EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

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Aeronautical Engineering
Fifth Semester
20AE503- Compressible Flow Aerodynamics
Regulations 2020
Question Bank
UNIT – V High Speed Flow Over Wing

PART- A
Q.No Questions Marks CO BL

What is transonic flow?

1 Transonic (or transsonic) flow is air flowing around an object at a speed that generates 2 CO5 R
regions of both subsonic and supersonic airflow around that object.

Define critical Mach number.

2 In aerodynamics, the critical Mach Number (Mcr or Mcrit) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach 2 CO5 R
number at which the airflow over any part of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound.

Draw the valve of critical Mach number located over an airfoil.

The critical Mach number Mcrit is the free stream Mach number at which the local flow Mach
number just reaches unity at some point on the airframe. In general, Mcrit≤1.0 and is
typically in the order of 0.9.
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A typical airfoil design was tested in a wind tunnel at low subsonic speed (incompressible
flow). Numerous pressure sensors were installed on the upper and lower surfaces to
measure the pressure distributions. The results for pressure coefficient distributions Cp0 (x)
at angle of attack =5o

What is sonic line?

4 The curved surface above and below the wing or any other body that has an accelerated 2 CO5 R
flow beyond Mach 1.

State the critical pressure coefficients.

In this expression, is the critical Mach number of the wing and is the parameter often
required to be found. is the pressure coefficient at the point of maximum velocity on the
wing when locally sonic conditions are just attained, and it is usually unknown in practice.
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The critical pressure coefficient was found to be −0.0697. A pressure coefficient below this
critical pressure coefficient constitutes the supercritical region or the region of supersonic
flow on the surface of the wing.

6 Write about the thin and thick airfoil. 2 CO5 R

 Increased airfoil thickness results in greater airfoil drag. Structurally, thicker airfoils are
used toward the wing or blade root to accommodate the large bending moment, whereas,
thinner airfoils are usually used toward the wing or blade tip for better aerodynamic
performance.

Define drag – divergence Mach number.

The drag-divergence Mach number (not to be confused with critical Mach number) is the
7 Mach number at which the aerodynamic drag on an airfoil or airframe begins to increase 2 CO5 R
rapidly as the Mach number continues to increase. This increase can cause the drag
coefficient to rise to more than ten times its low-speed value.

Distinguish between sonic barrier and sonic boom.

If the object has sufficient acceleration, it can burst through this barrier of sound waves and
8 move ahead of the radiated sound. The change in pressure as the object outruns all the 2 CO5 U
pressure and sound waves in front of it is heard on the ground as an explosion, or sonic
boom.

Define lower critical Mach number.

9 In aerodynamics, the critical Mach Number (Mcr or Mcrit) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach 2 CO5 R
number at which the airflow over any part of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound.

Write about the upper critical Mach number.

At the upper critical Mach number, airflow around the entire aircraft is supersonic. For all
10 aircraft in flight, the airflow around the aircraft is not exactly the same as the airspeed of the 2 CO5 R
aircraft due to the airflow speeding up and slowing down to travel around the aircraft
structure.

Define swept wing.

11 A swept wing is a wing that angles either backward or occasionally forward from its root 2 CO5 R
rather than in a straight sideways direction.

Distinguish between lift and drag.

12 Lift is defined as the component of the aerodynamic force that is perpendicular to the flow 2 CO5 U
direction, and drag is the component that is parallel to the flow direction.

State the thickness to chord ratio.

In aeronautics, the thickness-to-chord ratio, sometimes simply chord ratio or thickness
13 2 CO5 R
ratio, compares the maximum vertical thickness of a wing to its chord. It is a key measure
of the performance of a wing planform when it is operating at transonic speeds.

14 Write the equation of Cp. 2 CO5 R

The pressure coefficient is a dimensionless number which describes the relative pressures
throughout a flow field in fluid dynamics. The pressure coefficient is used in aerodynamics
 and hydrodynamics.
C p is computed as C p ¼ ðp À p 1 Þ=0:5qU 2 0 , where p 1 is the free stream pressure
and p is the local pressure at the location of the immersed boundary. In the present case,
we define the location of the immersed boundary as the location for which a ¼ 0:5.

Differentiate swept wings from straight wings.

