1/ydrometallurgy, 30 ( 1992) 1-28

lIydrometallurgy,
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

The role of hydrometallurgy in achieving

sustainable development
Bruce R. Conard
/neo
Inco Ltd., Sheridan Park, Mississauga.
Mississauga, Ont
Ont.,.. L5K 11 Z9, Canada
( Revised version accepted January
(Revised J anuary IS,
15, 1992)

ABSTRACT

Conard, B.R., 1992. The role of hydrometallurgy in achieving sustainable development. In: w.e.
W.C.
ofthe
Cooper and D.B. Dreisinger (Editors), Hydrometallurgy Theory and Practice. Proceedings of the
Emest Peters
Ernest Petcrs International
lntemational Symposium.ll,vdromelal/urg}·,
Symposium. Hydrometallurgy, 30: 1-28.

lt is becoming increasingly clear that humanity must address quickly the rapid degradation in the
It
quality of our planet's environment. No human activity will be allowed without regard for its impact
on air and water quality, on energy consumption and on greenhouse gas evolution. This is particularly
true for industries such as mining and extractive metallurgy, which have high visibility and which
sorne time been
have for some becn prime targets for legislation and public concern.
concem.
Hydrometallurgy, because it is a discipline central to the preservation of ofwater
water quality and to the
safe and economical treatment and disposal of wastes, has a significant role in making sustainable
development a workable doctrine. Selected examples of ofhydrometallurgical
hydro metallurgical technologies that will con-
tinue to be important are reviewed, including abatement of acid drainage from tailings, heavy metal
altematives and processes for decreased energy re-
and arsenic removal from wastewaters, recycling alternatives
practica! example that is discussed
quirements. Cyanide destruction technology is a practical discusscd in terms of a
successful environmental technology development. What is abundantly needed are multidisciplinary
govemment regulatory agencies and with design engineers and
scientific teams, working closely with government
plant operators, to transform laboratory ideas into industrial facilities that are acceptable to a know-
ledgeable public.

INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION

"virón", which means "cir-

The word "environment" comes from the latin "viron",
ele". It refers to the surroundings which provide conditions or exert forces on
cle".
the subject encircled. For living species the environment is "the complex of
climatic, edaphic and biotic factors that act upon an organism or ecological
community and ultimately determine its form and survival" [I]. [ l ] . Since the
dawn of civilization, humanity has viewed the natural environment with awe.
Beca use of our long history of living in fear of natural forces, it is with some
Because sorne
difficulty that human beings have recently begun to realize that human activ-
ity exerts a back-reaction on the environment. Indeed, unbridled human ac-
B.R. Conard,
Correspondence to: B.R. Conard, Inco
Inco Limited,
Limited, 2060 Flavelle
Flavelle Blvd.,
Blvd., Shendan
Shendan Park, Missis-
Missis-
sauga, Ont.
sauga, Ont. L5K 129, Canada.
L5K IZ9, Canada.
 2
2 B.R.CONARD

tivity may threaten the survival of the surroundings we tend to regard as

constant.
leaming that its actions, ambitions, and needs must be weighed
Humanity is learning
on the same scale as the natural environment. In the latter part of the twen­ twen-
tieth century we find ourselves, as suggested by Capra [2], (2], ata
at a turning point
or crisis. The Chinese word for crisis, he points out, consists of the combina­ combina-
tion of
ofwords
words meaning 'opportunity' and 'danger.' The Chinese language rec­ rec-
ognizes that important decisions, if made correctly, can lead to opportunities,
not only for survival but also for growth and security. lf made incorrectly, or
Ifmade
if not made because of insensitivity, then the result is dangerous and can be
catastrophic.
Collectively and individually we have an enormous set of complex deci­ deci-
sions to make regarding our behaviour, which has undergone fundamental
changes over the last several hundred years. We are now a global community
through communication, education, transportation and trade, and we inhabit
virtually all regions of the planet. The five billion individuals ali ve today will
alive
probably become 10 1 O billion within our grandchildren's lives. Since the begin­ begin-
ning ofofthis
this century, industrial production worldwide has increased more than
fifty­fold, with 80% of that growth occurring since the end of World War 11
fifty-fold, II
[ 3]. The world economy, curren
[3]. currentlyti y at $13 trillion, will likely grow ten­fold
ten-fold in
the next 50 years.
drama tic industrialization of human activity has enabled a significant
The dramatic
portion of ofthe
the world to improve the conditions of life. But it is having conse­ conse-
quences on the quality of air and water and it may ultimately move the eco­ eco-
logical balance of the plan et to a new equilibrium. Whether that new equilib­
planet equilib-
rium is conducive to human activity or whether it will prevent us and our
progeny from fully realizing our goals and aspirations, is one of the complex
questions that the human family faces.
All individuals and all areas ofhuman
of human endeavour have to wrestle with their
perspectives, their hopes and their abilities in answering these questions. Hy­ Hy-
drometallurgists occupy a unique position in this framework because they
work with water that will ultimately be retumed returned to the natural environment.
However, in a larger context, hydrometallurgists
hydro metallurgists belong to the mining com­ com-
munity and so the techniques of mining, and the salid solid and aqueous residues
from mining, can also come under their scrutiny. Impurities mined with the
metals of interest must be con verted into useful products orbe
converted or be appropriately
fixed and
fixed and discarded.
discarded. In In addition,
addition, processing
processing alterations
alterations to
to conserve
conserve energy,
energy, to
to
limit the
limit emission of
the emission of noxious
noxious gases
gases into
into the
the atmosphere
atmosphere andand toto recycle
recycle and
and
reuse metals
reuse often in
metals often vol ve hydrometallurgical
involve hydrometallurgical operations.
operations.
The purpose
The purpose of of this
this paper
paper is
is to
to discuss
discuss sorne
some ofof the
the important
important pursuits
pursuits of
of
hydrometallurgy
hydrometallurgy in in terms
terms ofof controlling
controlling the the impact
impact ofof metal
metal production
production on on
the environment.
the environment. It is is not
not the
the intention
intention of of this
this paper
paper to
to be
be an
an all­inclusive
all-inclusive or
or
critica! review
critical review ofof activities
activities inin this
this field,
field, but
but rather
rather to
to point
point out
out sorne
some direc­
direc-
THE ROLE OF HYDROMETALLURGY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 3

tions hydrometallurgy
tions hydrometallurgy is
is taking
taking and
and may
may take,
take, and
and to
to suggest
suggest scientific
scientific and
and
societal conditions
societal conditions that
that are
are necessary
necessary to
to make
make sustainable
sustainable development
development aa
practica! reality.
practical

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

In 1968
In 1968 aa smallsmall group
group of of individuals
individuals from from ten ten countries
countries met met toto consider
consider
global challenges,
global challenges, such such asas accelerating
accelerating industrialization,
industrialization, rapid rapid population
population
growth, widespread
growth, widespread poverty,
poverty, depletion
depletion of of non-renewable
non-renewable resourcesresources and and deg-
radation of the environment. This group, called the Club of Rome, with
radation of the environment. This group, called the Club of Rome, with ex-
ex-
panded membership
panded membership and and global
global representation,
representation, published
published its its informal
informal study
on aa world
on world modelmodel in in 1972.
1972. They
They concluded
concluded that that there
there waswas aa limit
limit to
to the
the exist-
exist-
ing exponential
ing exponential rate rate of
of growth
growth of of population
population and and industrialization
industrialization and and that
that
the limit
the limit waswas going
going toto be
be reached
reached within
within 100100 years,
years, at at which
which point
point there
there would
would
be aa calamitous
be calamitous readjustment.
readjustment. The The study
study called
called for for action
action toto avert
avert this
this pre-
pre-
dicted disaster.
dicted disaster. Many Many environmentalists
environmentalists and and lobby
lobby groups
groups urged
urged zero
zero growth
growth
as the
as the solution
solution to to the
the problem,
problem, butbut this
this approach
approach only only served
served to to alienate
alienate thethe
industrial sector
industrial sector andand toto confuse
confuse legislators.
legislators.
During the
During the next
next 101 O years
years the
the media
media began
began to to focus
focus on on the
the problem
problem of of envi-
envi-
ronmental degradation.
ronmental degradation. Often Often this
this focus
focus waswas critical
critical of of industry
industry and and public
public
response was
response was to to take
take anan 'us'
'us' versus
versus 'them'
'them' view.
view. Industrial
Industrial development
development be- be-
carne the
came the enemy,
enemy, industrial
industrial spokespersons
spokespersons were were viewed
viewed withwith suspicion
suspicion and and
examples of
examples of industrial
industrial malpractice
malpractice became
became commonplace.
commonplace. Politicians
Politicians began
to respond
to respond to to public
public pressure
pressure by
by invoking
invoking strong
strong controls.
controls. SuchSuch controls,
controls, how-
how-
ever, had
ever, had to to be
be very
very carefully
carefully drafted
drafted in in order
order to to reduce
reduce environmental
environmental dam- dam-
age while
age while simultaneously permitting permitting the the needed
needed economic
economic growth.
growth.
In 1983
In 1983 the the World
World Commission
Commission on on Environment
Environment and and Development
Development was was
created by the
created the United
United Nations
Nations to to address
address thesethese concerns.
concems. Chaired
Chaired by by Gro
Gro
Harlem Brundtland,
Harlem Brundtland, then then Prime
Prime Minister
Minister of ofNorway,
Norway, the the group
group became
became known
known
as the
as the Brundtland
Brundtland Commission.
Commission. Its Its report
report in in 1987,
1987, entitled
entitled OurOur Common
Common
Future,
Future, is is aa landmark
landmark document
document thatthat stresses
stresses thethe concept
concept of of environmentally
sustainable economic
sustainable economic development,
development, which:
which:
" ... does
..... does imply
imply limits-not
limits-not absolute
absolute limits,
limits, but
but limitations
limitations imposed
imposed by
by the
the present
present state
state of
of
technology and
technology and social
social organization
organization on
on environmental
environmental resources
resources and
and by
by the
the activity of
of the
the
biosphere to
biosphere to absorb
absorb the
the effects
effects of
ofhuman activities" [4].
human activities" [ 4 ].
Furthermore, the
Furthermore, the report
report pointed
pointed out
out that:
that:
" ... sustainable
..... sustainable development
development is
is not
not aa fixed
fixed state
state of
of harmony,
harmony, but
but rather
rather aa process
process of
of change
in which
in which thethe exploitation of
of resources,
resources, the
the direction
direction of
of investments,
investments, the
the orientation
orientation ofof tech-
tech-
nological development,
nological development, and
and institutional
institutional change
change are
are made
made consistent
consistent with
with future
future as
as well
well as
as
present needs"
present needs" [5].
[ 5].
Sustainable development
Sustainable development recognizes
recognizes that
that industrial
industrial and
and economic
economic growth
growth
must continue
must continue far
far into
into the
the future,
future, but
but must
must be
be done
done in
in aa responsible
responsible manner
manner
4 B.R.CONARD

and at rates that allow sustenance for future generations. The process will be
difficult and will require international cooperation with resulting potential
complexities. It is encouraging that the concept of sustainable development is
being supported by both industrial leaders [6][ 6] and environmental activists
[ 7]
[7] and that international efforts are continuing with the Earth Summit in
Brazil in 1992.

GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS

Politicians usually respond to public pressure. This is certainly the case with
environmental issues where government controls can be relatively easily ere­ cre-
ated with minimal government expense. The expense is, of course, trans­ trans-
ferred to the industries being controlled. Governmental jurisdictions are often
ferred
vague and sometimes in direct conflict. As a consequence, industries often
must meet regulations from multiple agencies with concomitant increase in
financial burden and in the length of time to obtain the required approvals
and permits.
Failure to meet regulations is being met with stiff penalties. The recent
Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA), not only imposes stiff fines
for non­compliance,
non-compliance, but also imposes personal liability for such non­compli­
non-compli-
anee with any "officer, director or agent ofthe
ance of the corporation who directed, au­
au-
thorized, assented to, acquiesced in or participated in the commission of the
offence." Prosecution and possible imprisonment of individuals can be pur­ pur-
sued under this legislation regardless of whether the corporation has been
prosecuted or convicted. This type of liability is requiring the implementa­
implementa-
tion of management systems such as environmental audits to ensure due
diligence.
Canadian Bill C-78
C­78 will require an extensive environmental assessment
process for all
ali major public and prívate
private projects. Ontario's new Mining Act
requires industries to post financial security to ensure appropriate closure
measures are taken after mining activity has ceased. Such regulations already
exist in British Columbia, where since 1988 Equity Silver Mines has depos­ depos-
ited over $30 million in bonds to ensure facilities are in place by 1992 for the
perpetual treatment of acidic tailings drainage.
While the final security value is still being negotiated, it is readily seen that
this is a significant expense relative to the $85 million required to start pro­pro-
[ 8]. Bill 56 in British Columbia legislated that upon closure
duction in 1980 [8].
of a mining site the immediate environment must be restored as closely as is
possible to its original state. Other provinces in Canada will probably pass
similar laws. Ontario is expected to pass an environmental "bill of rights" by
which citizens can sue polluters even when no direct harm has been suffered.
This bill will also enshrine in law the right to a healthy environment and will
require increased public participation in decision­making.
decision-making. Ontario also has
THE ROLE OF HYDROMETALLURGY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 55

Municipal, Industrial Strategy for Abatement (MISA), which is legislation

aimed at the virtual elimination of the discharge of persistent, toxic contam- contam­
inants into Ontario waterways.
In the United States the situation is similar. The Superfund Amendments
and Reauthorization Act (SARA) created a multi-billion multi­billion dollar
do llar fund for the
govemment to draw on for waste dump and other site decontamination. This
government
govemment to sue the parties responsible to re-
legislation also permits the government re­
clean­up costs. No statute of limitations on transfer of ownership re-
cover clean-up re­
moves responsibility. Various laws-the laws­the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act,
the SafeSafe Drinking Water Act (imposing ( imposing maximum contaminant levels in
water)­fall under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
drinking water)-fall
(EPA), but in most cases are directly regulated by state agencies. The Re- Re­
sources Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) ( RCRA) is expected to be expanded
and strengthened to include "cradle to grave" management with probably
sorne form of financial security for mine closure and post-closure
some post­closure treatment
required [9]. [9].
In most industrialized regions of the world similar legislation exists or is
being considered. The minerals industry must not categorically resist this leg- leg­
islation. The question is not whether legislation will be enacted to protect the
environment, but rather how effective that legislation will be. The industrial
community, scientists
community, scientists and
and engineers
engineers in in particular,
particular, have
have aa very
very important
important role
role
to playas
to play as the
the legislation
legislation is
is written.
written. Industry
Industry must
must enter
enter into
into dialogue
dialogue with
with
local governments
local govemments to to ensure
ensure that
that the
the necessary
necessary local
local environmental
environmental protec- protec­
tion occurs
tion occurs while
while simultaneously
simultaneously enabling
enabling thethe local
local industry
industry to to remain
remain glob-
glob­
ally competitive.
ally competitive. Scientists
Scientists and
and engineers
engineers within
within both
both industry
industry and and govern-
govem­
ment must
ment must help
help evaluate
evaluate available
available technology
technology in in terms
terms ofof its
its economic
economic viability
and must
and must strive
strive toto develop
develop improved
improved technologies.
technologies. The The six-point
six­point environ-
environ­
mental policy announced
mental announced in in 1989
1989 by by the
the Mining
Mining Association
Association of of Canada
Canada [10][ I O)
is aa significant
is significant step
step toward
toward this
this kind
kind ofof cooperative
cooperative activity,
activity, but
but as
as Brehaut
Brehaut
[[ II
11 ]] points
points out,
out, it
it is
is only
only an
an initial
initial step
step towards
towards establishing
establishing policies,
policies, codes
codes
of conduct
of conduct andand management
management systems
systems thatthat alter
alter operating
operating practices
practices andand create
create
aa corporate
corporate culture
culture toto deal
deal effectively
effectively withwith complex
complex environmental
environmental issues.
issues.

TECHNOLOGY
TECHNOLOGY

Acidic mine drainage

Acidic mine drainage (AA1D)
(AAID)

The subject
The subject of
of AMD
AMD isis often
often viewed
viewed as
as aa mining
mining subject
subject instead
instead of
of aa con-
con­
ventional hydrometallurgical
ventional hydrometallurgical subject.
subject. This
This is
is unfortunate
unfortunate because
because ofof the
the hy-
hy­
fundamental knowledge
drometallurgist's fundamental knowledge of of aqueous
aqueous solution
solution chemistry,
which is
which is an
an important
important component
component in in predictive
predictive modelling
modelling ofof soluble
soluble species
species
in reactive
in reactive tailings and
and in
in developing
developing economical
economical treatment
treatment strategies.
strategies. In-
In­
 6
6 B.R.CONARD

deed, individuals from many disciplines including hydrometallurgy will be

required within a team framework to sol ve this kind of problem.
solve
Canada produces in excess of 500 million tons of mine and mill wastes per
year. The vast proportion of this material contains sulfide minerals, such as
pyrrhotite, pyrite and chalcopyrite, which can, under appropriate conditions,
react with oxygen and water to produce sulfuric acid and dissolved species.
Both chemical and biological oxidation mechanisms exist, but under optimal
conditions of pH and temperature, the bacteria-assisted reaction rates are
several orders of magnitude greater than the chemical rates [[12].
12]. There are
both direct and indirect oxidative mechanisms involving bacteria. In the case
of direct involvement of bacteria, the oxidation of either or both sulfur and
( 11) can result in bacterial metabolism [13].
Fe (II) [ 13].
The direct oxidation of chalcopyrite, for example, occurs according to:
2CuFeS2 +8.502
2CuFeS2 +8.502 +2H+ -+2Fe3++2Cu2++4S0/-+H
-.2Fe3+ +2Cu2+ +4SO/-+H22O 0
At pH �
~ 2.5, the hydrolysis of FeHreleases
Fe 3+ releases acid:
2Fe3+ +6H22O=2Fe(OH)J(s)
0=2Fe(OHh(s) + 6H+
and the reaction continues provided oxygen is available. Jarosite compounds,
MeFe3(SO4)i(OH)6, where Me is K+, Na+ or H33O+,
MeFe3(S04h(OH)6, 0+, will precipitate at even
lower pH values and generate acid.
In the indirect mechanism, a sulfide mineral is oxidized by FeH
Fe3+ without
02:
O 2:

FeS2 + 2Fe3+ -+2So+

FeS2 -.2Sº+ 3Fe2+
The FeH
Fe3+ is replenished by means ofbacterial
of bacterial activity which in vol ves 0
involves O22::
2Fe2+ +2H+ + 1/20
l/2O22-.2Fe3+
-+2Fe3+ + H22O
0
and sulfur is also converted to acid by bacterial activity:
Sº+ H2O+
so+ H 20+ 3/20 2-+S04422-+2H+
3/2O2-+SO - +2H+
For the indirect mechanism the bacteria need not be attached to the mineral
surface and, while the rate ofthis
of this process is less than the direct bacterial rate,
significant oxidation has been observed in controlled laboratory experiments
[[ 14]. It is probable that both mechanisms are present in an actual tailings. If lf
the generated acid and leached heavy metals are allowed to exit the tailings
area without control, the contaminated water could eventually contaminate
surface and underground water, with deleterious effects on plants, wildlife
and fish.
In Ontario there are about 100 abandoned tailings si tes and 20 are known
sites
to have an AMO AMD problem. Similarly, in Quebec there are 21 out of 107 sites
that are reported to have a problem [15].[ 15]. Active mining sites and sorne
some aban-
doned sites have treatment facilities to neutralize the acid and precipitate the
THE ROLE OF HYDROMETALLURGY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 7

