Teaching Oral English-1

Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers
aching
al English
DONN BYRNE
Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers
General Editor: Donn Byrne
Teaching Oral English
Donn Byrne
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RHi
Longman
LONGMAN GROUP LIMITEp
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© Longman Group Ltd. 1976
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First published 1976

Fifth impression 1979
ISBN 0 582 55081 5
Printed in Hong Kong by

The Hong Kong Printing Press (1977) Ltd
Preface
It is a common experience on training courses to find that teachers,

especially those who are not native speakers of English, are very much
concerned about the teaching of oral English. Both the syllabuses they
follow and the textbooks they use call for an ability to handle techniques
and procedures in this area for which their professional training, often still
very formal and academic, has not equipped them. This book, which is an
expanded version of talks and practice material used on training courses
over a number of years, is an attempt to meet this need. It is hoped that
this account of the teaching of oral English, together with the numerous
suggestions for discussion and practical work at the end of each chapter,
will be found of value on in-service training courses and seminars, where
time is often too short to permit a full exposition of many of the topics
treated in this book, and on training courses of longer duration. It should
also prove useful to those who go abroad to teach as ‘assistants’.
This book is the product of personal experience and of reflection on
that experience. It describes procedures which I have found useful in a
variety of teaching situations, with both child and adult learners, from
which I have attempted to generalise. Clearly, however, the emphasis
which I have placed on certain ideas reflects to some extent my own
preoccupations and interests. The reader is invited to take from this book
whatever is of value to him in his teaching situation — to treat it, that is, as
a kind of sourcebook. He may adopt (and perhaps modify) those ideas
which suit his needs and fit in with the course materials he is using. He
may reject those suggestions which seem alien to his classroom situation.
At the same time it is hoped that, through reading this book, teachers will
be encouraged to re-examine their own beliefs and practices and also
appraise the materials they are using.
I owe a special debt to Mary Finocchiaro, who not only encouraged me
to write this book in the first place but also read and commented on the
first draft in great detail, and to Susan Holden, who likewise helped
considerably to improve earlier drafts of this material. I have been helped a
great deal by comments from teachers on training courses in Latin
America and Italy, and by discussion with colleagues. I should also like to
thank Alan Maley of the British Council, whose picture set for
micro-dialogue practice is reproduced on page 77. A year’s leave of
absence from professional duties with the British Council enabled me to
v
complete the book at greater leisure than would otherwise have been
possible.
Much of the material in this book has appeared in article form in the
following journals: English Teaching Journal (Argentina); Lingua e Nuova
Didattica (Italy); English Teaching Forum (USA)] Modern English Teacher
(International House, London) and ELT Documents (ETIC British
Council).
DB
Rome 1972 — Menorca 1974
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Barnaby’s Picture Library for page 90 (top right); Dorothy Cloynes for
pages 86, 90 (bottom left) & 97; Keystone Press Agency Ltd., for page 90
(bottom right).
vi
Contents
Preface Page v
1 Language learning in the classroom l

1.1 The task of the language teacher 1
1.2 The role of the teacher 1
1.3 The learners 3
1.4 The needs of the learners 3
1.5 Language learning in the classroom 5
Discussion 6
Exercises 7
2 Oral communication 8
2.1 The nature of oral communication 8
2.2 Pedagogical implications 8
2.3 Intelligibility 10
2.4 Oral ability and motivation 10
Discussion 11
Exercises 11
3 Listening comprehension 13
3.1 Learning to understand 13

3.2 The nature of the programme 13
3.3 Guidelines for listening comprehension
practice 14
3.4 Activities and procedures 15
3.5 Dictation 17
Discussion 19
Exercises 19
4 The Presentation stage 20
4.1 The presentation of new material 20

4.2 The dialogue as an instrument for teaching
the spoken language 21
4.3 Presenting the dialogue: some approaches
contrasted 23
vii
4.4 Presenting the prose passage 26
Discussion 29
Exercises 30
5 The Practice stage (I): The use of drills 32
5.1 The needs of the learners 32

5.2 Mechanical drills 33
5.3 Meaningful practice 36
Discussion 43
Exercises 44
6 The Practice stage (2)s The use of texts 45
6.1 The text as context 45

6.2 Using the prose passage for oral practice 48
6.3 Using the dialogue for oral practice 53
Discussion 58
Exercises 58
7 From Practice to Production 59
7.1 Transition 59
7.2 Sample exchanges and micro-dialogues 64
7.3 Guided production 70
Discussion 76
Exercises 76
8 The Production stage 78
8.1 General characteristics 78

8.2 Group work 80
8.3 Preparing for and organising discussion 82
8.4 The function of visual aids at the production stage 84
8.5 The ‘text’ as a stimulus to discussion 92
8.6 Role-playing 93
Discussion 96
Exercises 97
9 Language games 99
9.1 The role of games in the learning process 99

9.2 Some examples of language games 101
Discussion 108
Exercises 108
10 Oral composition 109
10.1 The nature and purpose of oral composition 109
viii
10.2 Oral narration 111
10.3 Oral preparation for written composition 113
Discussion 120
Exercises 121
11 Play reading 122

11.1 The use and purpose of play reading 122
11.2 Suggested procedure for play reading 123
11.3 An example of a short play: Let the Boy Speak 125
Discussion 126
Exercise 127
12 Audio-visual aids to language learning 128
12.1 The place of audio-visual aids 128

12.2 The textbook 128
12.3 The blackboard 129
12.4 The magnetboard 131
12.5 The flannelgraph 133
12.6 Wall pictures 133
12.7 Picture cards 135
12.8 The overhead projector 137
12.9 Filmstrips, slides and films 138
12.10 The tape recorder 139
12.1 1 The record player 140
Discussion 140
Exercises 141
Select Bibliography 142
A Books 142
B Articles 143
Index 145
IX
* * M
| Language learning in
the classroom
I. I. The task off the language teacher

Why is it so difficult to teach a foreign language? To a large extent, it is
because we are attempting to teach in the classroom what is normally —
and perhaps best — learnt outside it. The classroom is of course a
convenient place for imparting information but our main concern as
language teachers is to develop the ability of our students to use the
language they are learning for the purpose of communication. In order to
develop the skills needed for this, especially the oral ones of understanding
and speaking,1 we have many obstacles to contend with: the size of the
class, the arrangement of the classroom (which rarely favours
communication), the number of hours available for teaching the language
(which cannot all be devoted to oral work), and perhaps even the syllabus
itself, which may discourage us from giving adequate attention to the
spoken language. It is not easy to give effective oral practice under these
conditions, especially in large classes. This is why it is important to have a
clear understanding and a firm grasp of the wide range of techniques and
procedures through which the spoken language can be practised. They are,
in a sense, an attempt to accommodate language learning to the
unfavourable environment of the classroom.
1.2. The role off the teacher

What, then, is the role of the language teacher in the classroom? In the
most general terms he is there, as in any other classroom, to provide the
best conditions for learning. The teacher is a means to an end: an
instrument to see that learning takes place. As a human being, he is of
course a subtle and sensitive instrument who cannot be satisfactorily
replaced by an mechanical aid - although he may frequently require the
support of one - since a machine cannot gauge the variable needs of the
learners in the same way as a teacher can. But in addition to this general
function, or perhaps we should say in order to implement it, the language
teacher has specific roles to play at different stages of the learning process.
1 See 2.1. for a diagrammatic representation of the four skills and how they relate
to the spoken and written forms of the language.
1
2 i' Teaching Oral English
It is only by acknowledging these roles that we can begin to see why we
must vary and adjust our techniques to suit the various stages of the
learning process.
1.2.1. The presentation stage: the teacher as informant1

