Ammeter

The term “ammeter” refers to an instrument or device used to measure current. The current is
measured in amperes. As a result, this instrument is known as an ammeter or ampere metre and
measures current flow in amperes. Although this device’s internal resistance is “0,” it still has some
internal resistance. Depending on the amount of resistance, the ammeter’s measuring range will
change.

Symbol of Ammeter:

It is the symbolic representation of the Ammeter in a circuit.

What is the SI unit of Ammeter?

The flow of electric charge across a surface at a rate of one coulomb per second is measured by
the SI unit known as the ampere (A).
Working Principle of Ammeter:
The working of an ammeter is primarily depending on resistance and inductive reactance. Because
there must be less voltage loss across it, the instrument has a very low impedance. Due to the
identical current flow within a series circuit, it is connected in series.
With the use of a number of coils, this device’s primary purpose is to measure the current flow.
The resistance and inductive reactance of these coils are extremely low.
Construction of Ammeter:
Ammeters can be built in two different ways:

• Series and
• Shunt.
The total measuring current will flow through the instrument after it is connected in series to
the circuit. As a result of their internal resistance & the measurand current, ammeters
experience power loss.
Because of the two factors, the ammeter’s resistance is kept low:

• The ammeter receives the entire measured current.

• The ammeter is directly impacted by the low voltage drop.
Working of Ammeter:
➢ In Series Connection:
Since the current in a series circuit remains the same through all the circuit elements, when the
ammeter is connected in series with the load, the same current flows through the ammeter as flows
through the load. As a result, the amount of load current determines how much the ammeter coil
deflects. The ammeter measures the load current in an electric circuit in this manner.

➢ In Shunt Connection:
when an ammeter and a shunt (parallel) resistance with a very low value are connected in parallel
and the current in the circuit can be measured. The voltage drop across the metre and shunt is the
same because they are connected in parallel.
Types of Ammeters:

Based on Construction: 7 types

1. Moving Coil Ammeter,
2. Moving Magnet Ammeter,
3. Moving Iron Ammeter,
4. Electrodynamic Ammeter,
5. Hot Wire Ammeter,
6. Digital Ammeter and
7. Integrated Ammeter.
Based on Flow of Current: 2 types
➢ AC Ammeter and
➢ DC Ammeter.
Moving Coil Ammeter:
Magnetic deflection is a technique used by moving coil ammeters, in which current flowing
through a coil positioned in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet causes the coil to move. The
restoring force is provided by two spiral springs. The deflection of the metre is linearly
proportional to current thanks to the consistent air gap between their own core and the permanent
magnet poles. The scales on these metres are linear. Basic meters movement are capable of
deflecting at full scale for currents ranging from around 25 microamperes to 10 milliamperes.
Application: Used in meteorology, an electrometer, and radio astronomy.
Moving Magnet Ammeter:
Moving magnet ammeters work on a similar concept as moving coil ammeters, with the exception
that the coil is mounted inside the metre case and the needle is moved by a permanent magnet. As
a result of the coil’s ability to be manufactured of thicker wire and the condition that the current is
not required to be carried by the hairsprings, moving magnet ammeters can typically carry bigger
currents than moving coil instruments, frequently several tens of amperes. In addition, some
ammeters of don’t have hairsprings; instead, the restoring force is provided by a fixed permanent
magnet.
Moving Iron Ammeter:
A piece of iron is used in moving iron ammeters, which moves in response to the electromagnetic
force of a stationary wire coil. Direct and alternating currents are both measurable by this kind of
meter (as opposed to the moving-coil ammeter, which works on direct current only). The iron
element consists of a stationary vane enclosed in a coil and a moving vane coupled to a pointer.
The moving vane deflects in opposition to the restoring force generated by the fine helical springs
as alternating or direct current passes through the coil and creates a magnetic field in both vanes.
A moving iron meter’s deflection is proportional to the square of the current.
Electrodynamic Ammeter:

An electromagnet is used in place of a permanent magnet in an electrodynamic ammeter. Both

alternating and direct current can be detected by this device, which can also display accurate RMS
for AC. Wattmeter is another application for this instrument.

Hot Wire Ammeter:

A hot-wire ammeter measures the amount of current flowing through a wire that heats up and
expands. Despite their slow response times and poor accuracy, these devices were occasionally
employed to gauge radio-frequency current. These measure actual RMS for an applied AC as well.