heavy metals, but long-term treatment (likely needed for hundreds of years)
is neither economical nor effective. Obviously, other means for permanent
stabilization of oftailings
tailings and waste rock are required. The problem is not going
to be solved cheaply. For example, at atan
an average $$125,000/ha
125,OOO/ha for stabilizing
existing and future tailings at non-ferrous non-ferrous mining sites si tes in Canada
Cana da overo ver the
next 20 years, the cost is estimated at $3 billion [15]. [ 15].
Sorne programs are under way. After a 2 yr study of
Some ofthethe problem the Reac-
tive Acid Tailings Stabilization (RATS) project reported recommendations
in 1988 and these are being implemented by ajoint industry-provincial-fed-
eral government organization in Canada called Mine Environment Neutral
(MENO). The categories being examined over
Drainage (MEND). overaa 5 yr, $12.5 million
program, are: (a) prediction, i.e. developing an understanding of hydrogeo-
chemistry of specific sites, si tes, understanding the mechanisms of acid generation,
and developing models to predict the rate of generation and product migra-
tion; (b) prevention and control, i.e. closure methods; (c) ( c) treatment, i.e.
methods for permanent cost-effective treatment and stabilization of product
sludges and their disposal; (d) ( d) monitoring; (e) technology transfer; transfer; and (f) ( f)
international liaison. There is an Acid Mine Drainage Task Force looking
into the
into the same
same sortsort ofof program
program specific
specific to
to British
British Columbia
Columbia sites. si tes.
An example of the progress being made in predictive techniques is the Re-
active Acid Tailings Assessment Program (RATAP), which was developed
by Senes
by Senes Consultants
Consultants and and Beak
Beak Consultants
Consultants under under the
the auspices
auspices of of CANMET
CANMET
in 1986
in 1986 for
for uranium
uranium tailings and and inin 1988
1988 for for base
base metal
metal tailings
tailings [16].
[ 16]. This
This
model divides
model divides the the tailings
tailings mass
mass into:
into: the
the saturated
saturated region
region belowbelow the the water
water
table where
table where very little little oxidation
oxidation occurs;occurs; the
the capillary
capillary riserise intermediate
intermediate layer
just above the
just above the water
water table;
table; andand thethe unsaturated
unsaturated zone, zone, which
which consists
consists of of pore
pore
spaces that
spaces that are
are partially filled
filled with
with water.
water. Most
Most of ofthe oxidation of
the oxidation ofthe sulfide
the sulfide
mineral occurs
mineral occurs in in the
the unsaturated
unsaturated zone zone andand at at the
the top
top of of the
the capillary
capillary riserise
zone. In
zone. In order
order to to obtain
obtain quantitative
quantitative predictions,
predictions, the the model
model further
further divides
divides
the tailings into
the into three-dimensional
three-dimensional volumes volumes and and then
then computes
computes the the mass
mass flow
flow
of reagents
of reagents andand products
products between
between the the volumes
volumes based based onon fundamental
fundamental reactionreaction
kinetics, hydrogeologic characterization
kinetics, characterization and and other
other empirical
empirical measurements.
measurements.
Required fundamental
Required fundamental parameters
parameters includeinclude the the specific
specific sulfide
sulfide mineral
mineral oxi-oxi-
dation kinetics
dation kinetics as as aa function
function of of temperature,
temperature, oxygen oxygen concentration,
concentration, bacterialbacterial
activity, sulfide
activity, sulfide content,
content, pH, pH, CO CO2 concentration
concentration and and moisture
moisture level.level. The
The oxy-
gen flux
gen flux through porous
porous tailings
tailings structure
structure is is needed,
needed, as as isis the
the transport
transport of of pore
pore
water containing acid
water acid and
and soluble
soluble species
species outout ofofthe tailings mass.
the tailings mass. TheThe power
power
of this
of this and
and similar
similar models
models arises
arises outout of
of its
its ability
ability toto predict
predict what
what is is being
measured in
measured in the
the field
field and
and to to investigate
investigate alternative
alternative closure
closure options
options on on long-
term acid
term acid generation [ 17]. 17].
Final close-out
Final close-out strategies
strategies usually
usually involve
in vol ve some
sorne sort
sort of of cover
cover overover the
the tail-
tail-
ings to
ings to prevent
prevent oxygen penetration.
penetration. This This can
can range
range from
from complete
complete flooding or or
marshland construction
marshland construction (where (where practical)
practica}) to to sealers
sealers involving
involving clays,clays, gravel,
wood chips
wood chips oror synthetic
synthetic membranes.
membranes. It is is clear
clear from
from extensive
extensive studies
studies on on Waite
Waite
 8 B.R.CONARD

Amulet, which was closed in 1962, that revegetation alone is generally not an
effective method for AMO AMD prevention [18]. [ 18]. Since sub-aqueous conditions
appear to be the superior technique for controlling acid generation, many
mines will develop their tailings impoundment strategies to include either
disposal into an existing suitable body of water or will construct the disposal
area so that it can be flooded upon abandonment.
While development of effective close-out strategies present one kind of
problem, treatment of existing acid-generating tailings presents other prob-
lems. The most widely used conventional approach is to neutralize the tail-
ings using lime or limestone orto or to neutralize the drainage in a separate facility.
Sorne success has been reported using bactericides to prevent acid generation
Some
[[ 19], but even more promise is shown by using biological components in
wetlands to treat the drainage. For example, initial results on engineering a
cattail development for a decant pond are showing promise [[20]. 20]. Besides
acid control, such measures may be able to utilize adsorption and bioaccu-
mulation of metals by bacteria to reduce metal ion concentrations. Also of
interest is the possibility of using sulfate-reducing bacteria to generate H22SS
and thus precipitate metals during acid consumption, but more information
is required regarding H2S generation rate, sensitivity to temperature, water
quality and nutrients [21]. [ 21 ] . This will be further discussed in the section on
Metals Removal below.
As a final comment on acid mine drainage, it is significant to note the ben-
eficial environmental impact of in-si tu leaching, which results in a minimal
in-situ
surface disturbance and obviates disposal of waste rock and tailings. Not all
ores are conducive to in-situ mining techniques, which generally involve in-
jecting a leach solution by means of boreholes into the ore zone. By moving
through fissures and cracks the lixiviant encounters the minerals of interest,
dissolves the metals and carries them to recovery wells, from which the preg-
nant solution is pumped to the surface for metal recovery and lixiviant regen-
eration. Primary questions as to the efficacy of the technique concern whether
the ore is sufficiently permeable and porous for ultimate contact to be ob-
tained between the leach solution and the valuable minerals. This also is im-
portant when considering transportation of the pregnant solution through the
ore or surrounding rock to recovery sites. In sorne some cases it is possible to frac-
ture the
ture ore in-situ
the ore in-situ using
using water
water pressure
pressure or
or by
by selectively
selectively placed
placed explosives
explosives
[22 ].
Already
Already used for uranium
used for uranium and and copper
copper ores,
ores, in-situ
in-situ leaching
leaching will
will continue
continue to
to
gain importance
gain importance for for recovering
recovering metals
metals from
from low-grade
low-grade deposits
deposits and
and for
for mini-
mini-
mizing environmental damage.
mizing environmental damage. Hydrometallurgical
Hydrometallurgical input input into
into this
this field
field is
is
necessary for
necessary for lixiviant
lixiviant selection,
selection, modelling
modelling extractions,
extractions, metal
metal recovery
recovery /im-
/im-
purity disposal options,
purity disposal options, and
and overall
overall economic
economic evaluation.
evaluation.
THE ROLE
THE ROLE OF
OF HYDROMETALLURGY
HYDROMETALLURGY IN
IN ACHIEVING
ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT 99

Metals removal/rom
Aletals waste streams
removalfrom waste streams

Not only
Not only is is heavy
heavy metal metal removal
removal necessary
necessary beforebefore discharging
discharging waste waste water
water
to the
to the natural
natural environment,
environment, but but recovery
recovery of of non-renewable
non-renewable mineral mineral resources
resources
represents aa significant
represents significant economiceconomic benefit
benefit in in many
many cases.
cases. Conventional
Conventional metal metal
removal from
removal from wastewaste waters
waters is is carried
carried out
out by by aa variety
variety of oftechniques including
techniques including
precipitation, coagulation,
precipitation, coagulation, flocculation,
flocculation, chemical
chemical reduction,
reduction, membrane
membrane sep- sep-
arations (e.g.
arations ( e.g. ultrafiltration,
ultrafiltration, reverse reverse osmosis,
osmosis, electrodialysis),
electrodialysis), activatedactivated car- car-
bon adsorption,
bon adsorption, electrolytic
electrolytic recovery
recovery (e.g.( e.g. high
high surface
surface area area electrodes
electrodes to to en-
en-
hance cathodic
hance cathodic mass mass transfer),
transfer), thermal
thermal recovery,
recovery, ion ion exchange
exchange and and solvent
solvent
extraction. There
extraction. There are are excellent
excellent reviews
reviews available
available describing
describing these these technolo-
technolo-
gies and
gies and the
the benefits
benefits and and disadvantages
disadvantages associated
associated with with eacheach oneone [23].
[ 23]. Gen-
Gen-
erally the most effective process is very site-specific
erally the most effective process is very site-specific and is dependent on final and is dependent on final
specifications for
specifications for the
the waste
waste water
water as as well
well as as initial
initial waste
waste solution
solution composition
composition
and flowrate.
and flowrate. ThereThere is is also
also considerable
considerable variation
variation in in capital
capital costs.
costs.
Many of
Many of the
the conventional
conventional methods, methods, such such as as simple
simple neutralization
neutralization of of the
the
waste stream
waste stream with with limelime or or caustic,
caustic, followed
followed by by solid-liquid
solid-liquid separation,
separation, results
results
in aa slimy
in slimy andand difficult
difficult to to handle
handle solid
solid waste,
waste, which
which has has its
its own
own setset of
of regula-
regula-
tions for
tions for disposal.
disposal. In In many
many parts
parts ofof North
North America
America and and Europe
Europe the the disposal
disposal
of metal-containing
of metal-containing solid solid wastes,
wastes, which
which are are classified
classified as as hazardous
hazardous wastes,wastes,
must be
must be done
done by by licensed
licensed carriers
carriers to to specific
specific secure
secure land-fill
land-fill sites,
sites, andand the the
costs for this can be enormous. Consideration
costs for this can be enormous. Consideration can be given to precipitating can be given to precipitating
heavy metals
heavy metals into into stable
stable matrices
matrices such such as as ferrites
ferrites [24],
[24 ], butbut the
the application
application
may be
may be difficult
difficult for for aa broad
broad spectrum
spectrum of of metals
metals and and obtaining
obtaining the the desired
desired
classification of
classification ofthe resulting ferrites
the resulting ferrites asas non-hazardous
non-hazardous and and non-leachable
non-leachable may may
require considerable
require considerable time and cost. time and cost.
Altematives to
Alternatives to conventional
conventional methods methods are are being
being developed.
developed. A A fine
fine example
example
is reciprocating
is reciprocating flow flow ion ion exchange,
exchange, whichwhich has has been
been pioneered
pioneered by by Eco-Tec
Eco-Tec [25]. [25 ).
Their Recoflo®
Their Recoflo® ion ion exchange
exchange process
process employs
employs aa short short resin
resin bed
bed which
which is is only
only
somewhat larger
somewhat larger than than the the active
active region
region in in aa conventional
conventional IX IX column.
column. UnlikeUnlike
aa conventional
conventional tall tall column
column that that has,
has, at
at its
its mid-life,
mid-life, large
large proportions
proportions of of both
both
inactive exhausted
inactive exhausted resin resin andand inactive
inactive unloaded
unloaded resin, resin, thethe Recoflo
Recoflo unitsunits utilize
utilize
only the
only the active
active regionregion of of the
the resin.
resin. This
This results
results in in only
only partial
partial loading
loading and and
much more
much more rapidrapid load/elution
load/elution cycling.cycling. Other
Other important
important aspects aspects of of the
the tech-
tech-
nology are
nology are the
the fine
fine resin
resin size
size used,
used, the
the improved
improved kineticskinetics achieved
achieved with with thethe
most active
most active surface
surface sites sites being
being utilized,
utilized, andand counter-current
counter-current regeneration.
regeneration.
Application of
Application of thethe Eco-Tec
Eco-Tec technology
technology is is widespread.
widespread. For For example,
example, acidic acidic
waste streams
waste streams can can be be treated
treated to to separate
separate strong
strong acids
acids fromfrom metallic
metallic salts.
salts. Sul-
Sul-
furic acid,
furic acid, hydrochloric
hydrochloric acid, acid, nitric
nitric acid,
acid, chromic
chromic acid acid andand phosphoric
phosphoric acid acid
recovery are
recovery are allali commercial
commercial operations.
operations. Generally,
Generally, in in one
one pass,
pass, about
about 60% 60% of of
the metal
the metal can can be be separated
separated from from thethe acid
acid withwith acid
acid recovery
recovery of of about
about 90%.90%.
The electroplating
The electroplating industry industry is is also
also employing
employing the the technology
technology to to recover
recover chro-chro-
 10 B.R.CONARD