For straight wings this speed is relatively low since all the air flows over the wing. Swept
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wings use their shape to redirect part of the airflow along the front edge of the wing (called
span wise flow), and this reduces the amount of air flowing over the wing.

Define super critical aerofoil.

16 A supercritical aerofoil is an aerofoil that, principally, has been designed to delay the onset 2 CO5 R
of wave drag in the transonic speed range.

Write the advantages of swept wings.

Forward-swept wings make an aircraft harder to fly, but the advantages are mainly down to
manoeuvrability. They maintain airflow over their surfaces at steeper climb angles than
conventional planes, which means the nose can point higher without the aircraft going into
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a dangerous stall. In transonic flight, a swept wing allows a higher Critical Mach Number
than a straight wing of similar Chord and Camber. This results in the principal advantage of
wing sweep which is to delay the onset of wave drag. A swept wing is optimised for high
speed flight.

State about transonic area rule.

The Area Rule, also called the Whitcomb area rule and the transonic area rule, is a design
18 2 CO5 R
technique used to reduce drag caused by airflow at transonic and supersonic speeds during
transonic flight.

What is hypersonic aerodynamics?

Hypersonic aerodynamics is a special branch of the study of aeronautics. The chief
characteristic of hypersonic aerodynamics is that the temperature of the flow around the
aircraft is so great that the chemistry of the gas must be considered.
19 2 CO5 R
At low hypersonic speeds, the molecular bonds vibrate, which changes the magnitude of
the forces generated by the air on the aircraft. At higher hypersonic speeds, the molecules
break apart producing an electrically charged plasma around the aircraft.

Write about the aspect ratio of swept wings.

The aspect ratio of an aerofoil is the ratio between the length and the average width of the
20 2 CO5 R
surface. For a wing, the aspect ratio is the ratio of wing length to average chord. Similarly,
for a propeller, the aspect ratio is the ratio of blade length to average chord.
 PART- B
Q.No Questions Marks CO BL

1 Explain the critical Mach number over airfoil in subsonic flows.

The critical Mach number (Mcr or M*) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach number at which the
airflow over some point of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, but does not exceed it.
The speed of the airflow around the aircraft differs considerably in places from the airspeed
of the aircraft; this is due to the airflow having to speed up and slow down as it travels
around the aircraft's structure.
When the aircraft's airspeed reaches the critical Mach number, the speed of the airflow in
some areas near the airframe reaches the speed of sound, even though the aircraft itself
has an airspeed lower than Mach 1.0.
This creates a weak shock wave. As the aircraft exceeds the critical Mach number, its drag
coefficient increases suddenly, causing dramatically increased drag,[3] and, in an aircraft not
designed for transonic or supersonic speeds, changes to the airflow over the flight control
surfaces lead to deterioration in control of the aircraft.
In aircraft not designed to fly at or above the critical Mach number, the shock waves that
16 CO5 U
form in the airflow over the wing and tailplane are sufficient to stall the wing, render the
control surfaces ineffective, or lead to loss of control of the aircraft (such as Mach tuck,
when shock waves in the airflow over the elevator send the aircraft into an uncontrollable
dive).
Early transonic military aircraft, such as the Hawker Hunter and F-86 Sabre, were designed
to fly satisfactorily even at speeds greater than their critical Mach number. They did not
possess sufficient engine thrust to break the sound barrier in level flight, but could exceed
Mach 1.0 in a dive while remaining controllable. Modern jet airliners, such
as Airbus and Boeing aircraft, have maximum operating Mach numbers slower than Mach
1.0.
Supersonic aircraft, such as Concorde, Tu-144, the English Electric Lightning, Lockheed F-
104, Dassault Mirage III, and MiG 21, are designed to exceed Mach 1.0 in level flight, and
are therefore designed with very thin wings. Their critical Mach numbers are higher than
those of subsonic and transonic aircraft, but are still less than Mach 1.0.