Digital Ammeter:

The core mechanism for an ammeter is a digital voltmeter mechanism, and other types of metres
are developed around this, in a manner similar to how the analogue ammeter served as the
foundation for a broad range of derived metres, including voltmeters.

A shunt resistor is used in digital ammeter systems to create a calibrated voltage proportionate to
the current flowing. The analogue to digital converter (ADC) in a digital voltmeter is then used to
measure this voltage; the digital display is calibrated to show the current flowing through the shunt.
These instruments are frequently calibrated to only display the RMS value of a sine wave;
however, many designs may display the correct RMS within the constraints of the wave crest
factor.

Integrated Ammeter:

Additionally, integrating ammeters refer to a variety of instruments. In these ammeters, the current
is added up over time, producing a result that is proportional to the amount of electrical charge that
is carried by that current and is known as the current-time product. These can be used for energy
metering (the charge must be multiplied by the voltage to give energy) or for determining the
charge of a battery or capacitor.

AC Ammeter:

The AC ammeter is the device used to measure the Alternating Current (AC) that flows through
any branch of an electric circuit. It consists of a movable iron movement with two jewel bearings
between which the assembly moves.
DC Ammeter:
A device called a DC ammeter is used to measure the amount of DC current flowing through a
circuit. The scale on the DC ammeter represents current in amperes. A basic movement can only
carry exceedingly small currents because the coil winding is light and small. In DC circuits with a
frequency of 50 or 60 Hz, this ammeter is used to measure the current.

Voltmeter
Different types of measurement equipment for electrical applications are available in physics. They
are used to measure electrical current, voltage, and other factors. What is voltmeter: A voltmeter
is a piece of electrical parameter measurement equipment that measures the difference in electrical
potential between two locations in an electrical circuit. The voltmeter is linked in parallel with the
electric circuit to measure the potential difference, and it requires a tiny amount of current to work
as a power source. That current is insufficient and has no effect on the circuit current; this is also
a version of the voltmeter definition.
A voltmeter, often known as a voltage meter, is a device that detects the difference in voltage or
potential between two points in an electronic or electrical circuit. One of the uses of the voltmeter
is to test either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) circuits on a scale, commonly in
volts, millivolts (0.001 volt), or kilovolts (1,000 volts). Many voltmeters are digital, with numerical
displays for readings. Alternatively, specialized voltmeters can be used to measure Radio
Frequency voltage. The letter V is commonly put inside a circle adjacent to two terminals to
indicate a voltmeter. Old-fashioned voltmeters do not use electronics but loops of wire placed near
a magnet.
What Does a Voltmeter Measure?
Many voltmeters are digital, with numerical displays for readings. The voltmeter instruments also
offer analog readings by moving a pointer on a scale to indicate voltage; however, digital
voltmeters are generally more accurate than analog instruments. A common analog voltmeter, for
example, is likely to use an electromechanical mechanism that converts current flowing through
the wire into a voltage reading. Longer test leads with more electrical insulation are an important
feature of voltmeters used to measure high voltages.
The electrostatic voltmeter, which employs electrostatic forces to detect voltage directly rather
than through the action of current, is one of several types of voltmeters. The potentiometer
compares the voltage to be measured to a known voltage and is used to measure extremely low
voltages. To measure AC or DC voltages, the electronic voltmeter employs amplification or
rectification (or both). This sort of instrument does not produce circuit loading errors since the
current required to trigger the meter movement is not drawn from the circuit being monitored.
Types of Voltmeters
The different types of voltmeters are determined by the construction principle and measurement
types, which are the permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) voltmeter, the moving iron (MI)
voltmeter, the electro dynamometer type voltmeter, the rectifier type voltmeter, the induction type
voltmeter, the electrostatic type voltmeter, and the digital voltmeter.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Voltmeter: It is also known as the D’Arsonval meter, and it’s
used to determine the angular deflection in a uniform magnetic field to determine the current
flowing through the coil. Permanent magnets are used in PMMC equipment. It is best for DC
measurements since the pointer’s deflection is proportional to the voltage because the meter’s
resistance is constant. If the voltage polarity is reversed, the pointer’s deflection will be reversed
as well. It has the benefits of a linear scale, low power consumption, and great precision.
Moving Iron Voltmeter: It is used for both AC and DC measurements since the deflection is
proportional to the voltage when the meter’s impedance is constant, so it indicates directional
deflection regardless of the voltage’s polarity. Attraction and repulsion voltmeters are the two types
of MI voltmeters.
Electro Dynamometer Type Voltmeter: When a current-carrying conductor is put inside a
magnetic field, it is subjected to a mechanical force, which causes the conductor to deflect.
Rectifier Type Voltmeter: These voltmeters are used to measure either AC or DC. A PMMC meter
that detects pulsing DC voltage and rectified voltage that is linked across the bridge rectifier must
be connected for DC measurement.
Induction Type Voltmeter: Due to their simple construction, these voltmeters are the most often
used voltmeters.
Electrostatic Type Voltmeter: A static electrical field is used to generate the deflecting torque.
High-voltage measurements are taken with these voltmeters.
Digital Voltmeter: As digital voltmeters display AC and DC voltage values and use discrete
numbers instead of pointer deflection, they are preferred over analog voltmeters.
Difference Between DC and AC Voltmeter
The DC voltmeter is used to measure DC voltage, whereas the AC voltmeter is used to measure
AC voltage. The peak value of DC voltage is measured by the DC voltmeter, whereas the RMS
value of AC voltage is measured by the AC voltmeter. A rectifier is not used before a multistage
amplifier in a DC voltmeter, but an AC voltmeter measures the RMS value of the AC voltage.
Multimeter with Voltmeter
A multimeter is a device that can measure a variety of electrical properties. A conventional
multimeter may measure voltage, resistance, and current, and it’s referred to as a volt-ohm-
milliammeter since it has voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter functions. Multimeters have similar
functions to voltmeters, but they additionally assess current, resistance, and continuity.
Multimeters can sometimes collect extra information, such as temperature, with the correct probes
and sensors.
How Does a Voltmeter Work?
Its operation is based on the Ohm’s law idea: “Voltage across a resistance is directly proportional
to the current travelling through it,” says Ohm’s law. When a full-scale current flows through a
basic meter, there is a potential difference across its terminals. A voltmeter is a two-terminal
device, with one connected to wires and another to leads. When one tip of a lead is placed at one
of the points to be tested and the other tip is placed at the other point, the meter shows the
difference.

