Reproductive Organ in Mammals

Female: The organs of the female reproductive system (Fig. 1) include the ovaries; the uterine
(fallopian) tubes, or oviducts; the uterus; the vagina; and external organs, which are collectively
called the vulva, or pudendum. The mammary glands also are considered part of the female
reproductive system.

Ovaries
The ovaries are paired organs that produce secondary oocytes (cells that develop into mature ova,
or eggs, following fertilization) and hormones, such as progesterone and estrogens (the female sex
hormones), inhibin, and relaxin. The ovaries arise from the same embryonic tissue as the testes,
and they are the size and shape of unshelled almonds. One ovary lies on each side of the pelvic
cavity, held in place by ligaments. The germinal epithelium is a layer of simple epithelium (low
cuboidal or squamous) that covers the surface of the ovary. Deep to the germinal epithelium is the
ovarian cortex, a region of dense connective tissue that contains ovarian follicles. Each ovarian
follicle consists of an oocyte and a variable number of surrounding cells that nourish the
developing oocyte and begin to secrete estrogens as the follicle grows larger. The follicle enlarges
until it is a mature (graafian) follicle, a large, fluid-filled follicle that is preparing to rupture and
expel a secondary oocyte. The remnants of an ovulated follicle develop into a corpus luteum
(yellow body). The corpus luteum produces progesterone, estrogens, relaxin, and inhibin until it
degenerates and turns into fibrous tissue called a corpus albicans (white body). The ovarian
medulla is a region deep to the ovarian cortex that consists of loose connective tissue and contains
blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.

Fig. 1: Female organs of reproduction and surrounding structures

Uterine Tubes
There are two uterine (fallopian) tubes that extend laterally from the uterus and transport the
secondary oocytes from the ovaries to the uterus. The open, funnel-shaped end of each tube, the
infundibulum, lies close to the ovary but is open to the pelvic cavity. It ends in a fringe of fingerlike
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projections called fimbriae. From the infundibulum, the uterine tubes extend medially, attaching
to the upper and outer corners of the uterus.

Fig. 2: Uterus and associated structures

After ovulation, local currents produced by movements of the fimbriae, which surround the surface
of the mature follicle just before ovulation occurs, sweep the secondary oocyte into the uterine
tube. The oocyte is then moved along the tube by cilia in the tube’s mucous lining and peristaltic
contractions of its smooth muscle layer. The fertilization of a secondary oocyte by a sperm cell
occurs in the uterine tube. Fertilization may occur any time up to about 24 hours after ovulation.
The fertilized ovum (zygote) descends into the uterus within seven days. Unfertilized secondary
oocytes disintegrate.

Uterus
The uterus (womb) serves as part of the pathway for sperm deposited in the vagina to reach the
uterine tubes. It is also the site of implantation of a fertilized ovum, development of the fetus during
pregnancy, and labor. During reproductive cycles when implantation does not occur, the uterus is
the source of menstrual flow. The uterus is situated between the urinary bladder and the rectum
and is shaped like an inverted pear. Parts of the uterus include the dome-shaped portion superior
to the uterine tubes called the fundus, the tapering central portion called the body, and the narrow
portion opening into the vagina called the cervix. The interior of the body of the uterus is called
the uterine cavity. The middle muscular layer of the uterus, the myometrium, consists of smooth
muscle and forms the bulk of the uterine wall. During childbirth, coordinated contractions of
uterine muscles help expel the fetus. The innermost part of the uterine wall, the endometrium, is a
mucous membrane. It nourishes a growing fetus or is shed each month during menstruation if

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fertilization does not occur. The endometrium contains many endometrial glands whose secretions
nourish sperm and the zygote.