2 Sketch and explain the drag-divergence Mach number. 16 CO5 U

As a practical matter, the drag-divergence M value is of interest for only 2 reasons:
1. It takes much more thrust to push the airplane faster as you enter the M-d zone,
because of the greatly increased wing drag;
2. The normal shock wave being formed at the top of the wing will cause buffeting on
 the aft section of the wing - the structure of the wing must be strong enough to
withstand these buffets, and the controls must be able to function in spite of the
presence of the buffeting. These two requrements demand considerable attention
during design.
Before Chuck Yeager and the Bell X-1 rocket plane broke the sound barrier, it was believed
that an aircraft would be destroyed if it ever exceeded Mach 1. Drag divergence defines the
huge increase in drag as an aircraft approaches Mach 1, or the speed of sound.

Drag divergence Mach number is defined as the Mach number at which the drag force on
aerofoil structure starts to increase drastically.
The increase in drag coefficient is up to or more than 10 times of the drag coefficient at a
lower speed of airfoil.

The value of drag divergence Mach number is always slightly greater than the critical Mach
number.
When M ≤ Mcr: When the value of mach number is up to the critical value of mach number,
the change in drag coefficient for airfoil is negligible.
When Mcr < M < MDD: When the value of mach number increases from critical mach
number up to the drag divergence mach number, the rate of change of coefficient of drag is
 lower.
When M > Mcr: When the value of Mach number is greater than MDDMDD then the drag
force on aerofoil structure starts to increase drastically.
When M = 1: The value for drag coefficient is maximum at M=1.
When M > 1: After M = 1, the value of drag force decreases with an increase in Mach
number.
The drastic increase in drag coefficient has the following reasons:-
1) The generation of shock waves in the flow region.
2) Fow separation: The increase in pressure across the shock wave causes the generation
of the pressure gradient. This pressure gradient leads to the separation of flow.

3 Describe swept wings with neat sketch. 16 CO5 U

A swept wing is a wing that angles either backward or occasionally forward from its root
rather than in a straight sideways direction.
Swept wings have been flown since the pioneer days of aviation. Wing sweep at high
speeds was first investigated in Germany as early as 1935 by Albert Betz and Adolph
Busemann, finding application just before the end of the Second World War. It has the
effect of delaying the shock waves and accompanying aerodynamic drag rise caused by
fluid compressibility near the speed of sound, improving performance. Swept wings are
therefore almost always used on jet aircraft designed to fly at these speeds.
The term "swept wing" is normally used to mean "swept back", but variants include forward
sweep, variable sweep wings and oblique wings in which one side sweeps forward and the
other back. The delta wing is also aerodynamically a form of swept wing.
There are three main reasons for sweeping a wing:
1. to arrange the center of gravity of the aircraft and the aerodynamic center of the wing to
coincide more closely for longitudinal balance, e.g. Messerschmitt Me 163
Komet and Messerschmitt Me 262. Although not a swept wing the wing panels on
the Douglas DC-1 outboard of the nacelles also had slight sweepback for similar reasons.[2]
2. To provide longitudinal stability for tailless aircraft, e.g. Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet.

3. Most commonly to increase Mach-number capability by delaying to a higher speed the

effects of compressibility (abrupt changes in the density of the airflow), e.g. combat aircraft,
airliners and business jets.
Other reasons include:
1. Enabling a wing carry-through box position to achieve a desired cabin size, e.g. HFB
320 Hansa Jet.
2. Providing static aeroelastic relief which reduces bending moments under high g-loadings
and may allow a lighter wing structure.
 Swept wings on supersonic aircraft usually lie within the cone-shaped shock wave
produced at the nose of the aircraft so will "see" subsonic airflow and work as a subsonic
wing. The angle needed to lie behind the cone increases with increasing speed, at Mach
1.3 the angle is about 45 degrees, at Mach 2.0 it is 60 degrees.