Electric Generator
Electric generators, also known as dynamos is an electric machine that converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy. The electric generator’s mechanical energy is usually provided by steam
turbines, gas turbines, and wind turbines. Electrical generators provide nearly all the power that is
required for electric power grids.
The reverse conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy Is done by an electric motor.
Both motors and generators have many similarities. But in this, the article let us focus mainly on
electric generators and how they convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.
History of Electric Generators
Electrostatic generators were used before the relationship between electricity and magnetism was
discovered. These generators operated on electrostatic principles. Electrostatic generators were
never used for generation of commercially significant quantities of electric power due to the
following reasons:
➢ Due to the difficulty in insulating machines that produced high voltages
➢ Due to the low power rating
Due to this inefficiency of electrostatic generators, the first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday
disk, was invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday.
How do Generators create Electricity?
Generators do not create electricity instead it uses the mechanical energy supplied to it to force the
movement of electric charges present in the wire of its windings through an external electric circuit.
This flow of electrons constitutes the output electric current supplied by the generator.
The modern-day generators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction discovered by
Michael Faraday. He realized that the above flow of current can be created by moving an electrical
conductor in a magnetic field. This movement creates a voltage difference between the two ends
of the conductor which causes the electric charges to flow, hence generating electric current.
Components of an Electric Generator
The main components of an electric generator are given below
❖ The Frame – the structure
❖ An Engine – the source of mechanical energy
❖ The Alternator – produces an electrical output from the mechanical input
❖ A Fuel System – to keep the generator operational
❖ A Voltage Regulator – to regulate the voltage output
❖ A Cooling System – to regulate heat levels that build up in the system
❖ A Lubrication System – for durable and smooth operations over a span
❖ An Exhaust System – to dispose of the waste exhaust gases produced in the process
❖ A Charger – to keep the battery of the generator charged
❖ Main Control – the control panel controlling generator interface
Types of Electric Generators
The classification of electric generators depends on the type of electrical energy that is produced,
which is either direct current or alternating current.
AC generators: AC generators are known as single-phase generators and are limited to 25 kW.
DC generators: These generators are divided into three categories, and they are shunt, series, and
compound-wound. Shunt generators are used in battery chargers. Series generators are used in
street lights. While most of the DC generators are compound-wound.
Uses of an Electric Generator
❖ They provide the power for most power networks across cities
❖ Small scale generators provide a good backup for household power needs or small
businesses
❖ At construction sites, before the power is set up, they extensively make use of electric
generators
❖ Energy-efficient as fuel consumption is reduced drastically
❖ Since they give a range of voltage output, they are used in labs
 ❖ They are used to drive motors
❖ They are used in transportation