mium [26] [ 26] (as

( as chromic acid), nickel ((as as sulfate) and copper values (by
electrowinning)..
electrowinning)
An example of a promising emerging technology for wastewater treatment
is bio-accumulation. This subject is extremely broad and complex because of
the varieties of biomass that are active for metal removal and the range of
chemical and physical phenomena such as volatilization, extracellular precip-
itation, complexing and intracellular accumulation that appear to be in-
volved. The intracellular activity requires living organisms and, while known
to occur rapidly and to a relatively large extent, the microbes involved are
often unhappy with wide variations in wastewater compositions, pH or tem-
perature, and consequently their application will be limited. A much more
attractive and apparently more effective use ofbiomass of biomass is to use the extracel-
lular adsorption properties of dead organisms [27] [ 2 7] which can function under
more extreme conditions. Requirements for biomass are good mechanical in-
tegrity, high particle porosity or surface area, hydrophilicity, low interference
from other species, ease of handling and regenerability [[28]. 28].
Brierley et al. [29] have developed a process, AMT-BIOCLAIM™,
AMT-BIOCLAIM™, for fix-
ing biomass into fine granules having a high surface area. Various types of
dead organisms have been studied and accumulation capacities for metals
sil ver, cadmium, copper, lead and zinc are quite variable. Treatment
such as silver,
systems include fixed bed and fluid bed types. In the latter type the granules
loaded to a greater extent with metal become heavier, resulting in bed strati-
fication, which can be used to advantage to remove the most loaded portion
periodically for metal stripping and biomass regeneration. Conventional
means of solid-liquid separation, as well as magnetic separation in sorne some cases,
can be used to separate the biomass from the clean water.
Another important development is being carried out by the U.S. Bureau of
Mines using sphagnum peat moss, algae, yeast and bacteria blended into a
polysulfone-dimethylformamide solution, which is then injected into water
resulting in the formation of biomass within a microporous bead [[30]. 30]. These
beads, referred to as BIO-FIX (biomass-foam immobilized extractant), have
excellent handling characteristics and can be used in fixed bed or fluidized
bed columns as well as in stirred tanks. Elution of the accumulated metals is
carried out using dilute mineral acids and the beads retumed returned for subsequent
loading cycles.
Yet another example of effective use of biomass is the development of a
process
process by by Marchant
Marchant et et al. [ 31 ] to
al. [31] to remove
remove metals
metals andand acid
acid simultaneously
simultaneously
from acid
from acid mine drainage and
mine drainage and other
other waste
waste streams.
streams. The
The process
process consists
consists of
of an
an
anaerobic reactor
anaerobic reactor in
in which sulfate is
which sulfate is reduced
reduced toto HH2SS by
by sulfate-reducing
sulfate-reducing bac-
bac-
teria supplied
teria supplied with
with aa carbon source, such
carbon source, such as
as sugar
sugar or
or mixtures
mixtures of of CO
CO22 and
and CO.
CO.
Because of
Because of their
their limited solubility, heavy
limited solubility, heavy metal
metal sulfides
sulfides will
will be
be precipitated
precipitated
in this
in stage. Indeed,
this stage. Indeed, this
this kind
kind ofof metal
metal removal
removal can can be
be obtained
obtained in in ecologi-
ecologi-
cally engineered
cally engineered wetlands
wetlands adjacent
adjacent to to aa tailings
tailings area
area or
or can
can often
often be
be obtained
obtained
THE ROLE
THE ROLE OF
OF HYDROMETALWRGY
HYDROMETALLURGY IN
IN ACHIEVING
ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT 11

using existing sulfate-reducing bacteria indigenous to the area. Following the

anaerobic stage and metal precipitation the excess H H2SS is stripped from solu-
tion using a carrier recycling gas and the resulting H2S can be oxidized to
elemental sulfur using photosynthesis or by Fe(III) with regeneration of ofthe
the
ferric iron microbiologically. The solution exiting from the anaerobic stage is
then treated in an aerobic stage to oxidize organic material to carbonate for
pH control.
There is an enormous amount of work to be done in order to optimize
bioaccumulation systems and it will require significant cross-disciplinary co-
operation by biologists, biochemists, hydrometallurgists, mineral processors,
ecologists, metallurgical engineers, etc. Intensive work will continue to iden-
tify suitable biomass (both alive and dead) for specific metal binding, to de-
termine the optimum conditions for activity and adaptability to changing
conditions, to alter the microbe to increase metal capacity and to put non-
living biomass in an optimum morphology for utilization and improved ki-
netics. There is also the intriguing possibility of using genetic engineering to
construct "smart" proteins to bind a metal at one end and be hydrophobic for
[ 32,33]. In this context work must be carried out
flotation at the other end [32,33].
to study the fundamentals of froth flotation of metal-sorbed micro-organisms
[ 34].
as a means of metal recovery [34].

Arsenic management
Arsenic management

While low levels of arsenic can be tolerated by most living systems, there is
ample evidence that moderate to high fluctuations of arsenic are deleterious
to living systems. Since many arsenic compounds are well known poisons and
insecticides, adverse public perception toward it has caused an aggressive
mg/1 in drinking water and 0.5
Canadian regulatory policy that permits 0.05 mg/l
mg/1 in process effiuent streams. Arsenic discarded after a milling process is
mg/l
usually not a problem because it is either already stabilized in its original
mineral form or, if somewhat soluble, does become stabilized by precipita-
dueto
tion due to oxidative conditions in combination with other species present in
the water. The arsenic that presents a problem for the hydrometallurgist is the
POrtion that enters the extraction process with the metal of interest and is
portion
subsequently concentrated into a low-value solution or residue that must ul-
Subsequently
timately find suitable disposal.
In processing refractory gold ores that contain gold within a pyrite-
arsenopyrite matrix, the conventional practice has been to volatilize the ar-
senic during sulfide ore roasting and then to cool the gas and collect an im-
As22O
pure AS 0 3,
3, which is sold for a number of industrial uses, chief among them
being wood preservative chemicals. There is an excess production of AS As22O
0 3,
3,
and so processes are needed to either convert AS As2O
2 0 3 to a stable discardable
material or to produce such a material directly in the gold recovery process.
 12 B.R.CONARD

Pressure oxidation,
Pressure oxidation, bacteria}
bacterial oxidation,
oxidation, and and nitric
nitric acid
acid oxidation
oxidation have
have ali
all
emerged as potential options for processing refractory gold ores and they will
continue to be engineered and proven over the next decade with continued
emphasis on arsenic stability upan upon disposal.
An example of ofpressure
pressure leaching is the conversion of Placer Dome's Camp­ Camp-
bell mili
mill in Red Lake, Ontario [35]. [ 35]. The present roasting plant emits about
S02 into the air and aqueous effluent from tailings impoundment
18 t/ d of S02
ranges between 0.8 and 1.2 mg As/1, As/I, slightly above the desired 0.5 mg/1. Pres­ Pres-
sure oxidation of the flotation concentra
concentrate te will eliminate S0 S022 emissions and
will fix the bulk of the arsenic in the form of a "basic ferric arsenate" precip­ precip-
ita te. The gold-containing
itate. gold­containing concentrate is reground to 95% passing 325 mesh
and pretreated with sulfuric acid. It It is then autoclaved with oxygen for 120
min at 190 °º C (about
( about 2.1 MPa). Gold recovery from the oxidized pulp is
carried out by conventional cyanidation. Effluent from autoclaving joins the
barren solution from gold recovery and is neutralized with lime to precipitate
the ferric arsenate together with the heavy metals, which, together with the
tailings, are impounded in a separate tailings area. Cyanide management for
many years was carried out using natural degradation, but Inco's S0 2/air pro­
S02/air pro-
( see Cyanide destruction section) will be installed by the end of 1992.
cess (see
As with many environmental projects, this conversion will improve overall
process economics by recovering additional gold at over $156 per tonne while
requiring an additional operating cost of $86 per tonne of concentra concentrate te [[36].
36].
The American Barrick Goldstrike autoclave plant was commissioned in
1990 and key features of design were given by Thomas et al. [[37]. 37]. This vessel
is 4.12 m in diameter by 18.5 m tangent to tangent, and has five compart­ compart-
ments with fiberglass-acid
fiberglass­acid brick lining [38]. [ 38]. The reaction is conducted at
225ºC under 345 kPa of oxygen pressure. In 75 min, 95% oxidation of sul­
225°C sul-
fides is obtained. Throughput of 1820 t/ d is realized and the plant is being
expanded to process 5500 t/d tid by adding two more autoclaves. In the final
phase of the project three more autoclaves will be installed to bring the total
capacity for sulfide ore treatment to 11,600 t/d. tid.
Bacteria}
Bacterial oxidation using Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, which metabolize by
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans,
oxidizing sulfides and Fe2+ in acidic environments at up to 40ºC, 40°C, or Sulfo­
Su/fo-
lobus acidocaldamicus,
lobus acidocaldamicus, which have optimum activity at ~70ºC, _70°C, have been
tested
tested forfor refractory
refractory gold
gold ores
ores pretreatment
pretreatment prior prior toto conventional
conventional cyanidation
cyanidation
[ 39]. During bacteria}
[39]. bacterial action on arsenopyrite, the arsenic is con verted into
converted
both arsenious and arsenic acids. A continuous industrial process would likely
have arsenic
have arsenic fully
fully converted
con verted [40].
[ 40]. This
This is is critica}
critical inin forming
forming aa sufficiently
sufficiently
stable "basic
stable "basic ferric
ferric arsenate"
arsenate" using
using thethe excess
excess Fe33++ available
available (see
(see discussion
discussion
below
below on on ferric
ferric arsenate
arsenate stability).
stability). Formation
Formation of of the
the ferric
ferric arsenate
arsenate isis done
done
after gold
after gold extraction,
extraction, using
using cyanide
cyanide in in aa manner
manner similar
similar to
to the
the pressure
pressure oxi­
oxi-
dation cases.
dation cases.
A
A nitric acid oxidation
nitric acid oxidation process, !'1e Redox
process, !lte Redox Process
Process (previously
(previously called
called the
the
Arseno
Arseno Process)
Process) has
has also
also been
been developed
developed [41 [ 41 ]] and
and piloted
piloted [[42].
42]. This
This process
process
THE ROLE OF HYDROMETALLURGY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 13