At the presentation stage, the teacher’s main job is to serve as a kind of
informant. He knows the language; he selects the new material to be learnt
(drawing on the textbook, using ancillary aids etc) and presents it in such a
way as to make its meaning as clear and as memorable as possible. The
students listen and try to understand. They do little talking, perhaps,
though they are by no means passive (see 2.1.). At this point, then, the
teacher holds the stage, as it were. It is, unfortunately, a role which
teachers sometimes prolong unduly in their lessons, so that the students do
not get enough time to practise the language themselves.
1.2.2. The practice stage: the teacher as conductor

At the practice stage, it is the turn of the students to do most of the
talking, while the teacher’s main function is to provide them with the
maximum amount of practice, which must at the same time be both
meaningful and memorable (see 5.1.). The teacher’s role is now radically
different from that at the presentation stage. He does the minimum
amount of talking himself. He becomes more like the skilful conductor of
an orchestra, drawing the music out of the performers, giving each a
chance to participate.
1.2.3. The production stage: the teacher as guide

It is a pity that language learning in the classroom so often stops short at
the stage above. Many teachers feel that they have done their job well if
they have presented the new material effectively and given their students
adequate, though perhaps controlled, practice in it. All the same, no real
learning can be assumed to have taken place until the students are able to
use the language for themselves. At any level of attainment they need to
be given regular and frequent opportunities to use the language freely,
even if they sometimes make mistakes as a result. It is not that mistakes do
not matter, but rather that free expression matters much more, and the
greatest mistake the teacher can make is to hold his students back. For it is
through these opportunities to use the language as they wish, to try to
express their own ideas, that the students become aware that they have
learnt something useful to them, and are encouraged to go on learning —
perhaps the most vital factor of all in keeping learning alive. In providing
the students with activities for free expression and in discreetly watching
over them as they carry them out, the teacher takes on the role of guide or
1 These analogies are not of course meant to be taken too literally, nor are the
categories set up (which are discussed in detail in Chapters 4-8) absolute ones
(see 7.1.).
Language learning in the classroom 3
adviser. In some respects it is this role, where the teacher has, as it were, to
take a back seat, that is the most difficult one to perform, requiring not
only skill and tact but often courage in the face of syllabus and
examination requirements.
1.3. The learners

No class of learners is more than superficially homogeneous, however
skilfully it has been formed on the basis of intellectual ability (real or
imputed) and language aptitude (or, at the post-elementary level, language
attainment). There remain enormous differences in learning skills,
aspirations, interests, background and, above all, personality. Can the
teacher afford to ignore these differences? Should he, in fact, even want
to? Admittedly they cannot be taken into consideration at every moment
in the lesson, but unless teaching is viewed as a kind of shaping process
from start to finish, these differences need not work to the disadvantage
either of the teacher or of the class as a whole. They can in fact be made
to contribute to learning in the classroom. However, some compromise has
to be made — this is part of the accommodation of language learning to
the classroom — and it was implied in the preceding section that the most
appropriate point for this is at the presentation stage. The teacher selects
and presents the language data which the students are required to learn
and practise. At the start, then, there is the same ‘diet’ for all — though
how they actually digest it will vary greatly from one learner to another.
But at the practice stage we must begin to take their individual differences
into account and suit practice to the individual learner. Not all students,
for example, can answer a particular question; not all students will want
to. And then, at the production stage, as the teacher’s active intervention
— though not his participation — diminishes, the differences we noted at
the start can be given full rein. The activities at this stage not only permit
the students to express themselves as individuals: they also depend on
their doing so for their success.
1.4. The needs of the learners

The goal of teaching a foreign language has been defined as enabling ‘the
learner to behave in such a way that he can participate to some degree and
for certain purposes as a member of a community other than his own’.1
Attention is thus drawn to the social function of language: for this
purpose the learners need to be taught language for performing certain
specific and variable roles as language users. Language learning defined
from a more narrowly linguistic standpoint places greater emphasis on
1 S P Corder Introducing Applied Linguistics (1973) p 27

4 <> Teaching Oral English
mastering the system of the language. For example: ‘acquiring the ability
to use its structures within a general vocabulary under essentially the
conditions of normal communication among native speakers at
conversational speed.’1 The factor of communication is not ignored, but it
is implied that mastery of the structures (or grammatical patterns) of the
language will be the major goal. Language learning is thus generally
regarded as a step-by-step mastery of the system, especially the
grammatical structures, through which is eventually developed the ability
to use language for any purpose.
For the learners, such an approach has two main drawbacks. In the first
place, it sets them on a seemingly never ending path towards an ever
receding horizon, in the course of which they acquire a great deal of
language which they are never likely to need (and which in some cases
cannot easily be used for communicative purposes: ‘classroom’ language
such as 7 am standing up’ etc). This in itself leaves the learners dissatisfied,
apart from the fact that in the drive for mastery of the system their
individual differences noted in 1.3. are often ignored. Secondly, the
approach tends to place too much emphasis on formal correctness as a
criterion of language use, usually neglecting the fact that if language is to
function as an instrument of social control, it must also be appropriate to
the situation in which it is used. We cannot deny of course that the
learners will have to master certain formal features of the language,
especially in the area of pronunciation and grammar (e.g. concord,
number, case, gender, word order) and it is part of the teacher’s job to see
that sufficient practice is given in these areas. But they should not be left
in the situation of the drowning man who cried out for help with the
words: ‘I will drown and nobody shall save me!’ For, after all, was he left
to drown simply because he confused shall and will or because what he
said was not appropriate? He had mastered, however badly, more of the
system than he needed: a simple cry of ‘Help!’ would have been more
effective!
What can we do to ensure that the students do not end up like the
drowning man, even though we cannot be at all certain what uses they will
eventually be required to put the language to? In the first place, the
language ‘data’ — the structures and vocabulary which they are exposed to
at the presentation stage and which they subsequently practise (and
perhaps add to themselves) — should be selected for their communicative
value. This does not mean that there will be no formal progression through
the grammatical system: only that it will be peripheral rather than central,
and items will not be taught simply because they are there in the language.
Secondly, at all stages of learning, emphasis must be placed on the
appropriate use of language - language as it is used in situations, as an
instrument of communication, as a means of social control. Formal
correctness (especially in the area of pronunciation) should be left to come
1 R Lado Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach (1963) p 38

more gradually. And thirdly, as we noted in 1.2.3, the students must be

allowed to try out the language for themselves through activities in the
classroom. It is this ‘here-and-now’ use of the language which gives them
immediate satisfaction and transforms it, from a remote goal to be
attained in the future, into something real and tangible.
I.S. Language learning in the classroom

A matter which we must now consider is whether in fact it is the job of
the teacher to attempt to regulate the learners’ experience of the language
for them in the form of a pre-selected ‘input’, a syllabus of grammatical
and vocabulary items (the ‘diet’ referred to in 1.3.). However well these
are selected for their communicative value, how can we predict what
language the learners will need at different stages of the course? Would it
not be better simply to provide them with relevant experience of the
language on a more ad hoc basis, through ‘talk’ in the form of conversation
and stories, and to provide opportunities to practise the language thus
presented through activities, which in themselves will create the demand
for yet more language, and so lead on to the next stage?
On a practical level, the effectiveness of the second approach will
depend very much on the skill and ingenuity of the teacher: the
advantages it gives in flexibility may be lost unless the teacher is
sufficiently resourceful in making use of them. But to a large extent the
difference between these two approaches depends on the nature of the
syllabus and the use it is put to. A syllabus, for example, in which the
language data is organised in the form of dialogues is in itself an attempt to
present the students with ‘talk’ in natural contexts (see 4.2.). To the
extent that it succeeds in bringing the outside world into the classroom, it
can be a much more effective way of giving the learners experience of new
language than the teacher’s own improvised presentation, however finely
this may be suited to the learners’ actual needs at the time. But more
important, a piece of language learning material such as a dialogue is a
calculated exemplification of how certain bits of the language work: it has
built into it some of the rules which the learners need to know in order to
be able to use the language. The teacher’s main concern, then, at the
presentation stage is to teach the meaning of the dialogue so as to make
the rules clear to the learners. The material itself will show these in action,
as it were, but sometimes this in itself may not be enough, and the teacher
may have to point a finger, through further exemplification and perhaps
also explanation. On occasions he may even have to attempt to codify the
rules himself, though generally not before the learners themselves have had
a go at handling them. The actual utterances in the dialogue, or whatever
piece of material is being used, are of little further use to the learners once
they have understood the rules that govern them. (That is why there is no
point in their learning them by heart: no amount of sentences learnt in
6 J> Teaching Oral English
this way will lead to mastery of the language.) So the teacher moves on to
other activities through which the students have further experience of the
rules at work and learn to operate them for themselves.
Thus, at the practice and production stages, these two approaches
converge. There remains, perhaps, one small but significant difference: an
attempt has been made, in the form of the rules provided through the
language data, to ensure that all the students will have the same
foundation on which to base their activities. They may go about these in
different ways, and some will be more successful than others, because the
presentation stage is no more than a starting point. But it is important that
they should begin with a shared experience of language that has been
meaningfully organised as language learning material to show how the rules
work. For, as we have noted, language is not simply the goal: it is also the
instrument with which this goal is attained.
Discussion
1 What are the main characteristics of the three stages described in
1.2.1.- 1.2.3?
2 We must vary and adjust our techniques to suit the various stages of
the learning process.
(a) In the light of 1.2.1. —1.2.3, say why you think this is important.
(b) Question and answer is a common form of oral practice. Say
whether you think it could be used at all three stages and if so, whether it
is likely to have a different function at each stage.
3 From your experience of teaching (or learning) a foreign language,