DC Motor
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In a
DC motor, the input electrical energy is the direct current which is transformed into the mechanical
rotation. In this session, let us know what is a DC motor, types of DC motor and their applications.
What is a DC Motor?
A DC motor is defined as a class of electrical motors that convert direct current electrical energy
into mechanical energy.
From the above definition, we can conclude that any electric motor that is operated using direct
current or DC is called a DC motor. We will understand the DC motor construction and how a DC
motor converts the supplied DC electrical energy into mechanical energy in the next few sections.
Different Parts of a DC Motor
A DC motor is composed of the following main parts::
Armature or Rotor
The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that are insulated from one
another. The armature is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The armature is a rotating part
that rotates on its axis and is separated from the field coil by an air gap.
Field Coil or Stator
A DC motor field coil is a non-moving part on which winding is wound to produce a magnetic
field. This electro-magnet has a cylindrical cavity between its poles.
Commutator and Brushes
Commutator
The commutator of a DC motor is a cylindrical structure that is made of copper segments stacked
together but insulated from each other using mica. The primary function of a commutator is to
supply electrical current to the armature winding.
Brushes
The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon structure. These brushes conduct
electric current from the external circuit to the rotating commutator. Hence, we come to understand
that the commutator and the brush unit are concerned with transmitting the power from the static
electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the rotor.
DC Motor Working
In the previous section, we discussed the various components of a DC motor. Now, using this
knowledge let us understand the working of DC motors.
A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is energised. The created
magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the armature. The magnetic field enters the armature
from the North pole side of the field coil and “exits” the armature from the field coil’s South pole
side.

UPS
A UPS is a backup system that provides power in the event of a utility failure. By supplying an
adequate window to safely shut down sensitive equipment, a UPS helps prevent data loss and
minimizes the stress of a hard shutdown on electronics. But protecting equipment against a
complete power loss isn’t the only reason you need a UPS. Depending on the UPS model, these
systems also shield connected devices from common power problems and unsafe output voltage
fluctuations that can damage electronics, reduce lifespan and affect performance.
How Does a UPS Work?
Essentially a battery in a box, a UPS powers the devices that are plugged in to its AC outlets when
the flow of electricity drops to an inadequate voltage, or if a complete outage occurs. In case of a
blackout, the UPS immediately switches to battery to provide a continuous power source for the
length of the battery, which varies by system for periods of time ranging from minutes to hours.
Depending on the size and technology of the unit, a UPS is capable of protecting a single computer
up to an entire data center. Essential for mission-critical environments, a UPS keeps computer
systems and IT equipment safe and operational during a power loss until generators can be
activated or protected devices such as servers and network components can be properly shut down,
preventing loss of data and work-in-progress. In addition to delivering backup power during a
utility failure, UPSs also afford varying degrees of protection against other damaging power
problems, including voltage sags, surges, brownouts, line noise, frequency variations, overvoltage
conditions, and switching transients and harmonic distortion.
Types of UPS Systems
It’s important to understand that all UPS systems are not created equal. Rather, there are three
primary topologies: standby, line-interactive and online. Each type of UPS topology not only
delivers varying levels of protection against power problems but achieves the result in a separate
manner while placing differing frequency demands on the battery.
Standby UPS
Also referred to as an offline UPS or passive UPS, standby technology offers the most basic type
of protection, allowing equipment to run off of incoming utility power until it detects a problem.
In a standby UPS model, connected devices receive utility power through a direct AC connection,
with the unit essentially remaining on hold until backup power is needed. A standby UPS will
switch to battery to safeguard connected equipment when power fails, as well as adjust for routine
sags and surges. The transfer time generally occurs in milliseconds after a power loss, and although
the switch is not instantaneous, in most cases it will not interrupt the flow of power to equipment.
If a lengthy outage is expected, the battery backup power of the UPS will allow for safe shutdowns
so equipment and data remain protected.
Because standby topology does not buffer equipment against other common power anomalies, it
is best suited for non-critical and less demanding home network and office environments that are
not subjected to frequent disruptions. While standby UPSs are the least expensive type of UPS, the
downside to this topology is that it frequently resorts to the battery, which can reduce runtime and
service life.
Line-Interactive UPS
A UPS with line-interactive topology is designed to shield connected devices from power failures,
sags and surges like a standby model, while also providing protection against voltage spikes and
voltage drops. Typically used to safeguard enterprise network and IT applications, the line-
interactive UPS is controlled by a microprocessor that monitors the quality of incoming power and
reacts to fluctuations. In addition to providing more protection than standby UPSs, line-interactive
units offer better power conditioning and regulation, which helps prolong battery life.
One of the biggest advantages of line-interactive topology is that it compensates for undervoltage
and overvoltage circumstances without using the batteries. Under normal power conditions, line-
interactive UPSs pass input power to connected equipment through a surge/noise filter and voltage
regulator, while an inverter charges the battery for emergency use during an outage. However, if
the voltage fluctuates outside of a safe window, the UPS relies on built-in automatic voltage
regulation (AVR) to increase or decrease the output voltage to an acceptable level. As long as the
input voltage remains within a safe range, line-interactive UPS systems regulate the output voltage
without using battery power. This advantage prevents frequent switching to battery, which can
drain reserve power intended for an outage and reduce battery lifespan. During an outage, the line-
interactive UPS converts the stored battery power into regulated AC output power to support the
connected equipment load.
Online UPS
While standby and line-interactive UPS models provide varying degrees of power conditioning,
an online or double-conversion UPS is designed to deliver continuous protection against all nine
of the most common power problems, supplying a consistent clean power regardless of any
incoming instabilities. In order to create a power supply without any electrical interference, the
output voltage of an online UPS is entirely regenerated by a sequence of AC to DC conversion,
followed by DC to AC conversion. During erratic power or fleeting disturbances when AC input
power falls outside of preset tolerances for line-interactive mode, the online UPS switches to online
double-conversion mode, completely isolating equipment from incoming power. If power fails
altogether, or the input power exceeds the tolerances of the rectifier, the UPS will rely on the
battery to keep loads operating, then convert back to high-efficiency mode when it is safe.
Online UPSs are the optimal choice for mission-critical applications or those involving highly
sensitive equipment, such as data centers, communications hubs and other installations where
continuous, clean power is a business-critical requirement. They are also beneficial in
environments that are particularly prone to dirty power.
Benefits of UPS
While there are numerous benefits to deploying a UPS, first and foremost, they protect against
utility power failures, which are occurring on a dramatically increasing basis. While blackouts can
be caused by a wide variety of issues ── including automobile accidents, animal interference and
overtaxed power grids ── severe weather ranks as the No. 1 cause of power failures in the U.S.
From hurricanes to heatwaves and flooding to freezing rain, weather is leaving organizations in
the dark for longer than it has in the past, in large part due to climate change fueling more violent
storms. In fact, in 2020, U.S. electricity customers experienced an average of 8 hours without
power ── more than twice as long as the 2013 average.
In addition to keeping equipment operational during a power loss, a UPS also acts as a filter to
shield devices against variances in the power supply, which can cause damage to sensitive
equipment like computers and network gear. Depending on the topology, a UPS allows only a
steady stream of clean power to reach attached devices, helping to safeguard against common
power anomalies that can damage equipment. In addition, battery backup power prevents data loss
and provides time to save work-in-progress during outages, surges or other power variances.
Finally, a UPS provides confidence that your organization will be able to avoid the financial cost,
customer frustration and business disruption caused by network downtime ── and you can’t put
a price tag on peace of mind. Whether protecting a network closet, a few server racks or an entire
data center, it is imperative to safeguard against equipment damage, downtime and data loss.e