uses the powerful oxidant HN0 HNO33 at elevated temperatures (> ( > 185 0º C) to
achieve a number of important results. First, the reaction kinetics are much
improved relative to those obtained below the normal boiling point; second,
the formation of undesirable elemental sulfur is virtually eliminated by high- high­
temperature conditions; and third, the resulting ferric arsenate compounds
formed at high acid are very stable.
A potential advantage of ofthis
this process is that retention times are short enough
to use a pipe reactor with possible capital and maintenance savings relative
to conventionally agitated autoclaves. Much engineering work, however, is
required to ensure that slurry velocities are sufficiently high in order to pre- pre­
vent scale formation by the precipitating compounds, and to ensure that ar- ar­
senic precipitation is complete at high temperature by removing free acid and
SO/­ by injection of a limestone slurry at the appropriate point in the pipe
SOi-
reactor.
non­ferrous extractive metallurgical industries, such as copper and
Other non-ferrous
nickel production, also have significant arsenic disposal problems, but these
are usually encountered during metal refining steps and therefore usually in- in­
volve much more concentrated impurities. As work-room work­room environmental
concerns require more and more positive containment of arsenic, new pro- pro­
cesses have been developed for removing arsenic from copper electrolytes used
in electrorefining. For example, Hoboken employs undiluted tributyl phos- phos­
phate (TBP) as a selective solvent extractant for arsenic from a high acid
bleed stream. The co-extracted
co­extracted acid is scrubbed from the solvent using water
and the arsenic is stripped and precipitated as either calcium or ferric ferric arse-
arse­
nate for disposal. Mount Isa Mines [43] [ 43] also employs TBP, but at 50% 50% dilu-
dilu­
tion, to extract arsenic from a bleed stream containing 30 gil g/1 Cu and 15-1815­18
g/1 As. Following arsenic stripping using (NH4hS04,
gil (NH4)iSO4, the strip solution is
mixed with
mixed with copper
copper sulfate
sulfate solution
solution and
and neutralized
neutralized with
with NH3
NH3 to to precipitate
copper arsenate. The advantage of ofthis
this latter.pprocess
rocess is that the arsenic can be
sold to the wood preservation industry.
arsenic­containing product can be made, one
In cases where no marketable arsenic-containing
is left to fix the arsenic into a form that is stable in the pH range 4-7 4­ 7 for
relatively long periods of time. There has been some sorne controversy over whether
metal arsenates or related compounds are acceptable compounds for environ- environ­
mental arsenic fixation from industrial processes. It is clear from the work of
Nishimura et al. [44]
[ 44] that some
sorne arsenates previously considered stable, such
as calcium arsenate, show increasing As solubility in the presence of CO22 due
to the formation of CaC0CaCO33 and the release of soluble arsenic. Concern was
expressed by Robins [45] [ 45) that available thermodynamic data for amorphous
ferric arsenate indicated that it would decompose above pH 2.2 to form goe- goe­
thite and release arsenic. Subsequent studies have shown this not to be the
ferric arsenate.
case for crystalline ferric
The generally accepted current understanding supported by work by Krause
 14 B.R.CONARD

[ 46], Papassiopi et al. [47]

and Ettel [46], [ 4 7] and Harris and Monette [[48] 48] is that
precipitation of a "basic ferric arsenate" with Fe/ As> 33 is highly stable over
Fe/As>
the pH range 2-6 (i.e., As-e
As< 11 mg/l). This stability can be extended to a higher
pH range by increasing the Fe/ As ratio. Also, small amounts of co-precipi-
Fe/As
tated metals (e.g.,
( e.g., Cd, Zn, Cu), which are likely to be found in industrial
treatment streams, increase the stability of the "basic ferric arsenate". Ele-
vated temperatures have also been found to increase the ferric arsenate sta-
bility probably due to increasing crystallinity. Crystalline natural and syn-
thetic scorodite, FeAsO
FeAs04 •• 2H22O,
0, also exhibit very low arsenic solubilities [[49].
49].
Industrial operations, such as lnco's
Inco's copper leach-electrowin plant [[50], 50], have
been very successful for many years in disposing of a "basic ferric arsenate"
(Fe/As>6) into their tailings area with negligible effects on arsenic in tail-
ings water. Long-term laboratory testing of other hydrometallurgical
hydro metallurgical ferric
arsenate residues from plant and pilot plant operation have shown extremely
[ 47]. Therefore, there appears to be little doubt that
low arsenic solubilities [47].
fixing arsenic as "basic ferric arsenates" is a sound environmental disposal
method, but it is also clear that process control, to ensure Fe(III) and As(V)
are present and in the proper ratio, is critica!
critical for safe disposal.
Undoubtedly the search for other highly stable compounds for fixing ar-
senic will continue-Pbs
continue-Pb5(AsO (As04hCI
hCl [51] being one example. However, the
immediate effort must be focussed on establishing methods for correlating
compound structure with solubility so that relatively fast predictions about
an industrial operation can bemade
be'made without lengthy solubility testing. Such
work sponsored by a consortia of companies is being carried out by Ugarte
and Monhemius [52] [ 52] through the Mineral Research Industrial Organization
and is reported elsewhere in this Symposium.

Reduction ofgaseous pollutants and energy conservation

Energy costs are increasing and will likely continue to do so in the foresee-
able future. Processes with a high component energy cost must seek process
improvements or change to a new process to reduce operating costs. Processes
that require fossil fuels or hydrocarbons for energy supply will not only be
consuming these non-renewable resources, but will also be contributing sig-
nificant quantities of gases such as CO2• 2, The rate of industrial activity releas-
ing CO22 into the atmosphere, together with the decreased capacity of the planet
to self-regulate CO2,
2, appears to be causing a significant rate of increase in the
atmosphere of infrared-absorbing CO2, 2, the consequence of which could be a
gradual warming of ofthe
the planet dueto
due to the "greenhouse effect".
To make matters worse, processing sulfide ores by traditional pyrometal-
lurgical roasting techniques and using high-sulfur coal as an energy source
results in large quantities of S02
SO2 being produced. Fixing the SO S022 from these
traditional expensive processes is often not practical,
practical. Following atmospheric
THE ROLE OF HYDROMETALLURGY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IS

oxidation, the resulting sulfuricsulfurie acid can be a significant component of acid