give examples of ‘classroom’ language (i.e. items of language commonly
taught in the classroom which are unlikely to be of use in everyday life).
4 Which of the following views on language learning do you believe in?

Give reasons.
(a) At all costs the learners must be prevented from making mistakes.
(b) The learners should not be given explanations or rules. They should
be asked to work these out for themselves.
(c) Learning takes place mainly as a result of frequent repetition.
5 What reasons are given in 1.5. for organising language data at the
presentation stage into (for example) dialogues? Do you agree? Give
reasons.
6 Language is not simply the goal: it is also the instrument with which
this goal is attained. What difference is there between language learning
and the learning of other subjects?
Exercises
1 The arrangement of the classroom rarely favours communication.
Suggest ways of arranging the classroom so as to make it easier for
students to talk to one another. Are different arrangements likely to be
needed on various occasions?
2 Here are three situations in which a foreign language user might

expect to find himself:
(a) asking the way;
(b) taking a room in a hotel;
(c) going through customs.
Make a list of the basic language items he might need in these situations.
Suggestions and references for further reading1

1 On stages of teaching and learning see J Dakin (1973) Ch 1 and D
Girard (1972) Ch 6.
2 On the learners (1.3.) see M Finocchiaro (1973) pp 20—23.
3 On the functions of language (1.4.) see S P Corder (1973) Chs 1 and 2
and D Wilkins (1972) Ch 5.
4 On the importance of communication in language teaching see J Oiler
in P Pimsleur and T Quinn (1971) Language Communication and Second
Language Learning, D Wilkins (1972) Ch 5 pp 146—149 and J P B Allen
and S P Corder (1975) Chs 3 and 6.
5 On language learning (1.5.) see J Dakin (1973) Ch 2; L Newmark in M
Lester (1970) How not to interfere with language learning and L Newmark
and D Reibel in M Lester (1970) Necessity and Sufficiency in Language
Learning. For less extreme views, see D Wilkins (1972) Ch 6 and W Rivers
(1968) Ch 3 p 41 seq.
All references are to books listed in the Bibliography on pages 142—3.

2 Oral communication
2.1. The nature of oral communication

Oral communication is a two-way process between speaker and listener (or
listeners), involving the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill
of understanding (or listening with understanding).1 Both speaker and
listener have a positive function to perform: the speaker has to encode the
message to be conveyed in appropriate language, while the listener (no less
actively) has to decode (or interpret) the message. The message itself, in
normal speech, usually contains a great deal of ‘information’ which is
redundant (i.e. it conveys more information than the listener needs, so he
is not obliged to follow with the maximum attention. See 3.1.). At the
same time the listener is helped by prosodic features, such as stress and
intonation, which accompany the spoken utterance and form part of its
meaning, and also by facial and body movements. We should also note
that, in contrast to the written language, where sentences are carefully
structured and linked together (see 10.1.), speech is characterised by
incomplete and sometimes ungrammatical utterances and by frequent false
starts and repetitions.
2.2. Pedagogical implications
2.2.1. Listening comprehension

While a higher proportion of class time is needed to develop the ability of
the students to speak, understanding of the spoken language cannot simply
be left to take care of itself. The consequences of its neglect quickly show
up outside the classroom, when the learners no longer have any control
over what is said to them. In addition, poor understanding often generates
1 This diagram shows how the four language skills are related.
Spoken lmqmge
--'--N
Receptive r Understanding Speaking "

Productive
Skills Skills
' Reading Writing
Written Language
8
Oral communication g
nervousness, which may in turn further inhibit the ability to speak.
Clearly, it is not sufficient for the students to hear only those models of
language which they are required to master for the purpose of oral
production. In the first place, their ability to understand needs to be
considerably more extensive than their ability to speak (in the same way as
they need to be able to read more easily than they can write). Secondly,
these learning models (e.g. dialogues), which have been skilfully contrived
to accelerate oral production, do not always contain a sufficiently large
number of those features of natural speech which we noted in 2.1. For
example, utterances tend to be more carefully structured and complete
(simply because they have to be written down as texts), and the level of
redundancy is generally low. In order to be able to cope with real-life
language situations, the students need regular and frequent training
through a programme of listening comprehension which exposes them in
the classroom to suitably varied models of natural speech from the earliest
stages of the language course. In short, they have actually to learn to
listen, just as they have to learn to speak.1
2.2.2. Oral production

The main goal in teaching the productive skill of speaking will be oral
fluency, the ability to express oneself intelligibly (see 2.3.), reasonably
accurately and without undue hesitation (otherwise communication may
break down because the listener loses interest or gets impatient). To attain
this goal, the students will have to be brought from the stage where they
merely imitate a model or respond to cues to the point where they can use
the language to express their own ideas (processes that must to a large
extent be in simultaneous operation). Two complementary levels of
training will therefore be required: practice in the manipulation of the
fixed elements of the language (principally the use of grammatical patterns
and lexical items), and practice in the expression of personal meaning. For
this purpose the teacher cannot depend solely on written texts (whose
limitations have already been noted) as a basis for oral practice (although
both dialogues and passages may serve as valuable starting points).
Audio-visual aids, on the other hand, provide at all levels a powerful way
of stimulating and developing oral ability without recourse to the written
language.
2.2.3. Interdependence of the oral skills in communication

Although in classroom practice it is often necessary to concentrate at
certain times on developing one of the oral skills more than the other, we
should not lose sight of the fact that oral communication is a two-way
process between speaker and listener. Thus, the speaker does not always
1 Listening comprehension is dealt with in detail in Chapter 3.

10 Teaching Oral English
initiate: he also responds to what he has heard (as for example when he
answers a question or makes a comment); while the listener does not
always remain silent: he is normally expected to make some sort of
response (which may not always be verbal as, for example, when he carries
out an instruction). In the classroom, therefore, appropriate provision has
to be made to see that the two oral skills are integrated through situations
which permit and encourage authentic communication.
2.3. Intelligibility
Intelligibility is usually defined in phonological terms (e.g. being able to
make the difference between essential sounds such as /i:/ and /i/ as they
occur in the two words leave and live). At a level of basic understanding
this aspect of intelligibility is unquestionably important but, for the
purpose of oral fluency (the goal we acknowledged in 2.2.2.), the term
needs to be extended to include a mastery of other areas of language. For
clearly, in order to be able to communicate effectively, the learners need
an adequate mastery of grammar and vocabulary as well as phonology, and
over-learning in any of these areas will serve no purpose if it excessively
slows down progress in the others. Thus, in most language programmes
(except in teacher training) the amount of time available for systematic
speech training is bound to be limited: it will be necessary therefore to
concentrate on essential features such as the differences between key
sounds, weak forms, basic stress and intonation patterns, and more
importance will need to be attached to reception of these features than
production. Similarly, in the area of grammar, students should not be
expected to master grammatical items simply because they exist in the
language, but only those essential for communication. In general, since
students cannot be expected to master more than a limited amount of the
code of a foreign language, they will only attain an adequate level of
communicative ability if balanced attention is paid to all the three areas
noted above.
2.4. Oral ability and motivation

The development of oral ability is a good source of motivation for most
learners, who are normally much concerned to be able to speak and
understand a foreign language. Satisfaction at being able to say a small
number of sentences after a few lessons must be sustained by
demonstrating to the students that they can say progressively more and
more through the language as the course continues. Practice in controlled
speaking under the teacher’s direction should be matched with
Oral communication 1 1
opportunities for free expression (when the learners should not be
discouraged by excessive correction). Although attainment in oral
production will be affected by the size of the class (see, however, 7.1.1.),
motivation can often be improved in large classes by placing greater
emphasis on the receptive skill of listening. This has the additional
advantage of getting the students accustomed to understanding the
language without reference to a written text (a problem for some
students at the post-elementary level of education, see 12.2.), as well as
providing opportunities for meaningful repetition of known material.
Discussion
1 Explain the nature of oral communication.
2 Oral communication is a two-way process between speaker and

listener. Show the importance of this idea for oral practice in the
classroom.
3 Suggest some reasons why you think oral proficiency in a foreign

language would be important for the average learner. Which of these
reasons would have immediate motivational value?
Exercises
1 Examine some examples of written language and make a list of the
devices through which the sentences are linked together.
2 Suggest at least two different ways in which a change of stress and

intonation pattern would affect the meaning of each of the following:
(a) I don’t find it very interesting.
(b) Of course, not everyone is as rich as she is.
(c) That’s George, just coming out of the pub.
(d) Be quiet, will you?
3 In 2.2.1. it was stated that dialogues in textbooks do not always

contain a sufficiently large number of ‘features of natural speech’. With
reference to this statement, Examine five dialogues in any textbook of
your choosing. Suggest if necessary how these dialogues could be improved
to make them sound more natural.
Suggestions and references for further reading

1 On oral communication in general see R Quirk (1962) pp 33—46; in
language teaching, see W Rivers (1968) Chs 6 and 7.
12 r Teaching Oral English
2 On the spoken and written forms of the language, see J Wallwork

(1969) pp 14-22 and D Wilkins (1972) pp 139-42.
3 On intelligibility see D Abercrombie (1956) pp 38—40.
4 On the importance of vocabulary see D Wilkins (1972) Ch 4
(especially pages 1 09— 11 2 and 1 32— 133).
3 comprehension
3.1. Learning to understand

We have already noted (2.1.) that listening is essentially an active process.
Yet if we are listening to our mother tongue, understanding normally
seems effortless! This is largely because, through our experience of the
language, we are immediately able to identify or recognise those elements
in the message, especially common sound sequences and grammatical
patterns, which signal meaning in various ways. Because language provides
us with more meaning signals than are strictly necessary for the purpose of
understanding, we are able to relax our attention — sometimes to the
extent of being able to understand without hearing everything that is said.
At the same time we normally have no difficulty in selecting and retaining
in our memory important items of information. The situation for the
foreign learner, on the other hand, is very different. In the early stages of
learning he is still mastering the basic patterns of phonology and
grammar which the native speaker understands so effortlessly. He has
therefore to listen with much greater attention throughout and
consequently finds it difficult both to select important items of
information from the message and to retain them in his memory, and thus
arrive at an overall understanding of what is being said to him. For this
reason, then, learning to understand simply cannot be left to chance.
Although there must be some provision in the programme for practice in
global understanding — because students should not be led to expect to
understand everything they will hear in normal communication situations
- proficiency in the listening skill can only be attained through systematic
training in identification and selection.
3.2. The nature of the programme

The principal objective of the listening comprehension programme should
be to train the students to understand, and respond appropriately to, the
kind of language they are most likely to hear in normal use. The majority
of learners, for example, are more likely to need to understand what is said
to them in ‘survival situations’ (such as shops, restaurants and hotels, see
4.2.1.) than to follow formally delivered talks. While it is clearly
impossible to provide for the full range of situations and speakers they
13
14 11 Teaching Oral English
may encounter, they can at least be given in the classroom a sufficiently

broad experience of listening to natural language so that communication
does not break down as soon as they have to communicate with native
speakers.
The programme will also have to be varied, since interest will be one of
the main factors that will determine the extent of the students’
involvement in it. Material should be selected on the basis of its appeal to
specific groups of learners. Thus young children are likely to be interested
in, and will therefore learn from, stories, while adolescents will
undoubtedly enjoy ‘pop’ songs. Adults, on the other hand, may find talks
and discussions more interesting. Normally it should not be difficult to
choose material which is interesting and also includes a good deal of
spontaneous speech.
3.3. Guidelines for listening comprehension practice

In choosing and preparing materials for practice in listening com¬
prehension, it is suggested that the teacher should provide for two parallel
but complementary lines of development. He should:
(a) train the students systematically at the levels of identification and

selection (as indicated in 3.1.);
(b) prepare the students psychologically for situations where they will
not have a full understanding of what they hear. The systematic training
they get through (a) will of course also help them in apprehending the
general meaning of the message.
Both kinds of activity have their own specific learning value and
correspond to the practice and production stages of learning respectively
(see 1.2.2. and 1.2.3.). The first approach will take the form of a series of
carefully planned and graded activities which are designed to overcome the
special difficulties the foreign learner has in decoding. These activities
should start early on in the course and be no less a regular feature of the
lesson than practice in oral production.
The second approach ‘exposes’ the students to the natural language for
the sake of the experience and gives them practice in guessing the overall
meaning of what they hear. This will normally be only an occasional
activity in the early stages of the course but should be a regular feature in
the later stages.
To test the effectiveness of the programmes and the progress of the
learners, comprehension checks should normally be carried out, but this
should be done informally. To some extent this is already taken care of if
listening activities are integrated with practice in other skills, with oral
production in particular but also with reading and writing. However, there
Listening comprehension ]5
should be a place for listening for its own sake, without overt responses.
Like general reading, this is an activity which is valuable in itself.
3.4. Activities and procedures

The listening comprehension scheme below sets out the main activities
which can be used to develop the listening skill systematically and
progressively.1
The students should be given practice in:
fa) distinguishing between key sounds, stress and intonation patterns

fin the context of sentences and longer sequences). These ear-training
activities should be on a much more extensive scale than practice in actual
production (as noted in 2.3.). Comprehension may be checked informally
e.g. by asking the students whether two utterances are the same or
different.
(b) listening to material (especially dialogues or passages with a strong

dialogue element) containing patterns and vocabulary known to the
students. This, for example, may be the main lesson dialogue either in its
original form (but listened to after a lapse of time) or expanded to
incorporate some new elements (e.g. new lexical items). Ideally, dialogues
and passages should combine language items from a number of lessons.
This type of practice gives the students the opportunity to listen to
material that contains redundant features. As they grow familiar with the
material through repetition, they will have the experience — common in
the mother tongue — of being able to anticipate what comes next in the
utterance and can thus begin to concentrate on selecting important items
of information. Comprehension checks may be carried out informally by
interrupting the dialogue or passage (this reduces the amount the students
have to retain in their memories).
(c) listening to familiar material re-recorded to incorporate various

features of the spoken language. For example, a basic piece of material
such as the main lesson dialogue can be re-exploited several times by
re-recording it using different speakers (e.g. their sex, age, accents may be
varied where the text permits this). The speakers may also use different
tones of voice (e.g. happy, sad, angry etc), different degrees of loudness,
and different speeds (ranging from fast to slow with pauses, hesitations
and repetitions, as in natural language). Dialogues may also be recorded
1 The following time scale for the activities in this section is suggested:
(a) — (f) 2-4 minutes
(g) 3 + 3 minutes (e.g. the material is divided up)
(h) - (o) 5—10 minutes
against a background of noise (e.g. noises in the street, or in a crowded

room). Comprehension may be checked, for example, by informal
comparison of one version of the dialogue with another.
(d) listening to fairly short sequences (e.g. dialogues containing two or

three exchanges only, stories, anecdotes) composed in language known to
the students so that they can concentrate on selection (what the speakers
are talking about, the main point of a story) without problems of
retention.
(e) carrying out instructions and directions which require attention and
some retention (but often no significant verbal responses). For example,
the students may be asked to identify a person or a place from a
description which they listen to. They may also be asked to follow-
directions for getting to a place (e.g. on a map). Their comprehension will
be judged correct if they ‘arrive’ at the correct place.
(f) listening to an informal description or commentary that relates to a

pictorial aid (e.g. wall picture, slide, series of pictures or slides. A film with
a simplified commentary may also be used for this purpose. See 12.9.).
The visual context helps the listeners to understand, aids retention and
reduces tension. The teacher should give the talk spontaneously (referring
only to outline notes to ensure that there is a definite line of
development), with the hesitations, pauses, repetitions that are
characteristic of normal speech. Comprehension may be checked from
time to time (or afterwards) through questioning or by making true/false
statements (see 6.2.(b) (ii) ).
(g) listening to longer sequences (e.g. playlets, stories with a high

proportion of dialogue) that are composed for the most part in language
known to the students. The material should be divided up into sections so
that the students have the experience of following a long sequence but
without problems of retention. Comprehension should be checked at the
end of eac.h section (as for (f) ). Overall comprehension may also be
checked.
(h) directed listening to long sequences (playlets, stories, informal talks)

which have not been divided up into sections as in (g). The students should
be given a number of attention pointers beforehand (e.g. questions or
true/false statements) so that they can concentrate on these specific items
(and are therefore not concerned with overall retention of the material).
(i) listening to long sequences as in (h) but without attention pointers.
The students are thus required to select the important information for
themselves. Material already used for (h) may be repeated for this purpose
at a later date. Comprehension should be checked afterwards by
questioning or by making true/false statements.
(j) listening to various types of material (e.g. dialogues, playlets, and
stories — short films may also be used) which is not composed in language
Listening comprehension 17
adapted to the level of the students. The purpose of this is to accustom the
students to listening without full understanding. Global understanding of
the material may be checked and also perhaps one or two specific points.
A general discussion may also be held afterwards so that those students
who have misunderstood or not fully understood the material may be
gently enlightened.
(k) listening to material which has a high information content (i.e.

which has been written down but would normally be listened to) such as
news bulletins, announcements (as at railway stations or air terminals).
Listening may be either directed (as in (h) above) or non-directed.
(l) listening to native speakers talking informally on topics familiar and

of interest to the students. This should preferably be done ‘live’. The best
type of comprehension check for this type of activity is to let the students
ask questions or join in the discussion at a certain point. Alternatively, a
general discussion may be held afterwards, as for (j) above.
(m) listening to recordings (since native speakers are not likely to be

available on a sufficiently large scale) and watching films which contain
varieties of the spoken language practised under controlled conditions in
(c) above. The students should be given some indication beforehand of
specific features to listen out for.
(n) listening to discussions, talks (e.g. taken from the radio) and plays
(in modern idiom) for global understanding. The students may be asked to
take notes on some occasions, when listening to talks and discussions.
(o) listening to songs. This activity may be introduced at any stage of

the course provided that the songs are interesting to the learners and do
not contain too many language difficulties.1 The students may of course
be encouraged to select the songs themselves for inclusion in the listening
comprehension programme (for many of them learning to understand
songs — and also to sing them — may be one of the main purposes in
learning the language). Unlike many other forms of listening
comprehension practice, songs can not only be repeated without risk of
boredom but they also encourage active participation (although, to be able
to join in, the students will probably need a copy of the words). This
activity thus provides a meaningful way of combining both receptive and
productive oral skills (see also 8.5.1.).
3.5. Dictation
Listening comprehension need not involve any overt responses on the part
of the students (in fact it has been suggested that the teacher should only
1 Structurally based songs are also available. See, for example, Mister Monday and
Other Songs for the Teaching of English, Sunday Afternoons and Goodbye
Rainbow (Longman).
check informally to see whether the students have understood). Dictation,
on the other hand, does: it involves the ability not only to understand a
sequence of sentences read aloud but also to reproduce it in writing. It is a
more difficult exercise than is generally appreciated, even when the text is
made up (as it normally should be) of patterns and vocabulary which the
students are familiar with both in their spoken and written forms.
Admittedly, in order to allow the students time to write, the text is
divided up into smaller units (i.e. sense groups based on sentence, clause
and phrase boundaries), although this only adds to the artificiality of the
exercise. The problem is, then, how can we make it more purposeful?
In the first place, we might use dictation to focus attention on specific

problems of pronunciation. For this purpose the teacher may dictate not a
passage but a number of sentences that contain, for example, minimal pair
distinctions (e.g. Will you buy me some pepper when you go to the
shop?/Go to the shop and buy me some paper). In this way the students
are required to listen carefully to complete utterances and to write them
down, taking the differences (e.g. pepper/paper) into account. Similarly,
sentences for dictation may provide practice in distinguishing between
homophones (bored/board, see/sea etc) which the students listen to in
context: for example, He got bored in the end and He got on board in the
end. This is basically a test of understanding rather than spelling, although
of course the students must also know the correct orthographic form for
each word.
Secondly, if passages are used for dictation, they should in general not
only be short but also to a large extent contain sentences that do not have
to be broken up into units that are meaningless when heard separately. A
sentence such as the following, for example, cannot be satisfactorily
divided up into sense groups: The inspector sat in his office, studying the
reports on the three people who might have stolen the colonel’s collection
of rare coins. It is better therefore to present it to the students in the form
of much shorter sentences, each of which will be meaningful to them when
they hear it. For example: The inspector sat in his office. He was studying
the reports on three people. Any one of these might have stolen the
colonel’s collection of rare coins. Although the last sentence is perhaps still
too long, it would be better to repeat it two or three times rather than
divide it up.
An authentic setting may be provided by presenting the dictation in the

form of a letter (including the address, since this is an item which we are
often required to write down in real life). In this form the exercise
becomes less impersonal and the texts used for this purpose may include
sentence types (questions, commands) which are less commonly found in
other types of passage. To add another purpose to the activity, the
students may be asked to supply the punctuation themselves (which is
normally dictated when the exercise is used as a test). The discussion of
this afterwards must, of course, be conducted on a common-sense basis.
Listening comprehension 19
Discussion
1 Learning to understand' cannot be left to chance (3.1.). Explain in
your own words the difficulties the foreign learner is likely to have in
understanding what is being said to him.
2 Do you agree with the suggestion that students should sometimes be

given opportunities to listen without any check being carried out to see
whether they have understood? Give reasons.
3 What kinds of listening comprehension material could be taken from

radio programmes?
4 Do you agree with the assessment of dictation given in 3.5? From your
own experience as a teacher (or language learner), what value have you
found in dictation?
Exercises
1 Suggest some types of listening comprehension material which would
be suitable for each of the following categories of learner: (a) children; (b)
adolescents; (c) adults.
2 Choose a main lesson dialogue from any suitable textbook and show
how it might be re-scripted for recording along the lines suggested in
3.4.(c).
3 With reference to 3.4.(f), prepare a set of notes which could be used as

the basis of a commentary on the wall picture in 12.6.
4 Choose five songs (‘pop’, folk, traditional) which would be suitable for
inclusion in a listening comprehension programme.

1 On perception see S P Corder (1973) pp 11 5 — 126.
2 On listening comprehension see W Rivers (1968) Ch 6; J Dakin (1973)
Ch 3; M Finocchiaro (1973) pp 106—110 and D Wilkins (1974) pp 66—69.
3 On dictation see J Dakin (1973) pp 111-114 and M Finocchiaro
(1973) pp 133-135.
4 The Presentation stage
4.1. The presentation off new material

In order to build up their mastery of the language the students must
continually learn new patterns and vocabulary, and one of the teacher’s
tasks, as noted in 1.2.1, is to convey the meaning of these items. The
procedures used to do this must be:
(a) economical: because understanding is only part of the learning

process and the teacher must not devote a disproportionate amount of
time to this stage;
(b) effective: otherwise the students will not understand what they are
later required to practise.
Since the new items will normally be found, in combination with

previously learnt material, within the framework of a ‘text’ (a dialogue or
prose passage), the teacher’s main concern should be to exploit the
linguistic context thus provided to the best advantage, at the same time
making the context of situation (What is happening? Who is speaking? etc)
more meaningful — and more memorable — through the use of appropriate
aids.
4.1.1. The selection and grading of language material

Since the amount of language which the students can be expected to
absorb in any one lesson (or series of lessons) is limited, the number of
new items'incorporated in each text needs to be restricted. As a rule, the
dialogue or passage will be constructed to contextualise and focus
attention on one or perhaps two structural items, together with a number
of lexical items chosen for their appropriateness to the situation.
(Colloquial expressions and idioms may also appear as ungraded items in
the text. The students are expected to learn these incidentally.) An ‘item’
is normally a single use, for example, of a tense or some other grammatical
element; other and more difficult uses are taught later, and are then
integrated with previously taught ones. In this way the learning of the
language progresses in a kind of spiral (rather than in a straight line) and
these key items, selected for their communicative value, taught intensively
and then repeated in subsequent lessons in new and varied contexts, form
the basis of the learner’s gradually expanding competence in the language.
20
The Presentation stage 21
4.2. The dialogue as an instrument for teaching

the spoken language
Since the main concern in the early stages is normally to teach the spoken
language, the type of text best suited to this purpose is unquestionably the
dialogue. It presents the language directly in the contexts in which it is
most commonly used, and permits the learners to practise it in the same
way, thus establishing a firm link between language and situation. Both
key structures and many features of the spoken language are easily
accommodated within its framework (see 4.2.1.). The dialogue also
permits the students to participate actively in the lesson, which, from the
point of view of motivation, is extremely important.
The prose passage (narrative, descriptive etc), on the other hand, has
none of these advantages, although it may be used to good effect from
time to time for the sake of variety (and to provide practice in reading).
The language of such texts, however, is generally less relevant to the
immediate needs of the students.1 At the same time, the passage does not
permit them to participate in the lesson as they can with the dialogue, and
the teacher has to work harder to secure their active involvement.
4.2.1. Criteria for evaluating (and constructing) dialogues

Although the dialogue form has the advantages noted above, it will be less
effective as a teaching device unless it is well constructed. The criteria
below are intended to guide the teacher in evaluating the dialogues to be
found in textbooks. Unsatisfactory dialogues may be modified or replaced
with ones written by the teacher himself.
(a) the language should be relevant. The key items in the dialogue on
which practice centres should be those the students need for
communication. That is, they should enable them to express such concepts
as obligation, approval and disapproval, agreement and disagreement, likes
and dislikes, intention, advice, warnings, etc.
(b) the language should be appropriate. The dialogue should

incorporate those forms which are typical of the spoken language. For
example, one would expect to find, among other things, contracted forms
{can’t, won’t etc); short form answers (see 6.1.1 .(d) ); responses with
phrases {Where are you going? To the cinema — rather than: I’m going to
the cinema)', introductory phrases {By the way, . . Of course but . . .)
and hesitation markers {Well, . . . Oh, . . . Er, . . .). The inclusion of such
features goes a long way towards making a dialogue sound like real speech
(rather than a piece of written language).
1 The dialogue normally also permits a use of language which is much simpler than
what can be used in a passage. Compare for example the dialogue in 4.3.1. with
the passage in 4.4. While the dialogue might be further simplified, the passage
could not be without making it sound artificial.
22
(c) the situations should be realistic and relevant. The situations used in
the dialogue should portray real people behaving in a real world, since the
learners are not likely to be convinced by remote or abstract situations.
Although it is impossible to predict either the situations in which the
learners will find themselves or what they might be obliged to say in these
situations^ the list below indicates those most likely to be encountered and
therefore provides relevant contexts for practising relevant language.
Travel agency, customs;

port, airport, station;
bus, tube, train, taxi.
Accommodation agency;
hotel, hostel, private house, camping site.
Shopping grocer’s, chemist’s etc;
post-office, petrol station.
Services restaurant, cafe, bar, pub;
bank, hairdresser’s;
shoe repairs, dry cleaning;
lost property office.
‘Problem’ situations doctor, dentist;
accident, hospital;
asking the way (outside/inside a
building; long/short distances).
Social introductions;
time, weather;
telephoning;
cinema, theatre, concerts;
parties, dances.
(d) the structural items should be limited. The dialogue should

concentrate on presenting one or at the most two main structures. These
must be well exemplified in the dialogue, but should not be repeated too
often, otherwise the language will begin to sound unnatural. (Certain
situations will of course allow an item to be repeated frequently without
sounding unnatural.)
(e) the lexical items should be restricted. The dialogue is not a suitable
vehicle for teaching a great mass of vocabulary. Items included should be
appropriate to the situation and should not distract from the learning of
key structural items.
(f) the dialogue should not be too long. While it is not possible to lay
down any rules, clearly a dialogue that runs on too long is likely to be very
unwieldy for teaching purposes. It would probably have to be divided up
into sections and some of its effectiveness would thus be lost. An optimum
length for a dialogue is perhaps 8-10 exchanges (the number of utterances
in each exchange must also be limited, otherwise the speakers begin to
deliver monologues).
(g) the dialogue must be interesting. The students are more likely to
absorb a dialogue that has in it some excitement or humour or suspense. It
should also involve some activity, so that it can be dramatised, not simply
said aloud.
4.3. Presenting the dialogue:

some approaches contrasted
Although the dialogue is an effective device for contextualising new items
of language, especially if it is accompanied by a visual sequence that
illustrates each utterance or exchange, it is unlikely that its entire meaning
will be clear to the students even after they have listened to it several
times. Much will depend on which and how many items have been
included, and how well they have been contextualised; but in any case, if
they have to listen to the dialogue without any previous preparation for
the new language, the students are likely to get only a general impression
of the meaning at this stage. While some teachers are satisfied with this on
the grounds that meaning is best apprehended in terms of wholes, others
regard it as wasteful and would prefer their students to have a more
complete understanding from the outset. Since, then, this is an area where
there is some disagreement, which is also reflected in the way course
materials are constructed, various approaches to this problem are set out
and discussed below.
(a) the teacher first ‘sets the scene’ for the dialogue, normally in the
mother tongue, and then presents it in conjunction with a visual sequence
(e.g. pictures, filmstrip) which illustrates each utterance or exchange. The
direct association which is thus established between the new items of
language and the situations in which they are used, combined with their
contextualisation within the dialogue, is a powerful way of conveying
meaning. The teacher may still need to combine this approach with the
translation (or explanation) of occasional items.
(b) the teacher systematically anticipates the occurrence of new items,

especially structural ones, by teaching them in isolation from the dialogue,
although contextualised by means of appropriate visual aids. That is, the
meaning is conveyed through actions or miming, or through pictorial aids
such as picture cards, charts, the magnetboard or slides. The magnetboard,
for example, can be especially effective in creating a series of situations
which will illustrate the meaning of an item (see, for example, 5.3.1.). For
an approach along these lines a detailed teacher’s guide is desirable and a
good supply of visual aids essential. In the hands of a skilful teacher,
ingenious in the improvisation of meaningful and relevant situations which
will hold the attention of the class, such an approach can be extremely
effective and results in the students being able to understand the entire
dialogue when they first hear it. In this case, however, the dialogue serves
mainly to integrate previously learnt material, so it is not strictly an
instrument of presentation.
(c) the teacher selects- one or two key items from the dialogue and
presents them rapidly beforehand along the lines indicated in (b). This
means that the students are at least roughly aware of the meaning of key
items before they hear the dialogue and are therefore better able to.
understand its meaning as a whole. Such an approach represents a balanced
compromise between (a) and (b) and acknowledges difficulties which the
learners have when they hear new material for the first time. The dialogue
still remains the main instrument of presentation.
(d) the teacher selects key items from the dialogue and translates them
before the dialogue is presented. This limited use of translation (an
expedient, rather than a procedure) is a quick way of smoothing out
difficulties and of putting the students in a relaxed and therefore receptive
frame of mind. This occasional use of translation as an expedient should
not be avoided for fear of encouraging the habit of mental translation.
This, in any case, must be assumed to be taking place to some extent
during the early stages of learning a foreign language, whatever procedures
are used, since the learners will naturally try to relate the unknown — the
new language — to the known — their mother tongue. It is important,
however, that idiomatic equivalents, not word for word translations,
should be given and the habit of dependency should not be allowed to
develop.
(e) the teacher provides an idiomatic mother tongue equivalent of the

dialogue, accompanied by pictorial aids, immediately before he presents
the dialogue in the foreign language, so that the students have a complete
understanding of what it is- about. Although this sets the students
completely at their ease, such an approach places too great a dependence
on translation and does not encourage the active association of the foreign
language with the situations in which it is normally used.
(f) the teacher interrupts the dialogue to demonstrate, translate or

explain the meaning of any difficulties. This may be done, for example,
the second time the students listen to the dialogue. If one of the
procedures outlined in (c) to (e) is not used, some such approach is likely
to be needed, since an interested class may not be satisfied with a
presentation that gives them only a partial understanding of new material.
If the procedure to be followed is not implicit in the course materials,
teachers are advised to select the one best suited to the dialogue being
taught. Where, for example, the dialogue contains a number of new items,
and failure to understand these would definitely prevent the learners from
understanding the dialogue as a whole, it is advisable to illustrate the
meaning of such items beforehand, using one of the techniques indicated.
In general, the apt use of visual material helps to establish in the minds of
the learners a direct association between language and situation, and
therefore where possible this approach is to be preferred to translation.
However, any attempt to illustrate the meaning of new language through
visual aids must be evaluated from the viewpoint of the learner: what may
be clear to the teacher, who already knows the language, may not be so to
the learner, who is being given his first experience of this item of language.
It is not usually sufficient to give a single illustration of an item: normally
several of these, in varied contexts, will be needed both to build up a
complete understanding and to avoid confusion (see 12.7.).
4.3.1. Presenting the dialogue: a basic approach

There is clearly no one correct approach to presenting the dialogue in the
classroom. The procedure set out below may, however, be safely followed
on most occasions (with modifications where necessary).
Step 1 Set the scene for the dialogue (in the students’ own language):
introduce the characters and describe the setting. To some extent
the teacher may use the ‘stage directions’ given in the dialogue, as
in the example below.
Sample dialogue
Tom sees a pretty girl sitting on the beach. He goes up to her.
Tom: Hello! Do you mind if I sit down here?
Ann: No, of course not.
Tom: Er, my name’s Tom.
Ann: Mine’s Ann. (She notices Tom’s camera) What a marvellous
camera!
Tom: Yes, and it takes marvellous pictures too. Do you mind if I take
one of you?
Ann: Well, all right, if you really want to.
Tom: Go and stand over there, then.
Ann goes and stands near the edge of the sea.
Ann: Here?
Tom: Yes, that’s fine. Now look out to sea. OK, don’t move!
Ann (after a minute): Have you taken it yet?
Tom: Yes, of.. . Oh, damn!
Ann: What’s wrong?
Tom: Do you mind if I take another? I forgot to put a film in the
camera!
Step 2 (Optional) Deal with any special difficulties if this is felt to be

really essential. The sample dialogue, for example, presents the
pattern Do you mind if. . .? The students can probably get the
general meaning of this from the context. A translation should
not therefore be necessary, but the teacher may wish to give
some examples of its use before proceeding with the dialogue.
Step 3 Let the students listen to the dialogue without looking at the
text in their books. They may be asked to listen first without
seeing the accompanying visual material or they may be allowed
to look and listen at the same time. They should hear the
dialogue two or three times.
Step 4 At this point let the students follow the text in their books
while they listen. This will help the weaker members of the class;
(and certainly those students who become tense when they do
not have access to a written text).
Step 5 Ask the students to repeat the dialogue in chorus (see 5.1.1.).
This is best done by selecting meaningful units from the
dialogue rather than isolated utterances. For example: Do you
mind if I sit down? and the response: No, of course not. The
class can be divided into two groups for this purpose. At this
stage they should not be allowed to refer to their texts.
Step 6 Repeat the dialogue, cueing the responses of first one speaker
and then the other. Read the other part yourself. For example,
the students (without looking at their texts) take first the part
of Ann in the sample dialogue and when they have worked
through her lines, then take the part of Tom. Prompt the
students where necessary. If there is time, individual responses
may be allowed.
Step 7 Check comprehension by asking some easy questions. For

example, after Do you mind if I sit down here? ask: What does
Tom want to do? Then use the pattern in classroom situations:
Do you mind if I (sit next to you?/borrow your (book)?/hold
your hand?). Illustrate, explain or translate the meaning of any
items which the students have failed to understand.
Step 8 Ask the students to reproduce the whole dialogue in response to

pictorial cues. Do not insist on the utterances being reproduced
exactly word for word.
Step 9 Give the students practice in reading aloud from the text.1
Step 10 Divide the students into small groups so that they can practise
the dialogue on their own and prepare to act it out.
4.4. Presenting the prose passage