4 Elucidate the transonic area ruled aircraft. 16 CO5 U

The area rule is an important concept related to the drag on an aircraft or other body in
transonic and supersonic flight. The area rule came into being in the early 1950s when
production fighter designs began pushing ever closer to the sound barrier. Designers had
found that the drag on these aircraft increased substantially when the planes traveled near
Mach 1, a phenomenon known as the transonic drag rise illustrated below. This increase in
drag is due to the formation of shock waves over portions of the vehicle, which typically
begins around Mach 0.8, and this drag increase reaches a maximum near Mach 1.
Because of its source, this type of drag is referred to as wave drag.
The conclusion of this research was that shaping the vehicle to create a smooth cross-
sectional area distribution from the nose to the tail could drastically reduce the drag on an
aircraft. The area rule tells us that the volume of the body should be reduced in the
presence of a wing, tail surface, or other projection so that there are no discontinuities in
the cross-sectional area distribution of the vehicle shape.
 Whitcomb's findings are related to a more theoretical concept called the Sears-Haack body.
This shape yields the lowest possible wave drag for a given length and volume. The
variation in cross-sectional area for a Sears-Haack body, illustrated in the following figure,
tells us that wave drag is minimized when the curvature of the volume distribution is
minimized. The closer the volume distribution of an aircraft or other high-speed vehicle
comes to the ideal Sears-Haack body, the lower its wave drag will be.
Whitcomb's research was a major breakthrough in supersonic aerodynamics and had an
immediate effect on the design of the aforementioned F-102 fighter. Convair engineers
quickly redesigned the aircraft's fuselage, taking the area rule concept into account, to
create the "waisted" or "coke-bottle" fuselage. This modification, plus a new engine,
allowed the aircraft to easily exceed Mach 1 and achieve a maximum speed over Mach 1.5.

5 Explicate the flow induced separation over the airfoil. 16 CO5 U

In aerodynamics, flow separation results in reduced lift and increased pressure drag,
caused by the pressure differential between the front and rear surfaces of the object. It
causes buffeting of aircraft structures and control surfaces.
Flow separation can be a serious issue for aircraft and one that the designer must be fully
aware of in order to minimize it. Consider the series of images in Figure 9-70, which shows
an airplane seen from the same perspective at different airspeeds. Note that the airspeed
ratios and AOA are approximate and correspond to the design in the figure only, although
they would be applicable to many aircraft types. If the aircraft is well designed there should
not be any flow separation regions at the cruising speed. This ensures it will be as efficient
as possible at cruise because the flow separation is a source of increased pressure drag.
Once slowing down from cruising speed the AOA begins to rise and it is inevitable that
separation regions begin to form and increase as well.

Flow separation from solid surfaces occurs in a variety of technical applications, such as
 expanding flow channels (diffusers) or car and train tails, in turbomachinery, on airfoils at
high angles of attack etc. This inevitably leads to a significant decrease in efficiency. An
overcritical diffuser is the simplest geometry for studying flow separation phenomena. The
separation process is characterized by the periodic occurrence of vortex structures.

6 Enlighten the introduction of hypersonic aerodynamics. 16 CO5 U

Hypersonic aerodynamics is a special branch of the study of aeronautics. The chief
characteristic of hypersonic aerodynamics is that the temperature of the flow around the
aircraft is so great that the chemistry of the gas must be considered. At low hypersonic
speeds, the molecular bonds vibrate, which changes the magnitude of the forces generated
by the air on the aircraft. At higher hypersonic speeds, the molecules break apart producing
an electrically charged plasma around the aircraft. Large variations in air
density and pressure occur because of shock waves, and expansions. Hypersonic aircraft
typically have very thick boundary layers along the surface and high heat transfer to the
surface. All of these high speed flow phenomena lead to a vehicle design unlike the typical
airliner or fighter aircraft.

There are three principal aircraft missions to be considered in hypersonics; re-entry from
orbit, hypersonic cruise, and hi-speed accelerator, which can be used as a re-usable
booster. The first mission involves slowing a high speed vehicle while the latter two
 missions require a highly efficient propulsion system. Because of the high stagnation
temperatures present at hypersonic speeds, a combination of gas turbine propulsion for
low speed operations, ramjets for high supersonic propulsion , and scramjets for low
hypersonic speeds has been proposed as a propulsion system. The transitions between
the various modes of propulsion is an area of research. The only piloted hypersonic
vehicles (X-15, Space Shuttle, and a variety of space capsules) have all
been rocket powered.

(Note:*Blooms Level (R – Remember, U – Understand, AP – Apply, AZ – Analyze, E – Evaluate, C – Create))

PART A- Blooms Level: Remember, Understand, Apply
PART B- Blooms Level: Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate (if possible)
(Marks: 16 Marks, 8+8 Marks, 10+6 Marks)

Subject In charge Course Coordinator HOD IQAC

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