whieh can result in long-term ecological damage when soil basicity is not
rain, which
present.
Processes are needed that will operate with redueed reduced energy requirements,
will yield high recovery of valuable metals, and will contain the sulfur. Hydro-
metallurgical proeesses
processes have found some sorne success in achieving these objectives. objeetives.
A prime example of hydrometallurgieal
hydrometallurgical inventiveness in this area is the
proeessing eoneentrates. Conventional proeessing
processing of zinc concentrates. processing of zinc sulfide con-
centrates involves roasting, leaching leaehing and electrowinning.
eleetrowinning. The roasting opera-
SO2, necessitating its fixation usually as sulfuric acid. Through the
tion forms S02,
pioneering efforts
efforts of Sherritt-Gordon, a pressure leach leaeh autoclave process was
developed and is now in use at Cominco, Comineo, Kidd Creek and Ruhr Zink. In this
process the concentrate
coneentrate is reaeted
reacted with sulfuric
sulfurie acid in reeycled
recycled spent electro-
150ºC under 700 kPa oxygen pressure for
lyte at 150°C far typically 11 h. Dissolved fer-
ríe iron increases
ric inereases the rate of oxygen transf transferer and elemental sulfur is produeed produced
together with dissolved zinc:
ZnS+2Fe3+-+Zn
ZnS+2Fe3+ -+Zn22++2Fe2+
++2Fe2+ +SO +Sº
2Fe22++ +
+ 2H+
2H+ + + 1/20
1 /2022-+2Fe3++ + + H2
H2
Iron rejection
Iron rejection strategy
strategy depends
depends on on the local situation.
the local situation. For example, Cominco
For example, Comineo
precipitates
precipitates ironiron as as jarosite inin the
the autoclave.
autoclave. After separating the
After separating elemental
the elemental
sulfur, the jarosite then goes to the conventional acid leach leaeh and ultimately is
sent on
sent on to
to the
the lead
lead smelter
smelter where
where ironiron is
is rejected
rejected to to the slag [53].
the slag [ 53]. In
In the
the Ruhr
Ruhr
Zink case,
Zink case, prevention of of jarosite precipitation
precipitation is is achieved
aehieved by operating under
by operating under
high acid
high aeid concentration
coneentration and and byby treating
treating the leaeh solution
the leach solution forfar preeipitation
precipitation of of
hematite, which
hematite, whieh can can be sold, thereby
be sold, avoidingjarosite
thereby avoiding disposal problems
jarosite disposal [ 54].
problems [54].
As sulfuric
As sulfurie acid
acid produetion
production from from S02 SO2 becomes
becomes less less desirable,
desirable, the the pressure
pressure
leaching of
leaching of zinc
zinc concentrates
concentrates offers
offers anan attractive
attraetive hydrometallurgieal
hydrometallurgical process process
ataa relatively low
at low cost
cost and
and with environmental advantages.
with environmental advantages.
Another successful
Another suecessful hydrometallurgical
hydro metallurgical treatment
treatment of of aa sulfide
sulfide concentrate
concentra te is is
the pressure
the leaching of
pressure leaching of pyrrhotite
pyrrhotite to to recover
recover nickel,
nickel, asas is
is praetised
practised at at Na-
Na-
dezhdinsk in
dezhdinsk in the
the Soviet
Soviet Union [ 55,56]. This
Union [55,56]. This hydrometallurgical
hydrometallurgical plant plant up-up-
grades aa 2.2-2.5%
grades 2.2-2.5% Ni Ni pyrrhotite flotation concentrate
pyrrhotite flotation coneentrate to to aa 10%
10% Ni sulfide
Ni sulfide
eoncentrate suitable
concentrate suitable as as smelter
smelter feed.
feed. TheThe operation
operation consists
consists of of leaching
leaehing in in
horizontal four-compartment autoclaves
horizontal autoclaves at at 120-130°C
120-130ºC using about 0.9
using about 0.9 MPa
MPa
oxygen pressure.
oxygen Precipitation of
pressure. Precipitation of the solubilized Ni,
the solubilized Cu, and
Ni, Cu, and Co Co is
is then car-
then car-
ried out
ried out by adding
adding aa metallized
metallized ironiron produet
product and and using
using the elemental sulfur
the elemental sulfur
formed during the
formed the oxidizing
oxidizing leach:
leaeh:
Me2+ +
Me2+ + Fe+S-+MeS+
Fe+S-+MeS+ Fe2+ Fe2+
The valuable
The valuable sulfide
sulfide plus elemental
elemental sulfur
sulfur is
is then separated from
then separated from the oxidized
the oxidized
pulp
pulp by flotation and
by flotation and tailings
tailings containing
containing about
about 0.4%
0.4% Ni are discarded.
Ni are discarded. The
The
flotation concentrate
flotation coneentrate is is then autoclaved at
then autoclaved at pH 9-10 and
pH 9-10 and 115-130°C
115-130ºC with
with Na
Na2S2S
addition to
addition to disintegrate the sulfur-sulfide aggregates
the sulfur-sulfide aggregates and,
and, after
after cooling, the
the
elemental sulfur
elemental sulfur is
is floated
floated away
away from
from the
the upgraded sulfides. The
upgraded sulfides. The total
total Ni and
Ni and
 16 B.R.CONARD

Cu recoveries are 90% and 80%, respectively. After a second autoclaving dis­ dis-
integration of the elemental sulfur, a 99.7% Sº
ofthe So is
is produced.
A third example of new sulfide concentra concentrate te processing is the ferric chloride
leach process. Developed on a laboratory scale by CANMET, the process op­ op-
low-grade bulk concentrates containing zinc, lead, copper
erates on complex, low­grade
sil ver [57].
and silver [ 57]. The two­stage
two-stage leach extracts zinc, lead, copper and sil ver
silver
while oxidizing sulfur to the elemental form, which reports in the leach resi­ resi-
due. Lead in the leach liquor is removed by crystallization and the resulting
lead chloride is processed to high­purity
high-purity lead by fused salt electrolysis. The
sil ver in the leach liquor are cemented with iron. The zinc is selec­
copper and silver selec-
tively recovered by a solvent extraction circuit with zinc being recovered by
aqueous electrolysis using a chloride electrolyte.
Electrorefining and electrowinning processes will continue to receive atten­ atten-
tion for environmental reasons. Overall strategies for flowsheets to control
and eliminate impurities, such as arsenic, antimony and bismuth, into envi­ envi-
ronmentally acceptable marketable products or disposable residue will con­ con-
tinue. An example of progress is the Tamano refinery [[58], 58], which rejects Sb
and Bi using a chelating resin. Successful flowsheets for removing arsenic were
described in the last section. In both refining and winning of metals, the im­ im-
proved monitoring and control oflevelling agents is essential to reduce short­ short-
circuiting and thereby improve energy utilization, as well as to achieve a num­ num-
ber of other operational advantages [59]. [ 59].
Sulfuric acid leaching of lean leaIi" ores in dumps, vats, thick heaps or thin­layer
thin-layer
heaps will continue to gain in importance and electrowinning will increase its
already important role. Recent improvements in insoluble Pb­based Pb-based anodes
technology has evolved to produce anodes having a high uniformity of elec­ elec-
trochemical activity and good dimensional and chemical stability [[60]. 60]. En­En-
ergy savings by lowering oxygen overpotential has been achieved by using Ti
substrates coated with electrocatalytic materials such as RuO2 Ru02 and IrO Ir022 [[61
61 ]]..
Beer et al. [62][ 62] have combined the best aspects of Pb and precious metal
coatings in the Activated Lead Electrode. Asan As an alternative to using electro­
electro-
catalytic coatings, some sorne work has focussed on using anode reactions that have
lower reversible potentials than H22O 0 decomposition. The use of ferrous oxi­ oxi-
dation at the anode was found by Mishra and Cooper [[63] 63] to reduce cell
voltage by up to 11 V at normal current density and use of SO S022 sparging at the
cathode to
cathode to reduce
reduce thethe current
current inefficiency caused
caused by ferric
ferric reduction
reduction has
has been
been
considered [64].[ 64].
The tankroom
The environment is
tankroom environment is coming under
under increased
increased legislative
legislative scrutiny
scrutiny
for components
for components such such asas acid,
acid, nickel,
nickel, cobált
cobalt and
and arsenic.
arsenic. Control
Control ofof electro­
electro-
winning
winning mistmist has
has been
been reported using complete
reported using complete anode bags, hooded
anode bags, hooded cells,
cells, foam
foam
layers and
layers and inert
inert halls
balls that
that float
float on
on the
the electrolyte
electrolyte surface.
surface. Anode
Anode mist
mist coales­
coales-
cers have
cers also been
have also been tried,
tried, but generally lack
but generally lack mechanical
mechanical integrity
integrity during
during cath­
cath-
ode harvesting.
ode harvesting.
THE ROLE OF HYDROMETALLURGY IN ACHIEVJNG
ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 17

The increased use of chlorine leaching and electrowinning from chloride

solutions is motivated by: the ability of these flowsheets to convert the sulfide
component of the ore to elemental sulfur; the possibility of recycling the an- an­
odically evolved chlorine to leaching; the advantages of highly concentrated
solutions for impurity removal; the cell voltage decreases possible with more
highly conductive chloride electrolytes; and, in the case of copper, the reduc­ reduc-
( I) which involves
tion of Cu (I) in vol ves half the energy per unit weight of metal depos- depos­
relati ve to the conventional Cu (II)
ited relative ( 11) reduction in sulfate electrolytes. One
efforts to develop a copper chloride flowsheet was the
of the most successful efforts
( Copper Leach Electrolysis and Regeneration) process piloted at the
CLEAR (Copper
rate of 100 tf t/ d by Duval in the late 1970s [65]. [ 65]. Iron removal, together with
the necessary sulfate bleed, was accomplished by precipitation of potassium
Jarosíte
jarosite as well as hematite. Another example, the CUP CUPREX
REX process, piloted
by ICI, Tecnicas Reunidas and Nerco in 1986, uses a ferric chloride leach and
then solvent extraction for selective copper removal [66]. [ 66]. The CuClCuClr r
containing raffinate is then used to deposit Cu powder. The copper depleted
brine solution is used as anolyte, which is separated from the catholyte by a
Na+
Na+ permeable
permeable Nafion® membrane.
Nafion® membrane.
nickel­copper matte processing, Inco has operated since 1960
In the case of nickel-copper
direct electrolysis of matte [67], (67), during which elemental sulfur is formed as
a thick slime on the anode. Further processing of this high­sulfur high-sulfur slime for
precious
precious metals
metals recovery
recovery is is currently
currently carried
carried out
out by
by roasting­smelting,
roasting-smelting, but but
environmental restraints
environmental restraints onon S02
SO2 containment
containment are are making
making hydrometallurgical
hydrometallurgical
processing
processing of of the
the slimes
slimes an an attractive
attractive alternative.
alternative. Falconbridge
Falconbridge and and Societe
Société
Le Nickel operate different
Nickel operate different flowsheets
flowsheets to leach nickel
to leach nickel mattes.
mattes. InIn the case of
the case of
the Chlorine
the Chlorine Leach
Leach Process
Process [68]
[ 68] installed
installed by
by Falconbridge,
Falconbridge, benefits
benefits have in­
have in-
cluded: lower
cluded: lower operating
operating costs,
costs, improved
improved work­room environment, increased
work-room environment, increased
qualíty of
quality of metals,
metals, increased
increased production
production perper unit
unit volume
volume of of tank,
tank, reduced
reduced
emissions of
emissions of S02, and lower
SO2, and lower metal losses in
metal losses in effiuents.
effiuents.

Cvanide destruction
Cyanide destruction
Despite the
Despite the use of cyanide
use of cyanide asas aa lixiviant
lixiviant for
for solubilizing
solubilizing gold
gold and
and silver
sil ver the
the
World over,
World over, there
there have
have been
been very few human
very few deaths associated
human deaths associated with its com-
with its com­
mercial use.
mercial use. Nevertheless, cyanide has
Nevertheless, cyanide has had immense public
had immense public andand regulatory
scrutiny. This
scrutiny. This has
has resulted
resulted inin tight effiuent limits
tight effiuent limits in
in order
order to to protect
protect both
both
drinking water
drinking and aquatic
water and aquatic ecosystems.
ecosystems.
In most
In older flowsheets,
most older flowsheets, where
where the the metals
metals were
were recovered
recovered by cementation
by cementation
after tailings
after tailings removal,
removal, the
the majority
majority of ofthe cyanide solution
the cyanide solution could
could be
be recycled.
However, impurity
However, impurity bleeds from such
bleeds from such processes
processes were
were required and conse-
required and conse­
quently disposal
quently disposal ofof cyanide-laden
cyanide­laden barren solution was
barren solution was necessary.
necessary. InIn the
the past
this was
this was often
often done
done simply
simply by adding the
by adding the barren
barren bleed into the
bleed into im­
the tailings im-
poundment
poundment area, area, but this is
but this is becoming
becoming less less possible
possible with
with the
the present stan­
present stan-
 18 B.R.CONARD

dards. With the introduction of CIP /CIL technology for gold/silver ore pro­ pro-
cessing, cost advantages were realized by avoiding tailings/pregnant liquor
separation, but disadvantages associated with disposal of cyanide­laden
cyanide-laden slurry
were substituted. Overall cyanide management became important for com­ com-
plying with new environmental actions and cyanide destruction technologies
became essential for many operations.
By the mid­I
mid-1970s970s the practica}
practical options for reducing cyanide to low levels
in discharge barren or tailings slurry were natural degradation and alkaline
chlorination. In the case of natural degradation, cyanide is lost by HCN vol­ vol-
atilization combined with the dissociation of metallo­cyanide
metallo-cyanide complexes. The
latter is recognized as rate­controlling
rate-controlling with higher rates at higher tempera­ tempera-
tures and lower pH. Water­air
Water-air contact area, depth and clarity of the water,
and water turbulence are recognized as also being important. Models of the
natural degradation process have been constructed [[69] 69] which are in fairly
good agreement with selected existing sites. Natural degradation, however, is
less and less being allowed by regulatory authorities because of the risk of
cyanide leaking out of the containment area befo re being sufficiently degraded.
before
In recognition of the action of certain bacteria in destroying cyanide during
their metabolism, an action that likely contributes to natural degradation,
Homestake pioneered the destruction of cyanide and thiocyanates in biolog­ biolog-
[ 70]. The method, operating at Lead, South Dakota, produces
ical contactors [70].
an effiuent very low in cyanide, thiocyanate, base metals and ammonia and
is especially needed for the drinking water quality demanded at this particular
site, but high capital costs, combined with an inability to deal with wide vari­ vari-
ations in cyanide load and the need to maintain water temperatures above
lOºC, make this system difficult to implement on a wide basis.
lOoC,
By the late 1970s the best available and most widely used chemical treat­ treat-
ment for waste waters containing cyanide was alkaline chlorination. While
this technology successfully oxidized cyanide and thiocyanate to cyanate, and
eventually to carbon dioxide and ammonia, the control of the process for re­ re-
liable operation was difficult. Hazards associated with cyanogen chloride,
which formed and could be evolved from low­pH low-pH solutions, presented safety
problems. But the inability of the process to remove ferricyanide ions meant
that the process could not meet CNT CNT regulations without subsequent treat­ treat-
ment. Because of these deficiencies in existing cyanide destruction technolo­ technolo-
gies, the early 1980s saw significant activity in other hydrometallurgical
approaches.
approaches.
Inco developed
Inco developed the the copper­catalyzed SO2­air process
copper-catalyzed S02-air process [[71 It is
71 ]].. It is interesting
interesting
to
to note
note that
that Inco's
Inco's interest
interest in
in cyanide
cyanide mahagement
management arose
arose because
because aa cyanide­
cyanide-
based
based process for rejecting
process for rejecting pyrrhotite
pyrrhotite was
was developed
developed to to reduce
reduce SO S022 emissions
emissions
from nickel/copper
from nickel/copper concentrate
concentrate roasting
roasting and
and smelting
smelting operations.
operations. The The use
use of
of
SOi­air as
SOrair as aa strong
strong oxidizing
oxidizing system
system for
for nickel
nickel and
and iron
iron was
was well­known
well-known to to
Inco scientists;
Inco scientists; its
its ability
ability to
to oxidize
oxidize cyanide
cyanide atat pH
pH ofof about
about 99 was was realized
realized
THE ROLE OF HYDROMETALLURGY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVEWPMENT 19

only in the presence of a small amount of soluble copper. While its applica- applica­
tion in a minerals separation flowsheet was not carried out due dueto find­
to Inco's find-
ing a more suitable non­cyanide
non-cyanide method, the S02-air SO2­air technology was recog­
recog-
nized as having possible benefits to other cyanide-based
cyanide­based industries. Inco
decided to devote a significant research efforteffort to understanding the process
chemistry, to developping a reliable control strategy, and to designing simple
and inexpensive hardware to carry out the process. The successful commer- commer­
cial application of the process required assembling a small group of people
from varying disciplines such as analytical and experimental chemistry, en- en­
gineering and operations. Furthermore, part oflnco's program was an honest
exchange of information with government
govemment and regulatory personnel at both
Federal and provincial/state levels. After piloting the process at Campbell
Red Lake in 1980 [72] (72) and inviting prospective operators and government
govemment
personnel to view the facility, Inco licensed the first operation in 1984 in Brit­ Brit-
ish Columbia. Within 6 years the licenses list had grown to 32 in North Amer­ Amer-
ica. This growth attested to the efficiency and cost-effectiveness
cost­effectiveness of the process
on­going commissioning and trouble­shooting
as well as to the on-going trouble-shooting assistance given
by Inco. Operations currently involve
in vol ve detoxification of barren solution, old
ponds, heap leach rinse solutions, CIP JCIL /CIL slurries and metal finishing bleed
[ 73]. One of the main advantages of the S02-air
solutions [73]. SO2­air technology is its
opera te efficiently in slurries and its removal of soluble ferrocyanide
ability to operate
ferrocyanide precipitate.
as a stable and insoluble cupric ferrocyanide
Coincident with Inco's developments were those by Degussa using H22O 0 22
and by Witteck using ion exchange removal. Degussa made significant strides
in control strategies and equipment for the copper-catalyzed
copper­catalyzed H22O 0 22 oxidation
cyaníde [74].
of cyanide [ 74]. However, high reagent cost and inefficiency in slurry due dueto to
rapid H22O0 22 decomposition has limited the application of this process. In the
case of ion exchange technology, the emphasis was on cyanide recovery [75]. [ 7 5).
This was accomplished by using an anion exchange resin to load the com- com­
plexed cyanide while letting free cyanide report to the raffinate for recycling.
Stripping and regeneration of the res in was carried out using an oxidant-bear-
resin oxidant­bear­
ing acidic solution with absorption of the HCN evolved, which was recycled.
Disadvantages of the approach are that it cannot be used in the presence of
solids and that it has a high capital cost. Other treatment technologies have
Solids
been reviewed by Palmer et al. [76]. [ 76].
Without acceptable cyanide use and disposal techniques in place, metal­ metal-
lurgical operations face severe penalties or risk being shut down. For exam- exam­
ple, Echo Bay's McCoy /CovejCove mine in Nevada used natural degradation on
tailings waste from heap leaching. However, the 145 ha pond became an at- at­
traction for migratory birds and over 1000 birds were reported killed in 1.5
Years. Approximately $6 million (US) was spent to install
years. instan flags, remote­
remote-
controlled boats, loud music or cannon bursts, but birds continued to die.
Controlled
Approximately $500,000 in fines or wildlif wildlifee contributions were paid by Echo
 20 B.R.CONARD

Bay. Recently they have installed the Inco process which adds $10/oz
$lOjoz oper­
oper-
ating cost but also allows the mili
mill to increase gold recovery from 82 to 90%
by using higher cyanide strengths [77].
[ 77]. Another example is Hopebrook's ex­
ex-
perience in Newfoundland. The installed H220 0 22 process never worked prop­
prop-
erly on the CIP slurry and the result was increasing cyanide contamination of
settling ponds. This became so severe that Hopebrook had to suspend opera­
opera-
tion in order to clean up existing ponds, which is being done using the Inco
process.

Waste processing and product recycling

Wastes can be broadly classified into product wastes and process wastes.
Product wastes are materials whose utility as a product is finished. They are
characterized chemically as relatively simple materials, examples being alu­ alu-
minum beverage containers and nickel­cadmium
nickel-cadmium batteries. While easy to
handle, these materials do present a problem in terms of collection over a
widely distributed user group and geographical area. Sorne Some ofthese
of these materials
are directly recycled as ffeed
eed to the original process that generated them. Other
materials that are chemically more complex require new processes containing
many unit operations to separate the component metals. It is clear that prod­ prod-
uct recycling will continue to grow in importance to take economic advantage
ofthe
of the metal resources located in such wastes.
The other broad classification is process waste. These materials, in contrast
to the product wastes, are characterized as being chemically very complex
materials, often further complicated by their fine particle size or other physi­ physi-
cal attributes that make handling difficult. They are, by their very definition,
wastes from a process and therefore are centrally located, although perhaps
not at a sufficient mass to be economically treated alone. Because of the
chemical complexity, these materials usually contain impurities that can be
considered potentially hazardous, and usually the val u e of the contained met­
value met-
als is sufficiently low and is contained in such a complex matrix as to make
their recovery uneconomic. What has been done in the past is to dispose of
these wastes in special landfill sites. The problem is that disposal as land­fill
land-fill
is becoming more and more costly as regulatory agencies control waste trans­ trans-
portation and as approved site availability becomes more and more limited.
It is now clear that in the future economics may require chemical treatment
of such wastes, not only to detoxify the waste, but also to recover the valuable
existaa large number of technologies for treating hazardous wastes
metal. There exist
[ 23], and the design and engineering of'a
[23], or-a flowsheet is often site­
site- and waste­
waste-
specific.
An example of a significant process waste is the nearly half million tonnes
are furnace
of electric arc fumace (EAF) steelmaking dust generated each year in North
America. This dust is characterized by 0.1­1 0.1-10 O µm
J.1m sized agglomerated parti­
parti-
THE ROLE OF HYDROMETALLURGY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 21

eles containing 13-30% Zn and 28-38% Fe. The presence ofPb,

cles of Pb, Cd, and Cr,
which can be leached under EPA Toxic Characteristic Leach Procedure
( TCLP) using acetic acid, classifies the waste as hazardous. Prior to 1970,
(TCLP)
emission of these dusts was primarily into the atmosphere, but the Clean Air
Act enacted at that time required their collection and disposal into ordinary
si tes. Just 10 years later the TCLP required disposal of the dusts into
landfill sites.
special hazardous landfill sites with concomitant cost increases. Recent EPA
rulings in the United States are now even restricting disposal of the dusts into
hazardous sites. Treatment is increasingly becoming an imperative.
Options for recovering the significant zinc content involve either pyro-
metallurgical or hydrometallurgical flowsheets, or combinations of processes
[ 78]. An example of a hydrometallurgical
[78]. hydro metallurgical flowsheet is the caustic leach pro-
cess [79] which solubilizes ZnO and ZnFe ZnFe204 2O4 and PbO into sodium zincate
and sodium plumbate. Washing the residue to remove Pb (and ( and Cd) to low
enough levels may be costly and difficult, but it has been shown possible to
produce zinc powder by electrowinning and lead by cementation using zinc.
A commercial facility is operating in France.
Another approach developed jointly by UBC and Chapparral [80] [ 80] in-
volves aa number
volves number of of steps:
steps: chloride
chloride removal
removal by by water leaching or
water leaching or hydrolysis
hydrolysis of of
metallic chlorides by the presence offree of free lime in the dust, then selective lime
leaching using
leaching acetic acid
using acetic acid with any solubilized
with any solubilized lead lead and
and cadmium
cadmium being ce- ce-
mented from
mented from the leach liquor,
the leach liquor, which
which is is then
then treated
treated with
with H2SÜ4
H 2S04 to to precipitate
precipitate
gypsum. The
gypsum. The solids
solids from
from thethe original lime lime leach
leach contain
contain Zn,Zn, Pb and Cd.
Pb and Cd. TheThe
zinc can
zinc can be selectively leached
be selectively leached using
using NH NH33-(NH4)iCO3
-(NH 4hC0 3 with with the leach liquor
the leach liquor
again undergoing
again cementation with
undergoing cementation with Znto
Zn.to remove
remove smallsmall quantities
quantities of of soluble
soluble
Pb and
Pb and Cd.
Cd. Zn Zn isis then
then recovered
recovered as as aa basic zinc carbonate
basic zinc carbonate by by stripping the the
NH3 withwith steam
steam andand recycling
recycling the the liquor.
liquor. The The solids
solids from
from the zinc leach
the zinc leach are are
given another
given another acetic
acetic leach
leach under
under boiling conditions to
boiling conditions solubilize all
to solubilize ali the
the re-re-
maining Zn,
maining Zn, Pb Pb and
and Cd Cd with
with the
the PbPb andand Cd Cd again
again being cemented with
being cemented with Zn Zn
and the
and the Zn-containing
Zn-containing liquor liquor being
being retumed
returned to to the original lime
the original lime removal
removal leach. leach.
The final
The final residue
residue is is then
then repulped
repulped in in water
water with with aa resin-in-pulp
resin-in-pulp treatment
treatment to to
reduce the
reduce the metals
metals associated
associated with entrained solution
with entrained solution to levels below
to levels below the the EPAEPA
solubility limits
solubility limits for
for Zn,
Zn, Pb Pb and
and Cd.
Cd. TheThe strength
strength of of this
this process exists in
process exists in the
the
utilization
utilization of of well-known
well-known unit operations combined
unit operations combined in in aa unique
unique way way to achieve
to achieve
metal recovery
metal recovery together
together withwith residue detoxification.
residue detoxification.
Other promising hydrometallurgical
Other hydro metallurgical flowsheetsflowsheets for for EAF
EAF dust
dust treatment,
treatment, re- re-
viewed by
viewed by Dreisinger et et al. [ 81 ] , include
al. [81]. include chloride,
chloride, sulfate
sulfate andand versatic
versatic acid acid
lixi viants.
lixi viants. Another
Another interesting
interesting possibility
possibility reported
reported by Dattilo et
by Dattilo et al. [ 82] is
al. [82] is to
to
use zinc and
use zinc and chloride-containing
chloride-containing sulfuric sulfuric acidacid leachates
leachates from
from dusts
dusts directly in in
an electrogalvanizing operation.
an
Another example
Another example of of aa process
process waste
waste is is the large amount
the large amount of of jarosite
jarosite residue
residue
Produced
produced by fixing iron
by fixing iron inin zinc
zinc roast-leach-electrowin
roast-Ieach-electrowin plants. plants. Because
Because of ofthethe
cost associated
cost associated withwith storage ponds ponds for for this
this material
material andand their environmental
their environmental
22 B.R.CONARD

sensitivities, emphasis is being put on volume reduction and utilization of the

contained iron. The factors influencing the hydrothermal conversion of so­ so-
dium jarosite to hematite have been studied by Dutrizac [[83] 83] with promising
results regarding hematite morphology. Additional work is required to com­ com-
mercialize the process as well as to confirm the environmental acceptability
of the product for commercial uses.
Not all
ali process wastes that are of importance for the metallurgical industry
come from metallurgical processing. For example, fly­ash
fly-ash from municipal solid
waste incineration is sometimes classified as hazardous due to Pb and Cd
levels. Processing fly­ash
fly-ash to recover these metals, as well as significant quan­
quan-
tities of Zn, and to render the fly­ash
fly-ash non­hazardous
non-hazardous are under way by hydro­
hydro-
metallurgical means [84].
[ 84].
The whole question ofimpurity removal and disposal for metallurgical pro­ pro-
cesses will continue to require new work to find selective removal in an eco­ eco-
nomical way. Even for pyrometallurgical processes, sorne some impurities report
primarily to the gas phase and are concentrated during gas cooling and clean­
clean-
ing. Systems for the production of acid or liquid SO S022 from high­SOrcontain­
high-SOrcontain-
ing gases will probably be required for smelting sulfide ores, but clean gases
will be required. To some
sorne extent, impurity­laden
impurity-laden dusts from such processes
can be retumed
returned to the smelting fumace,
furnace, but ultimately an impurity bleed is
necessary to control the impurity levels in the product. When gases are cooled
or scrubbed using water, an obvious choice for impurity control is a hydro­hydro-
metallurgical operation. For sorne
some dusts it may be desirable to process impur­
impur-
ity­laden dusts through a hydrometallurgical process prior to the "clean" dust
ity-laden
being recycled. Consequently, processes that have conventionally been con­ con-
sidered pyrometallurgical may need an important hydrometallurgical
hydro metallurgical com­
com-
ponent added in order to remain viable from an environmental viewpoint.

CONCLUSIONS

Extraction of valuable metals from the earth will continue because our so­ so-
ciety requires metals to sustain and improve the quality of liflifee in both indus­
indus-
trialized and developing countries. However, it is clear that production of
metals will not be allowed to continue if it damages the quality of air and
water or if it is insensitive to energy consumption. This paper has pointed out
sorne areas where the field of hydrometallurgy
some hydro metallurgy will be able to contribute to
protecting the natural environment. Man Manyy of these developments will result
not only in maintaining the clean water and clear air that are necessary for
sustaining development in centuries to come, but will also improve metal re­ re-
covery from original sources, will enable metal recovery from wastes and will
reduce specific energy demand while improving energy efficiency.
Our role as individuals and as hydrometallurgists
hydro metallurgists must be to promete
promote this
activity.
THE ROLE OF HYDROMETALLURGY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 23

( Il ) We must continue to develop our own discipline, but be open to the

skills and perceptions of others. Even more than in the past, future discover- discover­
ies and inventions, future engineering and process control, will require a
multidisciplinary approach. Teams of individuals will be needed to tackle and
salve problems using the wide knowledge of
solve ofthe
the group.
( 2) We must participa
(2) participatete in improving our educational system. Young peo­ peo-
ple must not only be trained, but must be attracted into scientific fields. Cur- Cur­
rent professionals interested in environmental science should play playaa more
active role in demonstrating the challenges to be faced and rewards to be gained
by activity in this field.
( 3) We must encourage more cooperation between industry and govern-
(3) govern­
ment. The task of defining the best available or practica} practical technology to abate
an environmental problem must be tackled with a shared responsibility. In- In­
formation and reliable scientific/engineering data must be evaluated by all ali
concerned parties. Increasing the number of regulations is not an acceptable
means of sustaining development any more than is the dilution of an offend- offend­
ing effluent. Confrontational practices and unconsidered actions by either in- in­
dustry or
dustry or government
government must must be discarded and
be discarded and substituted
substituted with
with mutual
mutual respect
respect
and the
and the willingness
willingness to to work
work together.
together.
( 4) We must be committed to informing the public. Without an informed
public participating in the judgements being made about the social, economic
and environmental
and environmental impactsimpacts ofof industrial
industrial developments,
developments, we we will continue to
will continue to
breed mistrust and
breed mistrust and misunderstanding.
misunderstanding. The The scientists'
scientists' role is to
role is to bring
bring honest
honest
analysis to
analysis to individuals
individuals whowho have
have nono technical
technical training. This requires
training. This scien­
requires scien-
tists not
tists not only to to be creative and
be creative and problem solvers, but
problem solvers, also to
but also exhibit outstand-
to exhibit outstand­
ing skills
ing skills inin communicating.
( 5) We
(5) We must
must construct
construct aa system
system ofof values consistent with
values consistent sustainable de-
with sustainable de­
velopment. This
velopment. This must
must be done by
be done each individual
by each individual and
and appropriately
appropriately adopted
adopted
by the society.
by the society. Capra
Capra states
states that
that the
the current
current lack
lack of
ofbalance
balance between
between ourour eco-
eco­
nomic/social institutions
nomic/social institutions and
and the
the natural environment can
natural environment can be
be restored
restored to
to the
the
needed flexible
needed flexible balance
balance
" ... only ifit
..... ifit goes hand in hand
hand in hand with
with aa profound change of
profound change ofvalues. Contrary to
values. Contrary conventional
to conventional
beliefs, value systems and
beliefs, value and ethics
ethics are
are not
not peripheral
peripheral to science and
to science and technology
technology but constitute
but constitute
their very
their very basis and driving force."
basis and force." [2]
[ 2]
We must,
We must, he
he points out, be
points out, concerned with
be concerned deep ecology
with deep ecology instead
instead of
of shallow
shallow
environmentalism.
environmentalism.
"Whereas shallow
"Whereas shallow environmentalism
environmentalism is is concerned
concerned with
with more efficient control
more efficient control and
and man­
man-
agement of
agement of the
the natural environment for
natural environment for the
the benefit of 'man',
benefit of 'man', the deep ecology
the deep ecology movement
movement
recognizes that ecological balance
recognizes that balance will
will require
require profound changes in
profound changes in our
our perception ofthe
perception of the role
role
ofhuman
of human beings inin the
the planetary ecosystern" [2].
planetary ecosystem" (2).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author
The author would like to
would like express his
to express appreciation to
his appreciation Charles Ferguson
to Charles and
Ferguson and
to Dr.
to Dr. Eberhard
Eberhard Krause
Krause for
for valuable suggestions and
valuable suggestions and to
to Mrs.
Mrs. Nancy for
Nancy Judge for
applying her
applying her word
word processing skills.
skills.
 24 B.R.CONARD

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