hill?
ANSWER: As altitude increases, the oxygen level in the atmosphere decreases. Therefore, as a man goes uphill, he
gets less oxygen with each breath. This causes the amount of oxygen in the blood to decline. The respiratory rate
increases in response to the decrease in the oxygen content of blood. Simultaneously, the rate of heart beat increases
to increase the supply of oxygen to blood.
Question 10: What is the site of gaseous exchange in an insect?
ANSWER: In insects, gaseous exchange occurs through a network of tubes collectively known as the tracheal
system. The small openings on the sides of an insect’s body are known as spiracles. Oxygen-rich air enters through
the spiracles. The spiracles are connected to the network of tubes. From the spiracles, oxygen enters the tracheae.
From here, oxygen diffuses into the cells of the body. The movement of carbon dioxide follows the reverse path.
The CO2 from the cells of the body first enters the tracheae and then leaves the body through the spiracles.
Question 11: Define oxygen dissociation curve. Can you suggest any reason for its sigmoidal pattern?
ANSWER: The oxygen dissociation curve is a graph showing the percentage saturation of oxyhaemoglobin at
various partial pressures of oxygen. The curve shows the equilibrium of oxyhaemoglobin and haemoglobin at
various partial pressures.
Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone
Class XI Subject: Biology Chapter 17: Breathing & Exchange of Gases

In the lungs, the partial pressure of oxygen is high. Hence, haemoglobin binds to oxygen and forms oxyhaemoglobin.
Tissues have a low oxygen concentration. Therefore, at the tissues, oxyhaemoglobin releases oxygen to form
haemoglobin.
The sigmoid shape of the dissociation curve is because of the binding of oxygen to haemoglobin. As the first oxygen
molecule binds to haemoglobin, it increases the affinity for the second molecule of oxygen to bind. Subsequently,
haemoglobin attracts more oxygen.
Question 12: Have you heard about hypoxia? Try to gather information about it, and discuss with your
friends.
ANSWER: Hypoxia is a condition characterised by an inadequate or decreased supply of oxygen to the lungs. It is
caused by several extrinsic factors such as reduction in pO2, inadequate oxygen, etc. The different types of hypoxia
are discussed below.
Hypoxemic hypoxia: In this condition, there is a reduction in the oxygen content of blood as a result of the low
partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood.
Anaemic hypoxia: In this condition, there is a reduction in the concentration of haemoglobin.
Stagnant or ischemic hypoxia: In this condition, there is a deficiency in the oxygen content of blood because of
poor blood circulation. It occurs when a person is exposed to cold temperature for a prolonged period of time.
Histotoxic hypoxia: In this condition, tissues are unable to use oxygen. This occurs during carbon monoxide or
cyanide poisoning.
Question 13: Distinguish between
(a) IRV and ERV, (b) Inspiratory capacity and Expiratory capacity, (c) Vital capacity and Total lung capacity
ANSWER: (a)
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
1. It is the maximum volume of air that can be 1. It is the maximum volume of air that can be
inhaled after a normal inspiration. exhaled after a normal expiration.
2. It is about 2500 – 3500 mL in the human lungs. 2. It is about 1000 – 1100 mL in the human lungs.
(b)
Inspiratory capacity (IC) Expiratory capacity (EC)
1. It is the volume of air that can be inhaled after 1. It is the volume of air that can be exhaled after a
a normal expiration. normal inspiration.
2. It includes tidal volume and inspiratory reserve 2. It includes tidal volume and expiratory reserve
volume. volume.
IC = TV + IRV EC = TV + ERV
(c)
Vital capacity (VC) Total lung capacity (TLC)
1. It is the maximum volume of air that can be 1. It is the volume of air in the lungs after
exhaled after a maximum inspiration. It includes maximum inspiration. It includes IC, ERV, and
IC and ERV. residual volume.
2. It is about 4000 mL in the human lungs. 2. It is about 5000 – 6000 mL in the human lungs.
Question 14: What is Tidal volume? Find out the Tidal volume (approximate value) for a healthy human in
an hour.
ANSWER: Tidal volume is the volume of air inspired or expired during normal respiration.
It is about 6000 to 8000 mL of air per minute. The hourly tidal volume for a healthy human can be calculated as:
Tidal volume = 6000 to 8000 mL/minute….. Tidal volume in an hour = 6000 to 8000 mL × (60 min)
= 3.6 × 105 mL to 4.8 × 105 mL
Therefore, the hourly tidal volume for a healthy human is approximately 3.6 × 105 mL to 4.8 × 105 mL.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone