Received: 6 June 2018 Revised: 7 November 2019
DOI: 10.1111/1748-8583.12280
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Managerial coaching and subordinates' workplace
well-being: A moderated mediation study
Hongdan Zhao | Weiwei Liu
School of Management, Shanghai University,
Shanghai, China
Correspondence
Hongdan Zhao, School of Management,
Shanghai University, Shanghai, China.
Email: zhdtongji@gmail.com
Funding information
National Natural Science Foundation of China,
Grant/Award Numbers: 71772116, 71802087
Hum Resour Manag J. 2020;1–19. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/hrmj
Accepted: 20 December 2019
Abstract
Taking a self-categorisation perspective, we predict that
managerial coaching affects subordinates' workplace well-
being through perceived insider status and that Chinese
traditionality moderates this indirect effect. To test these
hypotheses, we designed a three-stage research method to
collect data from 276 subordinates in a large state-owned
enterprise located in Shanghai, China. Results indicated that
(a) managerial coaching was positively related to subordi-
nates' workplace well-being; (b) perceived insider status
mediated the linkage between managerial coaching and
subordinates' workplace well-being; and (c) Chinese
traditionality moderated the indirect relationship between
managerial coaching and subordinates' workplace well-
being via perceived insider status, such that the indirect
effect was stronger for subordinates with low rather than
high Chinese traditionality. This study sheds new light on
the intervening process (i.e., perceived insider status) that
explains how managerial coaching influences subordi-
nates' workplace well-being. The findings also extend the
current literature by adding a substantive moderator
(i.e., Chinese traditionality) to explain when and why sub-
ordinates increase their well-being when faced with man-
agerial coaching.
KEYWORDS
Chinese traditionality, managerial coaching, perceived insider
status, workplace well-being
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1
2 ZHAO AND LIU

Practitioner notes
What is currently known

• Practitioners are unclear how and when managerial coaching affects workplace well-being.

What this paper adds

• A new theory to explaining the process and boundary underlying the relationship between managerial
coaching and workplace well-being, namely self-categorization perspective.

The implications for practitioners

• A two-pronged approach offers explanations of current practices and ways to improve workplace well-
being, for example, simultaneously improving managerial coaching behaviours and perceived insider sta-
tus and adjusting managerial practices for subordinates with different levels of Chinese traditionality.

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N

Managerial coaching features “a supervisor/manager serving as a facilitator of learning by enacting behaviors that
enable employees to learn and develop work-related skills and abilities” (Ellinger, Ellinger, Bachrach, Wang, &
Elmadag Baş, 2011, p. 68). It has aroused considerable interest as a potential predictor to subordinates' workplace
well-being (e.g., a positive evaluation of various aspects of one's work; Grant, Curtayne, & Burton, 2009; Horn, Taris,
Schaufeli, & Schreurs, 2004; Kalkavan & Katrinli, 2014). Researchers have considered managerial coaching as an
effective way to enhance subordinates' goal attainment, resilience, and job satisfaction (Grant et al., 2009; Kalkavan &
Katrinli, 2014). However, empirical study exploring the potential impact of managerial coaching on subordinates'
workplace well-being is relatively limited. To fill this void, the first aim of this article is to investigate the relationship
between managerial coaching and subordinates' workplace well-being.
In addition to the direct effect of managerial coaching on subordinates' workplace well-being, scholars (e.g., Kim,
Egan, Kim, & Kim, 2013) have begun to call for an examination of how managerial coaching influences workplace
well-being. In line with their appeal, several intervening mechanisms of managerial coaching have been identified,
such as role clarity, self-set goals, and psychological empowerment (Kalkavan & Katrinli, 2014; Kim et al., 2013).
Despite these encouraging findings, a notable omission is subordinates' self-categorisation process. This oversight is
vital because self-categorisation theory (Turner, 1987) suggests that an organisation often uses rewards or induce-
ments to create an insider–outsider distinction, and the way the organisation treats employees will affect their self-
positioning and self-awareness within the organisation. Supervisors act as organisational agents (Inceoglu, Thomas,
Chu, Plans, & Gerbasi, 2018), and subordinates often generalise supervisory treatment as organisational treatment
(Zhang & Chen, 2013). Therefore, the inducements (e.g., training, support, and authorisation) provided by coaching
leaders send signals to their subordinates, signals that indicate they are valuable to the organisation and have
achieved insider status. Once they perceive insider status—“a sense that employees have earned a ‘personal space’
and acceptance inside their work organization” (Masterson & Stamper, 2003, p. 483)—subordinates tend to report a
positive evaluation of their work (Hui, Lee, & Wang, 2015). This in turn cultivates their workplace well-being. As
such, perceived insider status may be a potential mediator of the managerial coaching–workplace well-being associa-
tion. Therefore, drawing on the self-categorisation theory, our second aim is to examine the mediating role of per-
ceived insider status.
ZHAO AND LIU 3

Furthermore, the effect of managerial coaching on subordinates' workplace well-being may depend on specific
situational contexts such as subordinates' value orientation, because an individual's value orientation will affect his
or her interpretation of leadership behaviour (Chen & Aryee, 2007). However, to our knowledge, empirical studies
focus on subordinates' value orientation as a potential moderator of the linkage between managerial coaching and
well-being are still relatively scarce. In this study, we define Chinese traditionality as “the extent to which an individ-
ual endorses the traditional hierarchical role relationships prescribed by Confucian social ethics” (Farh, Hackett, &
Liang, 2007, p. 717). We suppose that Chinese traditionality may be a potential moderator of the relationship
between managerial coaching and subordinate outcomes.
In previous studies (Farh, Earley, & Lin, 1997; Ngo & Li, 2015), Chinese traditionality has been deemed one of the
concepts that can best describe subordinates' value orientation. Chinese traditionality has five essential characteristics:
male advantage; worship of ancestors; obedience to authority; tolerance and conservatism; and self-insurance and
fatalism (Yang, Yu, & Yeh, 1989). High traditionalists are fatalistic and governed by social roles, whereas low traditional-
ists are driven by inducement–contribution balance (Farh et al., 1997). Inducements (e.g., training, support, and authori-
sation) provided by coaching leaders may help low traditionalists to better define their organisational status and to
report a more positive evaluation of their work, as they compare with those high in traditionality. In other words,
the effect of managerial coaching on workplace well-being (via perceived insider status) may depend on the level of
Chinese traditionality. The third aim of this article is, therefore, to investigate the moderating role of Chinese
traditionality in the relationship between managerial coaching and subordinates' workplace well-being.
In sum, this study makes contributions in three ways. First, we contribute to the managerial coaching literature
by studying workplace well-being emanating from subordinates. In this way, we respond to the call of Yukhymenko-
Lescroart, Brown, and Paskus (2015) that further research might transfer the focus of well-being from athletes to
other stakeholders, such as employees. Concentrating on subordinates' workplace well-being, we shed new light on
the relationship between managerial coaching and well-being. Second, we theorise and test the mediating role of
perceived insider status. In so doing, we provide insightful views into how managerial coaching increases subordi-
nates' workplace well-being, as interpreted through self-categorisation perspectives. Third, we address the call by
previous studies (i.e., Kim, 2014; Woo, 2017), to investigate the moderating role of cultural orientations in the influ-
ence of managerial coaching on subordinate outcomes. By examining the moderating role of Chinese traditionality,
we reveal a boundary condition for the impact of managerial coaching on workplace well-being, thereby building a
better understanding of when and why managerial coaching cultivates subordinates' workplace well-being.

2 | T H E O R E T I C A L BA C K G R O U N D A N D H Y P O T H E S E S

2.1 | Managerial coaching

As a kind of management approach to help subordinates improve existing competence, inspire possible intelligence,
and maximise personal potential (Wagstaff, Arthur, & Hardy, 2018), managerial coaching has drawn growing interest
both theoretically and in practice (Matsuo, 2018; Tanskanen, Mäkelä, & Viitala, 2018; Wagstaff et al., 2018). Com-
pared with a traditional leadership's exertion of administration, command, and control, the approach of managerial
coaching relies on guidance, facilitation, and inspiration (Tanskanen et al., 2018). The central purpose of managerial
coaching is to prompt subordinates' self-efficacy, performance, and development (Woo, 2017), specifically through
setting and communicating clear expectations, broadening subordinates' perspectives, and giving feedback (Ellinger
et al., 2011). Moreover, it should be noted that managerial coaching is differentiated from mentoring, occurring as it
does in a short-term period, whereas mentoring is a long-term process for employees' development (Ragins & Kram,
2007). Empirical studies have also demonstrated that managerial coaching is related to beneficial outcomes for sub-
ordinates, in areas such as learning (Matsuo, 2018), performance (Tanskanen et al., 2018), and job satisfaction (Kim
et al., 2013).
4 ZHAO AND LIU

2.2 | Workplace well-being

Workplace well-being refers to positive assessments of one's work, including job-related affective experience
and emotion (Zheng, Zhu, Zhao, & Zhang, 2015). Zheng et al. (2015) suggested that employees' well-being com-
prises three dimensions: workplace well-being, subjective well-being, and psychological well-being. Subjective
well-being focuses on “individuals' overall assessment of their life quality based on their own personal
standards,” and psychological well-being stresses “the good state of psychological functions and the fulfillment
of personal potential” (p. 623). Given that the workplace is the context we focus on and that subjective and psy-
chological well-being fit within this context, we focus particularly on workplace well-being. Scholarly works
have confirmed the advantages of workplace well-being, such as improving individual career commitment
(Singhal & Rastogi, 2018) and promoting organisational performance and virtuousness (Ahmed, Rehman, Ali,
Ali, & Anwar, 2018; Boxall, Guthrie, & Paauwe, 2016). We therefore consider it critical for organisations to
know how to enhance workplace well-being.

2.3 | Managerial coaching and workplace well-being

In the literature on workplace well-being, a crucial factor is positive leadership. In predicting workplace well-being,
studies have emphasised ethical leadership (Chughtai, Byrne, & Flood, 2015), authentic leadership (Rahimnia &
Sharifirad, 2015), and transformational leadership (Donohoe & Kelloway, 2014). Positive leadership creates a sup-
portive environment (e.g., trust, recognition, and feedback), satisfying subordinates' higher order needs for well-being
(e.g., self-esteem, belonging, and self-worth; Inceoglu et al., 2018). Considering the strength of developmental inter-
vention through managerial coaching—for enhanced skills, facilitated performances, and increased confidence among
subordinates in an organisation (Ellinger et al., 2011)—there may also be inherent advantages to cultivating positive
affect and attitude with a focus on workplace well-being. However, the relationship between managerial coaching
and workplace well-being has yet to be examined. To fill this gap in the literature, we will explore the influence of
managerial coaching on workplace well-being.
In particular, according to Warr (1990), subordinates' workplace well-being could be enhanced by three motiva-
tions, for example, for autonomy, for competence, and for self-growth. Because subordinates' triggered motivations
in these three areas developed their workplace well-being, we expect a positive relationship between managerial
coaching and workplace well-being as managerial coaching enhances the three motivations listed above. There are
three reasons.
First, managerial coaching highlights facilitation and encourages subordinates to think differently on
issues and to see a bigger picture (Ellinger et al., 2011). These broadened perspectives maximise subordi-
nates' potentials and abilities and enrich their work, thus enhancing their competence (Kim, 2014). Second,
managerial coaching acts as a kind of resource by allowing subordinates to experience participation, guid-
ance, and inspiration (Ellinger et al., 2011). In such moments, subordinates feel empowered and independent,
finding self-efficacy by which to engage in their work (Tanskanen et al., 2018), and this experience enhances
subordinates' autonomy. Third, managerial coaching provides and solicits developmental feedback, which
may help subordinates to understand the responsibilities attached to their roles and to improve their effec-
tive job performances (Ellinger et al., 2011). By doing so, subordinates perceive meaningfulness and satisfac-
tion as they achieve career development, enhancing their self-growth (Kim, 2014). If subordinates'
motivations for competence, autonomy, and self-growth are triggered, they will achieve positive experience
and emotion in their jobs and then have a higher level of workplace well-being (Warr, 1990). Accordingly,
we hypothesise:

Hypothesis 1 Managerial coaching is positively associated with subordinates' workplace well-being.

ZHAO AND LIU 5

2.4 | Perceived insider status as a mediator

Perceived insider status represents individual identity as member of an organisation (Stamper & Masterson, 2002). It
is necessary to distinguish perceived insider status from normative commitment, which refers to “the internalized
pressure or feeling of obligation to continue employment due to the work culture and other socially accepted norms”
(Gautam, Van Dick, & Wagner, 2004, p. 304). In particular, perceived insider status differs from normative commit-
ment in that the former incorporates individuals' self-conceptions in terms of their organisations, implying that the
individual and the organisation are one, whereas the latter holds individual and organisation as separate entities. Indi-
viduals with high levels of perceived insider status, because they have a sense of belonging within their organisation,
behave according to organisational interests even without being forced by formal contracts (Ding & Chang, 2019).
However, individuals with high levels of normative commitment are more likely to be formally guided by job descrip-
tions or supervisory directions (Vandenberghe et al., 2019).
According to the self-categorisation theory, individuals classify themselves into different categories within an
organisation (Turner, 1987), described as insider and outsider categories (Guerrero, Sylvestre, & Muresanu, 2013).
An important criterion for this categorisation is that the organisation satisfies two needs for individuals, for example,
self-enhancement and uncertainty reduction (Chattopadhyay, George, & Lawrence, 2004; Turner, 1987).
Given that supervisors act as organisational agents (Rahimnia & Sharifirad, 2015), supervisory treatment will be
strongly related to subordinates' perceptions of the organisation (Inceoglu et al., 2018). In terms of managerial
coaching, subordinates are involved in one-on-one interactions where their thoughts and ideas are heard and their
interests are concerned (Ellinger et al., 2011). These developmental interactions signal to subordinates that they are
valued as organisation members (Woo, 2017), promoting their self-enhancement. Additionally, subordinates with
experience of managerial coaching adhere their expectations to the broader goals of the organisation (Ellinger et al.,
2011) and strengthen their involvement and belonging in the organisation (Woo, 2017). As a result, subordinates are
likely to integrate their self-categorisation with the organisation, reducing uncertainty. If subordinates' needs for
self-enhancement and reduced uncertainty are met, they may feel that they “have earned a personal space and
acceptance inside their work organization” (Knapp, Smith, & Sprinkle, 2014, p. 276) or, in other words, they may hold
a perceived insider status. In line with this theme, Zhao, Kessel, and Kratzer (2014) found that positive supervisory
behaviours (e.g., distributing resources and providing benefits and support) reinforced subordinates' perception of
organisational insiders. Likewise, Wang, Feng, Prevellie, and Wu (2017) argued that supportive leadership could help
employees to develop perceived insider status so far as leaders may provide such insider inducements as participa-
tion, trust, and respect.
The self-categorisation theory (Turner, 1987) further suggests that subordinates who perceive themselves as
organisational insiders will generate organisations' expected attitudes, emotions, and behaviours (Hui et al., 2015),
such as positive evaluations of their work. In particular, subordinates experiencing perceived insider status will con-
sider themselves organisational citizens, thus accepting work responsibilities with high intensity and persistence
(Masterson & Stamper, 2003). This motivates subordinates to perform jobs effectively and to gain a renewed sense
of competence with each job well done (Zhao et al., 2014). Subordinates with perceived insider status also feel that
they are central to the organisation, leading them to develop the sense of ownership to accomplish tasks indepen-
dently (Knapp et al., 2014), further enhancing their autonomy.
Moreover, subordinates who regard themselves as organisational insiders believe their organisation attractive
(Wang et al., 2017) and tend to perceive recognition and broad space for development within the organisation
(Kim & Beehr, 2018), thus satisfying their needs for personal growth. This again relates to the triggered motivations
of competence, autonomy, and self-growth, which may increase subordinates' workplace well-being (Warr, 1990).
Empirical evidence supports this assertion; for example, Chumg, Seaton, Cooke, and Ding (2016) noted that work-
related well-being was a potential outcome of increased sense of belonging. Kim and Beehr (2018) found employees
who perceived their involvement in an organisation with a high level of well-being, as their needs for self-esteem
were satisfied.
6 ZHAO AND LIU

In summary, the self-categorisation theory suggests a mediating role for perceived insider status in the rela-
tionship between managerial coaching and workplace well-being, based on the self-categorisation theory
(Turner, 1987), where managerial coaching satisfies subordinates' needs for self-enhancement and reduced
uncertainty. Such self-categorisation helps subordinates to view themselves as organisational insiders (Knapp
et al., 2014), and this in turn enables them to consider themselves citizens of the organisation, willingly devoted
to their work (Zhao et al., 2014). As a result, subordinates' senses of competence, autonomy, and self-growth
can be enhanced, leading to increased workplace well-being (Warr, 1990; Zheng et al., 2015). On this logic,
managerial coaching may positively enhance subordinates' workplace well-being by facilitating perceived
insider status. Hence, we propose:

Hypothesis 2 Perceived insider status mediates the positive association between managerial coaching and subordinates'
workplace well-being.

2.5 | Chinese traditionality as a moderator

Yang et al. (1989) defined Chinese traditionality as the extent to which a person adheres to traditional Chinese
values. Farh et al. (1997) first introduced Chinese traditionality into the management domain through an “obedi-
ence to authority” dimension. In line with this approach, researchers have begun to pay close attention to the
concept and to examine its moderating role (Farh et al., 2007; Li, Huo, & Long, 2017). That is because even
when faced with the same information, individuals holding different cultural values tend to differ in their inter-
pretations (Lin, Bai, Liu, & Liu, 2017). Relevant studies have also pointed out that subordinates' interpretation
and reaction to leadership behaviours may vary with their level of Chinese traditionality (Chen & Aryee, 2007;
Zhao et al., 2014).
Accordingly, we aim to investigate the moderating role of Chinese traditionality on the association between
managerial coaching and perceived insider status. The self-categorisation theory (Turner, 1987) holds that the
self-categorisation process varies with people's cultural beliefs. Thus, Chinese traditionality, where it is one of the
concepts that can best describe individual value beliefs (Farh et al., 1997; Li et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2017), may affect
subordinates' self-categorisation. Furthermore, those with lower senses of traditionalism, relative to those with
higher senses, show stronger desires to fulfil self-development (Li et al., 2017), making their attitudes and behaviours
more heavily influenced by managerial coaching.
In particular, low-traditionality subordinates rely on inducement and contribution balances to reflect leadership
(Farh et al., 2007). If these low traditionalists receive inducements (e.g., support and authorisation) from supervisors,
their positive perceptions and behaviours will be triggered. This makes low-traditionality subordinates more sensitive
to leadership behaviours (Lin et al., 2017). When managerial coaching displays empowerment and facilitation behav-
iours (Ellinger et al., 2011), low-traditionality subordinates may feel valued and involved, leading to increased per-
ceived insider status (Masterson & Stamper, 2003). However, high-traditionality subordinates respond to leadership
based mainly on prescribed social-role responsibilities, rather than on balances between inducement and contribu-
tion (Farh et al., 2007). That is to say, the attitudes and behaviours of high traditionalists are more governed by the
expectations, responsibilities, and obligations associated with their established social roles and less by their leaders'
actual behaviours. As such, the self-concept attribute of perceived insider status, an apparent self-cognitive attitude,
may be less influenced in high traditionalists by the presence or absence of managerial coaching behaviours. Hence,
we propose:

Hypothesis 3 The positive association between managerial coaching and perceived insider status is moderated by
Chinese traditionality, such that the association will be stronger for subordinates with low rather than high
Chinese traditionality.
ZHAO AND LIU 7

The above discussion shows an integrated model where perceived insider status mediates the relationship
between managerial coaching and subordinates' workplace well-being, whereas Chinese traditionality moderates the
linkage between managerial coaching and perceived insider status. If Chinese traditionality moderates the relation-
ship between managerial coaching and perceived insider status, and if perceived insider status is related to subordi-
nates' workplace well-being, it is logical to argue that Chinese traditionality also moderates the indirect effect. We
therefore propose a moderated mediation hypothesis (Edwards & Lambert, 2007).
In particular, subordinates with low traditionality may respond to managerial coaching by strengthened per-
ceived insider status. These subordinates feel that they are a significant part of the organisation and directly attach
emotional significance to their work. For example, they accept job responsibility more willingly and they perform
tasks more effectively (Zhao et al., 2014), enhancing their senses of competence, autonomy, and self-growth. Conse-
quently, they tend to achieve enjoyment and happiness, strengthening workplace well-being (Warr, 1990).
Conversely, subordinates with high traditionality experience a weaker relationship between managerial coaching
and perceived insider status, so these subordinates may be less likely to develop perceived insider status through
managerial coaching and, subsequently, workplace well-being. Hence, we propose:

Hypothesis 4 The indirect effect of managerial coaching on subordinates' workplace well-being via perceived insider
status is moderated by Chinese traditionality, such that the mediated association will be stronger for
subordinates with low rather than high Chinese traditionality.

3 | M E TH O DO LO GY

3.1 | Sample and procedure

From July to December 2017, we conducted a three-stage study with a 1-month lag between stages. Participants
were recruited from a large state-owned company located in Shanghai, China. This company involved various busi-
nesses, ranging from building design and housing construction to investment and development. Before the investiga-
tion, we contacted the HR manager and provided our consent form, requesting permission for the survey. From the
HR manager, we obtained a staff list with each employee's registration number. Using this list, we systematically
sampled the pool by selecting participants whose numbers ended in two odd digits. In sum, 450 employees were
selected. We then distributed the questionnaire, with a cover letter and return envelope, to each participant. Prior to
answering, participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and anonymous. They completed the
questionnaires in a meeting room after working hours, so as not to disturb their jobs. Each participant received a
chance to win a prize, such as gift certificates for airfare, bookstores, or movies, in return for their time and effort.
Afterwards, we directly collected the completed questionnaires on site. To assure anonymity and ethics, we required
each participant to provide a unique code at T1 and to reenter this code at T2 and T3. The code consisted of the par-
ticipant's four-digit date of birth (two digits for day and two digits for month) followed by their mother's maiden
name. At length, the three-staged questionnaires' matches were confirmed using the same code, which was then
removed during the analyses to ensure anonymity and confidentiality.
In the survey, 450 participants responded to the first-wave questionnaire (including demographic variables, man-
agerial coaching, and Chinese traditionality), and 351 responses were received, giving a response rate of 78%. One
month later, the 351 participants were invited in person to evaluate their perceived insider status. Using the partici-
pants' unique codes, we matched the data to ensure the participants were the same at T1 and T2. Results showed
301 complete responses following those offered at T1 (response rate: 86%). Likewise, 1 month later, we matched
the 301 participants who had completed the T1 and T2 questionnaires to fill in the third-wave questionnaire, which
included items regarding workplace well-being, job satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion. Finally, 276 respondents'
answers were received for all three stages (response rate, T2–T3: 91%). To test the sampling bias, we implemented
8 ZHAO AND LIU

dropout analyses. Comparing the items and constructs of completed questionnaires' mean values with the values for
dropouts, there were no indications of sample bias. All participants were Chinese citizens, 154 of them were male
(55.8%), averaging 36.25 years of age (SD = 7.62 years); 51.8% of participants held bachelors' degrees, and their
average working time with their current superiors was 4.31 years (SD = 1.60 years).

3.2 | Measurement

We followed the back-translation method proposed by Brislin (1980) to reduce the possible misinterpretations
arising from translation errors. In this survey, subordinates assessed all the variables (i.e., managerial coaching,
workplace well-being, perceived insider status, Chinese traditionality, and control variables). Five-point
Likert was used for all scales, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). These items are shown in
Appendix S1.

3.2.1 | Managerial coaching

The participants were required to evaluate their first-line managers' managerial coaching through Ellinger et al.'s
(2011) five-item scale. A sample item is “My manager sets expectations with employees and communicates the
importance of those expectations to the broader goals of the company.” Cronbach's α was .85.

3.2.2 | Perceived insider status

The concept was measured with Stamper and Masterson's (2002) six-item scale. The sample item is “I perceive I'm
an insider within the organization.” Cronbach's α was .87.

3.2.3 | Chinese traditionality

The concept was measured with Farh et al.'s (1997) five-item scale. A sample item is “The best way to avoid mistakes
is to follow the instructions of senior persons.” Cronbach's α was .95.

3.2.4 | Workplace well-being

We used Zheng et al.'s (2015) six-item scale to measure workplace well-being. A sample item is “In general, I feel
fairly satisfied with my present job.” Cronbach's α was .85.

3.2.5 | Control variables

Following previous studies (e.g., Zheng et al., 2015), we controlled for demographic variables such as subordinates'
gender, age, education, and the length of time working with their present supervisors that may influence workplace
well-being. Considering that work satisfaction and affect may be strong-related variables in workplace well-being
(Inceoglu et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2015), we also controlled subordinates' job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion.
Job satisfaction was measured with Warr's (1991) three-item scale. A sample item is “I am satisfied with my job.”
ZHAO AND LIU 9

Cronbach's α was .90. Emotional exhaustion was measured with Boswell, Olson-Buchanan, and LePine's (2004)
three-item scale. An example item is “I feel emotionally drained from my work.” Cronbach's α was .90.

3.3 | Analysis strategy

Using SPSS 20.0, we conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses to test Hypotheses 1 and 3. Following
Hayes PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2013), we applied a Sobel test (normal theory approach) and bootstrapping to obtain
the bias-corrected confidence interval (CI) to establish the significance of the mediation hypothesis (Hypothesis 2).
To test Hypothesis 4 (the moderated mediation), we also used Hayes PROCESS macro to compute the different con-
ditional indirect effects of managerial coaching on workplace well-being, across low (1 SD − mean) and high (1 SD
+ mean) Chinese traditionality. Furthermore, we used Cohen's f2 index of effect size to estimate the magnitudes of
the effects. Cohen (1969) also proposed that the f2 values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 represent small, medium, and large
effect sizes, respectively.

4 | RESULTS

4.1 | Common method variance test

Common method variance (CMV) may be a possible bias that influences our analysis because data were collected
from a single source. To estimate the influence of CMV, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis by applying the
single-factor test of Harman. Following Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003), we further controlled for
an unmeasured latent “method” factor to confirm Harman's single-factor test.
As shown in Table 1, the four-factor model provided a better model fit than any other competition models,
suggesting that CMV did not exist in the current study. Furthermore, we created a five-factor model by adding a
latent factor (called CMV) with all indicators loaded on it. Table 1 shows that compared with the four-factor model,
the five-factor model provided better suitability to the data, indicating that CMV was not a critical issue.

4.2 | Confirmatory factor analysis

Using AMOS 20.0, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis to establish the distinctiveness of variables. We
assessed model fit by the model's overall chi-squared, root-mean-square error of approximation, comparative fit

TABLE 1 Results of confirmatory factor analyses

Model χ2 df χ 2/df RMSEA CFI GFI TLI

Five-factor model: MC, PIS, CT, WWB, CMV 300.38 181 1.66 0.05 0.97 0.91 0.96
Four-factor model: MC, PIS, CT, WWB 483.13 203 2.38 0.07 0.92 0.86 0.91
Three-factor model: MC + CT, PIS, WWB 565.91 205 2.76 0.08 0.90 0.84 0.89
Two-factor model: MC + PIS + CT, WWB 601.41 205 2.93 0.08 0.89 0.84 0.88
One-factor model: MC + PIS + CT + WWB 636.71 206 3.09 0.08 0.88 0.83 0.87

Note. N = 276. “+” represents two factors merged into one.

Abbreviations: CFI, comparative fit index; CT, Chinese traditionality; GFI, goodness of fit index; MC, managerial coaching;
PIS, perceived insider status; RMSEA, root-mean-square error of approximation; TLI, Tucker–Lewis index; WWB, workplace
well-being.
10 ZHAO AND LIU

TABLE 2 Convergent validity

Item reliability

Standardised Construct Average variance

Construct Item Factor loadings Standard error factor loading t value reliability extracted
MC MC1 1 — 0.69 — 0.93 0.91
MC2 0.91 0.08 0.77 11.29**
MC3 1.03 0.09 0.76 11.34**
MC4 0.90 0.08 0.77 11.36**
MC5 0.92 0.09 0.68 10.16**
PIS PIS1 1 — 0.77 — 0.96 0.99
PIS2 1.05 0.07 0.83 14.31**
PIS3 0.98 0.06 0.82 14.18**
PIS4 0.86 0.07 0.73 12.40**
PIS5 0.79 0.06 0.68 11.37**
PIS6 0.61 0.07 0.50 8.17**
CT CT1 1 — 0.88 — 0.93 0.80
CT2 1.03 0.04 0.92 23.28**
CT3 1.05 0.05 0.89 21.75**
CT4 1.04 0.05 0.90 22.40**
CT5 0.84 0.04 0.82 18.34**
WWB WWB1 1 — 0.75 — 0.92 0.84
WWB2 0.90 0.08 0.71 11.32**
WWB3 0.89 0.07 0.70 11.33**
WWB4 0.79 0.08 0.60 9.38**
WWB5 0.84 0.08 0.64 10.28**
WWB6 1.05 0.08 0.79 12.73**

Note. N = 276.
Abbreviations: CT, Chinese traditionality; MC, managerial coaching; PIS, perceived insider status; WWB, workplace
well-being.
**p < .01.

index, and Tucker–Lewis index. Results indicated that the four-factor model of managerial coaching, perceived
insider status, Chinese traditionality, and workplace well-being fitted the data better than any alternative models
(see Table 1).
Also, we tested the convergent validity by the fit indices of item reliability, construct reliability, and average vari-
ance extracted. As shown in Table 2, we found that t values for all the standardised factor loadings of the items were
significant (p < .01). Also, construct reliability estimates ranged from 0.92 to 0.96 (>0.7), and the average variances
extracted fell between 0.80 and 0.99 (>0.5). The results supported the validity of the four constructs.

4.3 | Descriptive statistics

Table 3 presents all the variables' descriptive statistics and correlations. As predicted, managerial coaching was signif-
icantly correlated with perceived insider status (r = .52, p < .01) and workplace well-being (r = .63, p < .01).
ZHAO AND LIU 11

TABLE 3 Mean, standard deviation, and correlation for the variables studied

Variable M SD Gender Age Education LTS JS EE MC PIS CT

Gender 0.56 0.50 —
Age 36.25 7.62 −0.05 —
Education 2.68 0.78 −0.08 −0.15* —
LTS 3.37 0.87 0.06 −0.23** 0.06 —
JS 3.54 0.96 −0.01 −0.34** 0.26** 0.42**
EE 2.51 1.11 −0.06 0.17** −0.19** −0.29** −0.43**
MC 3.61 0.94 0.10 −0.24** 0.13* 0.64** 0.46** −0.41** —
PIS 3.49 0.92 0.08 −0.11 0.06 0.44** 0.35** −0.37** 0.52** —
CT 2.66 1.10 −0.06 0.07 0.01 −0.10 −0.03 −0.16** −0.14* −0.21** —
WWB 3.38 0.88 0.06 −0.21** 0.05 0.05 0.39** −0.29** 0.63** 0.42** −0.10

Note. N = 276.
Abbreviations: CT, Chinese traditionality; EE, emotional exhaustion; JS, job satisfaction; LTS, length of time working with
current supervisor; MC, managerial coaching; PIS, perceived insider status; WWB, workplace well-being.
*p < .05; **p < .01.

Concerning control variables, workplace well-being was correlated with gender, job satisfaction, and emotional
exhaustion.

4.4 | Hypotheses testing

As shown in Table 4, managerial coaching had a positive direct relationship with subordinates' workplace well-being
(Model 2: β = .57, p < .01) after controlling for subordinates' gender, age, education, the length of time working with
supervisors, job satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion, thus supporting Hypothesis 1. Moreover, the result of the
effect size analysis showed that Cohen's f2 was 0.40, yielding a large effect size.
Next, we conducted Hayes PROCESS macro to determine if managerial coaching was indirectly related to subor-
dinates' workplace well-being via perceived insider status. The results of formal two-tailed significance test (assum-
ing a normal distribution) demonstrated that the indirect effect of managerial coaching on workplace well-being
(effect = 0.06, SE = 0.03, Sobel Z = 2.28, p < .05) was significant, with a small effect size (Cohen's f2 = 0.02). Boot-
strap results (bootstrap sample size = 1,000) also confirmed the Sobel test, with a bootstrapped 95% bias-corrected
CI around the indirect effect of managerial coaching on workplace well-being [0.01, 0.13] not containing zero.
Hypothesis 2 received support.
For the moderating effects of Chinese traditionality proposed in Hypothesis 3, as summarised in Table 4, the
interaction between managerial coaching and Chinese traditionality was significantly correlated with perceived
insider status (β = −.35, p < .01, Model 6), with a medium effect size (Cohen's f2 = 0.22). To illustrate the moderating
effect, we plotted the interaction at low and high Chinese traditionality, namely, 1 SD ± the mean of Chinese
traditionality. Figure 1 shows that managerial coaching had a strong and positive influence on perceived insider sta-
tus for low-traditionality subordinates (β = .86, p < .01). However, for high-traditionality subordinates, this associa-
tion was positive but not significant (β = .02, p > .10). The results thus supported Hypothesis 3.
Given the significant moderating role of Chinese traditionality in the relationship between managerial coaching
and perceived insider status, we conducted Hayes PROCESS macro to determine whether the indirect effect of man-
agerial coaching on workplace well-being through perceived insider status is conditional on Chinese traditionality. As
shown in Table 5, the indirect effect of managerial coaching on workplace well-being (through perceived insider sta-
tus) was significant in the low Chinese traditionality (effect = 0.12, boot SE = 0.05, 95% bootstrap CI = [0.02, 0.23]),
12 ZHAO AND LIU

TABLE 4 Results of hierarchical regression analysis predicting managerial coaching and perceived insider status

WWB as the dependent variable PIS as the dependent variable

Variable/parameter Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6

Gender 0.05 0.01 −0.01 0.06 0.02 0.01
Age −0.09 −0.05 −0.05 0.04 0.07 0.09
Education −0.06 −0.05 −0.05 −0.05 −0.04 −0.01
LTS −0.01 −0.01 −0.01 −0.04 −0.03 −0.02
JS 0.34** 0.16* 0.14 0.33** 0.16 −0.35**
EE −0.14 0.01 0.02 −0.24** −0.21** −0.22**
MC 0.57** 0.51** 0.35** 0.34**
PIS 0.13
CT −0.18** −0.16**
MC × CT −0.35**
R2 0.20** 0.43** 0.44** 0.22** 0.35** 0.46**
ΔR2 0.20** 0.23** 0.01** 0.22** 0.13** 0.12**
F 11.42** 29.13** 26.61** 12.62** 17.82** 25.56**
ΔF 11.42** 108.13** 5.55** 12.62** 26.30** 57.41**

Note. N = 276.
Abbreviations: CT, Chinese traditionality; EE, emotional exhaustion; JS, job satisfaction; LTS, length of time working with
current supervisor; MC, managerial coaching; PIS, perceived insider status; WWB, workplace well-being.
*p < .05; **p < .01.

F I G U R E 1 Interaction of managerial
coaching and Chinese traditionality on
perceived insider status

with a medium effect size (Cohen's f2 = 0.15). However, the indirect effect was not significant in the high Chinese
traditionality (effect = 0.02, boot SE = 0.02, 95% bootstrap CI = [−0.01, 0.06]), with a small effect size (Cohen's
f2 = 0.07). Hence, Hypothesis 4 was supported.

5 | DISCUSSION

Drawing on the self-categorisation theory (Turner, 1987), we developed a moderated mediation model to examine
how managerial coaching influences subordinates' workplace well-being. Our results showed that managerial
ZHAO AND LIU 13

T A B L E 5 Results for conditional indirect effect of managerial coaching on WWB via perceived insider status
across levels of CT

Boot UL Index of moderated

Dependent variable Levels of CT Effect Boot SE Boot LL 95% CI 95% CI mediation
WWB Low (–1 SD) 0.12 0.05 0.02 0.23 0.12**
High (+1 SD) 0.02 0.02 −0.01 0.06

Note. N = 276. Low = 1 SD below the mean; High = 1 SD above the mean. Control variables include subordinates' gender,
age, education, the length of time working with their present supervisors, job satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion.
Bootstrap sample size = 1,000. Bias-corrected CI is reported.
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; CT, Chinese traditionality; LL, lower limit; UL, upper limit; WWB, workplace
well-being.
*p < .05.
**p < .01.

coaching was positively related to subordinates' workplace well-being, which was in turn mediated by perceived
insider status. Chinese traditionality moderated this indirect effect: namely, the influence of managerial coaching on
workplace well-being, via perceived insider status, was stronger for subordinates with lower Chinese traditionality.

5.1 | Theoretical implications

This study provides several theoretical contributions. First, our findings point to the positive effect of managerial
coaching in predicting subordinates' workplace well-being. The exploration of predictors for workplace well-being is
a hot topic in current organisational behaviour research, but most of the existing research focuses on personal dispo-
sitional factors (Laschinger, Finegan, & Wilk, 2011; Singhal & Rastogi, 2018). To date, there are few studies on lead-
ership predictors, and empirical research is particularly scarce. In several studies, Laschinger et al. (2011) examined
the direct influence of unit leader–member exchange quality and structural empowerment on nurses' workplace
well-being. Although managerial coaching has recently been considered an effective approach to develop subordi-
nates' positive feelings in the workplace (Matsuo, 2018; Yukhymenko-Lescroart et al., 2015), the studies have not
involved the relationship between managerial coaching and subordinates' workplace well-being.
Our study explores an antecedent of workplace well-being (e.g., managerial coaching) from the perspective of
satisfying employees' intrinsic motivation. In particular, managerial coaching increased subordinates' workplace well-
being by triggering their motivations for autonomy, competence, and personal growth. The results of this study pro-
vide a new theoretical perspective for explaining the antecedents of workplace well-being. More generally, the find-
ings support the view that human resource management (HRM) rightly takes managerial coaching as a popular
leadership strategy. Indeed, organisations increasingly transfer some duties linked with HRM practitioners to man-
agers (Kim, 2014). This positioning of managerial coaching, as a feature of leadership practice, has implications for
HRM revolution and enhancement.
Second, this research helps to enrich our knowledge of how managerial coaching is associated with subordi-
nates' workplace well-being. Previous studies mainly used the perspectives of role clarity, work engagement, and
psychological empowerment (Kalkavan & Katrinli, 2014; Kim et al., 2013) to explain the relationship between mana-
gerial coaching and outcomes for subordinates. However, this study sheds new light on the managerial coaching–
subordinate outcomes association by adding a self-categorisation perspective. As suggested by self-categorisation
theory (Turner, 1987), managerial coaching interacts with subordinates' goals for integrating into their organisation
(Woo, 2017), with benefits for them in developing perceived insider status. When subordinates perceive themselves
as organisational insiders, they can generate a positive evaluation of their work, including enhanced workplace well-
being. This finding not only helps us to better understand the incentive mechanism of employees' workplace
14 ZHAO AND LIU

well-being but also provides important details for HRM as to what is desirable in employees' self-categorisation pro-
cesses, especially as managerial coaching links to perceived insider status. Hence, greater clarity and focus can be
incorporated into the HRM curriculum, on what managerial coaching skills need to be developed and assessed. By
responding to these cues, HRM practices are well placed to take the perceived insider status agenda forward.
Third, our findings regarding Chinese traditionality's moderating role provide for a more nuanced comprehension
of Chinese culture. On the one hand, in Chinese state-owned enterprise, hierarchy, power distance, and future orien-
tation are promoted as guiding values (Wong, 2018), resulting in greater magnification of employees' Chinese
traditionality as compared with those who work in non-state-owned businesses. On the other hand, state-owned
enterprises feature life-long work security, seniority-based salary, and extensive in-company welfare (Berkowitz,
Ma, & Nishioka, 2017). China's “iron rice bowl” employment systems lead employees to perceive the enterprises as
their own homes, and to have a sense of belonging to their organisation (Berkowitz et al., 2017), closely related to
perceived insider status.
Based on the dominant contexts of Chinese traditionality and perceived insider status in state-owned Chinese
enterprises, we found that traditionality restricted the impact of managerial coaching, thus weakening subordinates'
perceived insider status and their workplace well-being. This finding shows a more accurate realisation of the rela-
tionship between managerial coaching and workplace well-being. Furthermore, based on this Chinese context, our
paper examined the impact of cultural value differences on how employees recognise and react to managerial
coaching. These findings respond to discussions of cultural differences in the study of managerial coaching (Kim,
2014; Woo, 2017) and provide further empirical support for exploring the impact of managerial coaching on out-
comes for subordinates in Chinese contexts. Thus, our findings support the research into managerial coaching in dif-
ferent cultural and HRM contexts (Kim & Beehr, 2018). That is, managerial coaching is also effective in non-Western
cultures; as such, managerial coaching must be undertaken in alignment with organisational investments for HRM,
such as enhancing the use of managerial coaching with low traditionalists.