Vagina
The vagina is a tubular canal that extends from the exterior of the body to the uterine cervix. It is
the receptacle for the penis during sexual intercourse, the outlet for menstrual flow, and the
passageway for childbirth. The vagina is situated between the urinary bladder and the rectum. A
recess, called the fornix, surrounds the cervix. The mucosa of the vagina contains large stores of
glycogen, the decomposition of which produces organic acids. The resulting acidic environment
retards microbial growth and also harmful to the sperm. Alkaline components of semen, mainly
from the seminal vesicles, neutralize the acidity of the vagina and increase viability of sperm. The
muscular layer is composed of smooth muscle that can stretch to receive the penis during
intercourse and allow for childbirth. There may be a thin fold of mucous membrane called the
hymen partially covering the vaginal orifice, the vaginal opening.
Perineum and Vulva
The perineum is the diamond-shaped area between the thighs and buttocks of both males and
females that contains the external genitals and anus (Fig. 3). The term vulva, or pudendum, refers
to the external genitals of the female. The mons pubis is an elevation of adipose tissue covered by
coarse pubic hair, which cushions the pubic symphysis. From the mons pubis, two longitudinal
folds of skin, the labia majora, extend down and back. The labia majora develop from the same
embryonic tissue that the scrotum develops from in males. The labia majora contain adipose tissue
and sebaceous (oil) and sudoriferous (sweat) glands. Like the mons pubis, they are covered by
pubic hair. Medial to the labia majora are two folds of skin called the labia minora. The labia
minora do not contain pubic hair or fat and have few sudoriferous (sweat) glands; they do,
however, contain numerous sebaceous (oil) glands.

Fig. 3: Components of the vulva

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The clitoris is a small, cylindrical mass of erectile tissue and nerves. It is located at the anterior
junction of the labia minora. A layer of skin called the prepuce, also known as the foreskin, is
formed at a point where the labia minora unite and cover the body of the clitoris. The exposed
portion of the clitoris is the glans. Like the penis, the clitoris is capable of enlargement upon sexual
stimulation. The region between the labia minora is called the vestibule. In the vestibule are the
hymen (if present); vaginal orifice, the opening of the vagina to the exterior; external urethral
orifice, the opening of the urethra to the exterior; and on either side of the external urethral orifice,
the openings of the ducts of the paraurethral glands. These glands in the wall of the urethra secrete
mucus. The male’s prostate develops from the same embryonic tissue as the female’s paraurethral
glands. On either side of the vaginal orifice itself are the greater vestibular glands, which produce
a small quantity of mucus during sexual arousal and intercourse that adds to cervical mucus and
provides lubrication. In males, the bulbourethral glands are equivalent structures.
Mammary Glands
The mammary glands, located in the breasts, are modified sudoriferous (sweat) glands that produce
milk. The breasts lie over the pectoralis major and serratus anterior muscles and are attached to
them by a layer of connective tissue (Fig. 4). Each breast has one pigmented projection, the nipple,
with a series of closely spaced openings of ducts where milk emerges. The circular pigmented area
of skin surrounding the nipple is called the areola. This region appears rough because it contains
modified sebaceous (oil) glands. Internally, each mammary gland consists of 15 to 20 lobes
arranged radially and separated by adipose tissue and strands of connective tissue called
suspensory ligaments of the breast (Cooper’s ligaments), which support the breast. In each lobe
are smaller lobules, in which milk-secreting glands called alveoli are found. When milk is being
produced, it passes from the alveoli into a series of tubules that drain toward the nipple.

Figure 4: The mammary glands in the mammalian female

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At birth, the mammary glands are undeveloped and appear as slight elevations on the chest. With
the onset of puberty, under the influence of estrogens and progesterone, the female breasts begin
to develop. The duct system matures and fat is deposited, which increases breast size. The areola
and nipple also enlarge and become more darkly pigmented. The functions of the mammary glands
are the synthesis, secretion, and ejection of milk; these functions, called lactation, are associated
with pregnancy and childbirth. Milk production is stimulated largely by the hormone prolactin
from the anterior pituitary, with contributions from progesterone and estrogens. The ejection of
milk is stimulated by oxytocin, which is released from the posterior pituitary in response to the
sucking of an infant on the mother’s nipple (suckling).
Phases of the Female Reproductive Cycle
The duration of the female reproductive cycle varies from 24 to 35 days, but a duration of 28 days
is most appropriate. There are four phases, viz;
Menstrual Phase
The menstrual phase, also called menstruation or menses, lasts for roughly the first five days of
the cycle. (By convention, the first day of menstruation marks the first day of a new cycle).
EVENTS IN THE OVARIES
During the menstrual phase, several ovarian follicles grow and enlarge.
EVENTS IN THE UTERUS
Menstrual flow from the uterus consists of 50 to 150 mL of blood and tissue cells from the
endometrium. This discharge occurs because the declining level of ovarian hormones
(progesterone and estrogens) causes the uterine arteries to constrict. As a result, the cells they
supply become oxygen-deprived and start to die. Eventually, part of the endometrium sloughs off.
The menstrual flow passes from the uterine cavity to the cervix and through the vagina to the
exterior.
Pre-ovulatory Phase
The pre-ovulatory phase is the time between the end of menstruation and ovulation. The pre-
ovulatory phase of the cycle accounts for most of the variation in cycle length. In a 28-day cycle,
it lasts from days 6 to 13.
EVENTS IN THE OVARIES
Under the influence of FSH, several follicles continue to grow and begin to secrete estrogens and
inhibin. By about day 6, a single follicle in one of the two ovaries has outgrown all the others to
become the dominant follicle. Estrogens and inhibin secreted by the dominant follicle decrease the
secretion of FSH which causes other, less well-developed follicles to stop growing and die. The
one dominant follicle becomes the mature (graafian) follicle. The mature follicle continues to
enlarge until it is ready for ovulation, forming a blister-like bulge on the surface of the ovary.
During maturation, the follicle continues to increase its production of estrogens under the influence
of an increasing level of LH. With reference to the ovarian cycle, the menstrual phase and pre-

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ovulatory phase together are termed the follicular phase because ovarian follicles are growing and
developing.
EVENTS IN THE UTERUS
Oestrogen liberated into the blood by growing ovarian follicles stimulate the repair of the
endometrium. As the endometrium thickens, the short, straight endometrial glands develop, and
the arterioles coil and lengthen.
Ovulation
Ovulation, the rupture of the mature (graafian) follicle and the release of the secondary oocyte into
the pelvic cavity, usually occurs on day 14 in a 28-day cycle. The high levels of estrogens during
the last part of the pre-ovulatory phase exert a positive feedback effect on both LH and GnRH. A
high level of estrogens stimulates the hypothalamus to release more gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH) and the anterior pituitary to produce more LH. GnRH then promotes the release
of even more LH. The resulting surge of LH brings about rupture of the mature (graafian) follicle
and expulsion of a secondary oocyte. An over-the-counter home test that detects the LH surge
associated with ovulation can be used to predict ovulation a day in advance.
Postovulatory Phase
The postovulatory phase of the female reproductive cycle is the time between ovulation and onset
of the next menstruation. This phase is the most constant in duration and lasts for 14 days, from
days 15 to 28 in a 28-day cycle.
EVENTS IN ONE OVARY
After ovulation, the mature follicle collapses. Stimulated by LH, the remaining follicular cells
enlarge and form the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone, estrogens, relaxin, and inhibin.
With reference to the ovarian cycle, this phase is also called the luteal phase.
Subsequent events depend on whether the oocyte is fertilized. If the oocyte is not fertilized, the
corpus luteum lasts for only two weeks, after which its secretory activity declines, and it
degenerates into a corpus albicans. As the levels of progesterone, estrogens, and inhibin decrease,
release of GnRH, FSH, and LH rises due to loss of negative feedback The Female Reproductive
suppression by the ovarian hormones. Then, follicular growth resumes and a new ovarian cycle
begins. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized and begins to divide, the corpus luteum persists past
its normal two-week lifespan. It is “rescued” from degeneration by human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG), a hormone produced by the embryo beginning about eight days after fertilization. Like LH,
hCG stimulates the secretory activity of the corpus luteum. The presence of hCG in maternal blood
or urine is an indicator of pregnancy, and hCG is the hormone detected by home pregnancy tests.
EVENTS IN THE UTERUS
Progesterone and estrogens produced by the corpus luteum promote growth of the endometrial
glands, which begin to secrete glycogen, and vascularization and thickening of the endometrium.
These preparatory changes peak about one week after ovulation, at the time a fertilized ovum might
arrive at the uterus.

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 Male
The organs of the male reproductive system are the testes; a system of ducts (epididymis, ductus
deferens, ejaculatory ducts, and urethra); accessory sex glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, and
bulbourethral glands); and several supporting structures, including the scrotum and the penis (Fig.
1). The testes produce sperm and secrete hormones. Sperm are transported and stored, helped to
mature, and conveyed to the exterior by a system of ducts. Semen contains sperm plus the
secretions provided by the accessory sex glands.

Fig. 1: Male organs of reproduction and surrounding structures.

Scrotum
The scrotum is a pouch that supports the testes; it consists of loose skin, superficial fascia, and smooth
muscle (Fig. 1). Internally, a septum divides the scrotum into two sacs, each containing a single testis.
The production and survival of sperm is optimal at a temperature that is about 2–30C below normal
body temperature. This lowered body temperature is maintained within the scrotum because it is
outside the pelvic cavity. On exposure to cold, skeletal muscles contract to elevate the testes, moving
them closer to the pelvic cavity, where they can absorb body heat. Exposure to warmth causes
relaxation of the skeletal muscles and descent of the testes, increasing the surface area exposed to the
air, so that the testes can give off excess heat to their surroundings.
Testes
The testes (Fig. 2), or testicles, are paired oval glands that develop on the embryo’s posterior abdominal
wall and usually begin their descent into the scrotum in the seventh month of fetal development. The
testes are covered by a dense white fibrous capsule that extends inward and divides each testis into
internal compartments called lobules. Each of the 200 to 300 lobules contains one to three tightly coiled
seminiferous tubules that produce sperm by a process called spermatogenesis. Seminiferous tubules
are lined with spermatogenic cells. Positioned against the basement membrane, toward the outside of
the tubules, are the spermatogonia the stem cell precursors. Toward the lumen of the tubule are layers
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of cells in order of advancing maturity: primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, spermatids,
and sperm cells. After a sperm cell or spermatozoon has formed, it is released into the lumen of the
seminiferous tubule. Large Sertoli cells, located between the developing sperm cells in the
seminiferous tubules, support, protect, and nourish spermatogenic cells; phagocytize degenerating
spermatogenic cells; secrete fluid for sperm transport; and release the hormone inhibin, which helps
regulate sperm production. Between the seminiferous tubules are clusters of Leydig cells. These cells
secrete the hormone testosterone, the most important androgen. An androgen is a hormone that
promotes the development of masculine characteristics. Testosterone also promotes a man’s libido (sex
drive).

Fig. 2: Anatomy and histology of the testes. (a) Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules. (b) The stages of
spermatogenesis. Arrows in (b) indicate the progression from least mature to most mature spermatogenic cells. The (n)
and (2n) refer to haploid and diploid chromosome number, to be described shortly.
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Epididymis
The epididymis is a comma-shaped organ that lies along the posterior border of the testis. Each
epididymis consists mostly of the tightly coiled ductus epididymis. Functionally, the ductus
epididymis is the site of sperm maturation, the process by which sperm acquire motility and the
ability to fertilize a secondary oocyte. This occurs over a 10- to 14-day period. The ductus
epididymis also stores sperm and helps propel them during sexual arousal by peristaltic contraction
of its smooth muscle into the ductus (vas) deferens. Sperm may remain in storage in the ductus
epididymis for several months. Any stored sperm that are not ejaculated by that time are eventually
phagocytized and reabsorbed.
Ductus Deferens
At the end of the epididymis, the ductus epididymis becomes less convoluted, and its diameter
increases. Beyond the epididymis, the duct is termed the ductus deferens or vas deferens. The
ductus deferens ascends along the posterior border of the epididymis and penetrates the inguinal
canal, a passage way in the front abdominal wall. Then, it enters the pelvic cavity, where it loops
over the side and down the posterior surface of the urinary bladder. The ductus deferens has a
heavy coat of three layers of muscle. Functionally, the ductus deferens stores sperm, which can
remain viable here for up to several months. The ductus deferens also conveys sperm from the
epididymis toward the urethra during sexual arousal by peristaltic contractions of the muscular
coat.
Ejaculatory Ducts
The ejaculatory ducts are formed by the union of the duct from the ductus deferens and the seminal
vesicles. The short ejaculatory ducts carry sperm into the urethra.
Urethra
The urethra is the terminal duct of the male reproductive system, serving as a passageway for both
sperm and urine. In the male, the urethra passes through the prostate, deep perineal muscles, and
penis. The opening of the urethra to the exterior is called the external urethral orifice.
Accessory Sex Glands
The ducts of the male reproductive system store and transport sperm cells, but the accessory sex
glands secrete most of the liquid portion of semen. The paired seminal vesicles are pouch-like
structures, lying posterior to the base of the urinary bladder and anterior to the rectum. They secrete
an alkaline, viscous fluid that contains fructose, prostaglandins, and clotting proteins (unlike those
found in blood). The alkaline nature of the fluid helps to neutralize the acidic environment of the
male urethra and female reproductive tract that otherwise would inactivate and kill sperm. The
fructose is used for ATP production by sperm. Prostaglandins contribute to sperm motility and
viability and may also stimulate muscular contraction within the female reproductive tract.
Clotting proteins help semen coagulate after ejaculation. Fluid secreted by the seminal vesicles
normally constitutes about 60% of the volume of semen. The prostate is a single, doughnut-shaped
gland about the size of a golf ball. It is inferior to the urinary bladder and surrounds the upper
portion of the urethra. The prostate slowly increases in size from birth to puberty, and then it