5.2 | Managerial implications

The study also has several practical implications. First, our research illustrates a clear portrait of managerial coaching
and subordinates' workplace well-being. Thus, organisations should cultivate managerial coaching in specific ways.
For HRM practitioners, this could mean selecting or developing first-line managers who possess the characteristics
of managerial coaching. These characteristics include communicating, motivating, facilitating, and rewarding subordi-
nates. To ensure or monitor the effectiveness of managerial coaching, immediate information to feedback (e.g., 360
feedback or performance evaluation) can also be used along with the coaching process. For managers, who are sup-
posed to develop confidence, especially in setting goals, communicating ability, and providing feedback, managerial
coaching may occur, probably for positive effects, if the working relationship is good. Managers are thus expected to
establish good relationships as they develop coaching behaviours.
Second, the relationships between managerial coaching and subordinates' workplace well-being were mediated
by perceived insider status. Namely, subordinates' workplace well-being was directly and indirectly influenced by
managerial coaching. Organisations should note this finding. Instead of a single strategy to improve managerial
coaching behaviours, the best way to sensitise the effect of managerial coaching on subordinates' workplace well-
being is an ambidextrous approach, for example, simultaneously improving managerial coaching behaviours and sub-
ordinates' perceived insider status. For example, coaching managers should offer their subordinates the inducements
of support, feedback, and authorisation, which can help subordinates feel that they have achieved insider status.
Besides, HRM practitioners need to encourage their insiders regularly and to conduct targeted tracking observations
when necessary. This is because insiders have a cognitive bias that accepts challenges, often allowing them to com-
mit to changing the status quo and to actively achieving self-worth.
ZHAO AND LIU 15

Third, our findings revealed that low-traditionality (rather than high-traditionality) subordinates were more sensitive
to managerial coaching behaviours. Hence, organisations should take different strategies for subordinates with different
levels of traditionality. For high traditionalists, organisations could provide values-based clarification interventions to help
them confirm, clarify, and assess how cultural values interact with self-positioning and well-being within their organisa-
tion. Organisations could also provide communication and career consulting, to reduce power distance and weaken sub-
ordinates' traditionality. For low traditionalists, organisations could give empowerment and facilitation, focusing on
cultural orientations such as low traditionality, potentially strengthening the self-categorisation process and well-being.

5.3 | Limitations and future research

The first limitation we must observe is our single-source data. Namely, all three waves of questionnaire were com-
pleted by subordinates, and this may carry the risk of CMV. Although our CMV tests certified that it was not a seri-
ous problem, we still expect future researchers to acquire data from different sources such as employee–colleague
pairs. For example, a target employee could rate perceived insider status, Chinese traditionality, and workplace well-
being, whereas their colleague evaluates managerial coaching.
Second, the research sample came from just one (Chinese) company, which may reduce our findings' external
validity. Although the data supported our assumptions well, our theoretical model may not be universal to other
organisations and, especially, cultures. This is because organisational or cultural difference greatly influences subordi-
nates' responses to managerial coaching (Kim, 2014). As such, we encourage future scholars to reverify our theoreti-
cal model in other cultural or organisational settings.
Third, we could benefit from examining other possible mediators, to link managerial coaching with subordinates' work-
place well-being. Considering perceived insider status was only one dimension of belonging, and we expect further
research could explore the other two dimensions (e.g., organisational identification and psychological ownership; Stamper &
Masterson, 2002) as mediators, to uncover how managerial coaching influences subordinates' workplace well-being.
Finally, we note the sample size was small, and hypothesis testing results (e.g., the mediation and moderation hypoth-
eses) were only marginally significant. To examine the possible influence of this small sample size, we followed Cohen
(1969) to calculate the effect sizes. Results showed that the effect sizes for mediation and moderation, respectively, were
small (Cohen's f2 = 0.02) and medium (Cohen's f2 = 0.22). As Aguinis, Beaty, Boik, and Pierce (2005) stated, even a small
effect size of 1% can be important, practically and scientifically. We argue that our results are robust. Nonetheless, a small
sample size increases the risk of a significant relationship. As such, future research needs to increase the sample size to
promote measurement accuracy and to improve research design to reduce the downward bias on the effect size.

6 | C O N CL U S I O N

Although managerial coaching has great strength to enhance subordinates' well-being, we still know little about the link-
age between managerial coaching and well-being. Based on the self-categorisation theory, we constructed a moderated
mediation model to explore how managerial coaching influences subordinates' workplace well-being through perceived
insider status, and the indirect effect was moderated by Chinese traditionality. Our findings provided new paths, namely,
self-categorisation processes, to explain the linkage between leadership and subordinates' workplace well-being.

6.1 | Communication strategy

Considering the hierarchy orientation and “iron rice bowl” employment system in the state-owned enterprises, Chinese
traditionality and perceived insider status are likely to be more magnified here compared with other non-state-owned
16 ZHAO AND LIU

business in China. Hence, it seems entirely pertinent to posit one large state-owned company as a target. We con-
tacted the HR manager to explain our survey's purposes and actual process. Specifically:
1. The purpose. We informed that the survey is only for academic research and promised the privacy and confiden-
tiality. As such, the participation is voluntary and anonymous.
2. Collection duration. From July to December 2017, we gathered the data in three phases with a gap of 1 month.
During the first phase (from July to August 2017), participants evaluated their demographic variables, managerial
coaching, and Chinese traditionality. In the second phase (from September to October 2017), the participants
evaluated their perceived insider status. In the last phase (from November to December 2017), the participants
evaluated their workplace well-being, job satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion.
3. Survey process. We adopted on-site data collection method. Participants completed the questionnaires in a meet-
ing room after working hours, so as not to disturb their jobs. In return for their time and effort, each participant
received a chance to win a prize, such as gift certificates for airfare, bookstores, or movies. Afterwards, we
directly collected the completed questionnaires on site.

ACKNOWLEDGEMEN T
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants 71772116 and 71802087).

CONF LICT OF IN TE RE ST S
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

ORCID
Hongdan Zhao https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8422-6626

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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Additional supporting information may be found online in the Supporting Information section at the end of this
article.

How to cite this article: Zhao H, Liu W. Managerial coaching and subordinates' workplace well-being: A
moderated mediation study. Hum Resour Manag J. 2020;1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12280