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expands rapidly. The size attained by age 30 remains stable until about age 45, when further
enlargement may occur. The prostate secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid (pH about 6.5) that
contains (1) citric acid, which can be used by sperm for ATP production via the Krebs cycle; (2)
acid phosphatase (the function of which is unknown); and (3) several protein-digesting enzymes,
such as prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Prostatic secretions make up about 25% of the volume of
semen.
The paired bulbourethral glands are about the size of peas. They are located inferior to the prostate
on either side of the urethra. During sexual arousal, the bulbourethral glands secrete an alkaline
substance into the urethra that protects the passing sperm by neutralizing acids from urine in the
urethra. At the same time, they secrete mucus that lubricates the end of the penis and the lining of
the urethra, thereby decreasing the number of sperm damaged during ejaculation.
Semen
Semen is a mixture of sperm and the secretions of the seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral
glands. The volume of semen in a typical ejaculation is 2.5 to 5 milliliters, with 50 to 150 million
sperm per milliliter. When the number falls below 20 million per milliliter, the male is likely to be
infertile. A very large number of sperm is required for fertilization because only a tiny fraction
ever reaches the secondary oocyte.
Despite the slight acidity of prostatic fluid, semen has a slightly alkaline pH of 7.2 to 7.7 due to
the higher pH and larger volume of fluid from the seminal vesicles. The prostatic secretion gives
semen a milky appearance, and fluids from the seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands give it a
sticky consistency. Semen also contains an antibiotic that can destroy certain bacteria. The
antibiotic may help control the abundance of naturally occurring bacteria in the semen and in the
lower female reproductive tract. The presence of blood in semen is called hemospermia. In most
cases, it is caused by inflammation of the blood vessels lining the seminal vesicles; it is usually
treated with antibiotics.
Penis
The root of the penis is the attached portion (proximal portion). The body of the penis is composed
of three cylindrical masses of tissue. The two dorsolateral masses are called the corpora cavernosa
penis. The smaller mid-ventral mass, the corpus spongiosum penis, contains the urethra. All three
masses are enclosed by fascia (a sheet of fibrous connective tissue) and skin and consist of erectile
tissue permeated by blood sinuses. The distal end of the corpus spongiosum penis is a slightly
enlarged region called the glans penis. In the glans penis is the opening of the urethra (the external
urethral orifice) to the exterior. Covering the glans in an uncircumcised penis is the loosely fitting
prepuce or foreskin. Most of the time, the penis is flaccid (limp) because its arteries are
vasoconstricted, which limits blood flow. The first visible sign of sexual excitement is erection,
the enlargement and stiffening of the penis. Parasympathetic impulses cause release of
neurotransmitters and local hormones, including the gas nitric oxide, which relaxes vascular
smooth muscle in the penile arteries. The arteries supplying the penis dilate, and large quantities
of blood enter the blood sinuses. Expansion of these spaces compresses the veins draining the
penis, so blood outflow is slowed.

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Ejaculation
This is described as the powerful release of semen from the urethra to the exterior. It is a
sympathetic reflex coordinated by the lumbar portion of the spinal cord. As part of the reflex, the
smooth muscle sphincter at the base of the urinary bladder closes. Thus, urine is not expelled
during ejaculation, and semen does not enter the urinary bladder. Even before ejaculation occurs,
peristaltic contractions in the ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory ducts, and prostate
propel semen into the penile portion of the urethra. Typically, this leads to emission, the discharge
of a small volume of semen before ejaculation. Emission may also occur during sleep (nocturnal
emission). The penis returns to its flaccid state when the arteries constrict, and pressure on the
veins is relieved.

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