It was noted in 4.2. that, in the early stages of the course, the language
used in narrative and descriptive passages is in general less likely to be
1 Steps 8 and 9 may be reversed with weak classes. Step 9 may be omitted with
good classes.
relevant to the immediate needs of the learners and, at the same time, their
active involvement in the lesson will be more difficult to secure. This will
not be the case, of course, if the passage contains plenty of dialogue (for
example, the story of Tom and Ann could be presented in this way. In this
case, the main difference between the dialogue and the passage would lie
in the use of reporting structures such as he said, she asked etc). As a rule,
however, the prose text is a continuous sequence of sentences which have
been carefully sequenced and linked together to convey the writer’s total
meaning. It is meant to be complete in itself, and normally it is meant to
be read (and re-read if necessary) silently - rather than to be read aloud
and listened to.
However, given the teacher’s concern to teach the spoken forms of the
language in the early stages of the course, procedures have to be evolved
whereby such passages (if they are a regular feature of the textbook) can
be exploited for oral work. This is not too difficult at the practice stage
(see 6.2.). The main difficulty lies in the actual presentation of such
passages in the classroom. It is much less easy to lay down a basic
approach, as for the dialogue: a great deal depends on the actual type of
passage. A passage which tells a story, for example, can be read aloud and
listened to, but one that is tightly organised and contains a great deal of
information is perhaps best read silently by the students first. If the
passage is going to be read aloud, there might be a case for presenting one
or two of the structural items in it beforehand (because in listening to a
passage of continuous prose the students are not helped by the kind of
‘give and take’ to be found in a dialogue, where one speaker reacts to
another); whereas if the students are to be allowed to read it through
silently — under less pressure than when they are obliged to follow a
continuous flow of speech — they may be left to guess the meaning of
these items from the context (which is part of the normal reading process).
Pictorial aids, combined with appropriate miming of actions by the
teacher, will also play an important part in conveying the meaning of
many narrative and descriptive passages. The text below, for example,
which has been chosen to illustrate possible procedures for presentation,
refers to a number of actions whose meaning could be conveyed through
mime alone.
Sample passage
By midday the sun was so strong that Jim could not go any further.
There were no trees near the path, so he took shelter under a big rock.
After drinking the rest of his water, he took off his shirt and rolled it
up into a pillow. Then he lay down on the ground and went to sleep.
He was so tired that he did not wake up until the evening. He was
just about to jump up when he felt something moving near his feet. He
looked down. A long, black snake was just about to crawl across his
legs!
Jim was so afraid that he could not move. The snake began to crawl
across his legs. It hesitated for a moment, then crawled on and vanished
under the rock. Jim jumped to his feet and pausing only to pick up his
shirt, ran off down the path.
The main events of the passage could be shown in about six pictures. Two
of these are given below:
The main structural item in the passage, which occurs three times, is
clauses of result (e.g. The sun was so strong that . . .). These need not be
presented beforehand because, even if the students fail to understand their
precise meaning at the start, their overall understanding of the passage will
not be affected. The following steps might then be used to present the
passage.
Step 1 Tell the story in an informal style, using items from the passage,
but not deliberately using any of the structures. This permits
the students to listen with a greater degree of ease than if they
had to listen to the text read formally to them. It also permits
the speaker to accompany the telling of the story with
appropriate mime (actions, gestures and facial expressions).
Appropriate tones of voice (fear, relief) should also accompany
the telling of the story.
Note: This approach is suited to a passage that has a strong story line. For
more factual passages the teacher might simply say a few words by way of
introduction to the topic.
Step 2 (Optional) Deal with any special difficulties if this is felt to be
really necessary. This is probably not needed in the case of the
sample passage.
Step 3 Read the passage to the students, who should listen with books
closed.
Step 4 Let the students read the text silently. Set an appropriate time
limit (say 3—4 minutes) which will encourage them to read with
concentration but not too hastily. Stress that they should try to
guess the meaning of any difficult items.
Step 5 Read the passage again, this time elucidating any difficulties.
Involve the students by asking them to give their ideas. For
example, someone may ask the meaning of crawl, but even if
the word is not known to the students, they can guess the
meaning from the context. Comprehension of certain points
may be checked by questioning. For example: Did Jim actually
have a pillow with him? How did he make one?
Step 6 Repeat Step 3 or Step 4. Step 3 places greater emphasis on

listening comprehension (the passage by now should contain a
high proportion of redundant elements). Step 4 stresses silent
reading ability. The reading, however, should now be done more
rapidly (say, in about half the time of the previous one).
Step 7 Give the students selective practice in reading aloud. For

example, students may be called upon to read a sentence after
the teacher. One or two students may be asked to read a short
sequence of two or three sentences but not more (because
generally they are not interested in hearing one another read
aloud).1
Discussion
1 With particular reference to 4.3.(a) and (b), say whether you think the
dialogue should be used mainly to present new language or to integrate
language items previously learnt. Give reasons for your point of view. Say
whether you think the prose passage should be used in the same way.
2 What reasons are given for preferring dialogues to prose passages in the
early stages (of a general course). Do you agree with these?
3 To what extent do you think translation should be used at the

presentation stage? What are some possible advantages and disadvantages?
1 For further exploitation of the passage see 6.2.

4 To what extent is it more important to give practice in silent reading

than in reading aloud when presenting the prose passage?
5 Which of these points of view do you agree with? Give reasons.

(a) Translation should be used where necessary as a way of
smoothing out the difficulties of the learners at the presentation
stage.
(b) The learners should not be allowed to see the text when the
dialogue is being first presented.
(c) Meaning is best apprehended in terms of wholes rather than
built up step by step.
Exercises
1 With reference to the criteria given in 4.2.1:
(a) Take each summary statement (e.g. the language should be
relevant) and explain it in your own words.
(b) Evaluate the sample dialogue given in 4.3.1.
(c) Evaluate any three dialogues from a textbook (or textbooks) of
your own choosing. In order to compare the dialogues, you may
find it helpful to set your analysis out as follows:
Criteria
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
Dialogue 1
2
3
(d) Rewrite if necessary any of the dialogues analysed above.
2 With reference to the passage in 4.4. say which of the following would
be useful-in conveying meaning:
(a) pictorial aids;
(b) mime;
(c) exemplification (e.g. through ‘classroom’ examples);
(d) explanation (including rules);
(e) translation.
3 Draw (or specify the pictorial content of):

(a) a picture strip to accompany the dialogue in 4.3.1.
(b) pictures for paragraphs 2 and 3 of the passage in 4.4.
4 Any attempt to illustrate the meaning of new language through visual

aids must be evaluated from the viewpoint of the learner. Examine the
visual material in any textbook of your own choosing from this point of
view.
1 On techniques of presentation see W F Mackey (1965) Ch 8.
2 On meaning see S P Corder in H Fraser and W R Donnell (1969) The

Teaching of Meaning and D Wilkins (1972) pp 130-133.
3 On the importance of the visual element in language teaching see S P

Corder (1966) and A Wright (1976).
4 On grading see D Wilkins (1972) pp 77 seq.
5 On the use of dialogues see D Girard (1972) Ch 3; W Rivers (1968)

Ch 7 and M Finocchiaro (1973) pp 111 seq.
5 The Practice stage (I):
The use of drills
5.1. The needs of the learners

After new items have been presented in meaningful contexts (Chapter 4)
and some imitation and repetition carried out (see 4.3.1.), the students
must be given ample opportunity to practise these items for themselves.
That is to say, they need:
(a) practice They must be allowed to use the new items. There is no
substitute for this (e.g. through their being asked to explain or translate).
(b) oral practice As far as possible they should be given practice

without reference to the text. For example, their attention should not be
focused on questions in their textbook or sentences that have to be
completed or converted.
(c) guided oral practice This is needed to build up the confidence of

the learners in using the new items by ensuring that they have something
to say and can say it without too much hesitation.
(d) meaningful oral practice Because drills are guided, this does not
mean that they have to be mechanical. The learners should at all times
understand and pay attention to what they are required to say, and their
utterances should not only be correct (as far as possible: mistakes are not
dangerous but they slow up the lesson at this stage) but appropriate to the
situation. Practice must therefore take place in a context.
(e) extensive oral practice The teacher’s task is to see that the learners
get sufficient practice — not, at this stage, to do the talking himself.
Does the solution, especially with large classes, lie partly or mainly in
some form of choral practice? This technique is discussed first, since it is
commonly used in many classrooms.
5.1.1. Chorus work

As its name implies, this technique requires a number of students to speak
in unison. The whole class may be asked to do this together, if it is not too
large, or else it may be divided up for this purpose into a number of units,
each of which usually relates to the way the students are already divided
into rows. The students in each choral unit must know when to speak: the
teacher may point or give a brief instruction (e.g. ‘Now Chorus 1’ etc).
32
The Practice stage (1): The use of drills 33
They must know what to say: this usually involves repeating something
after the teacher or modifying sentences in a fixed way. They must speak
together: for this purpose the teacher normally controls the rhythm of the
sentences by beating time. Clearly, for success even at this superficial level,
material for repetition or modification must be carefully selected: the
sentences cannot be too long or too complicated, or have a rhythm which
makes it difficult to say them in unison.
At the presentation stage, it is convenient to get the students to repeat
parts of the dialogue in chorus. It gives them some practice in speaking, if
only through imitation, and they often derive some comfort from being
allowed to speak in chorus before they are asked to speak as individuals.
Provided the teacher moves among the students and listens carefully, he
can detect the grosser errors. At the practice stage too, some repetition,
especially of model sentences, will be required. But what other forms of
practice can be given through chorus work? The answer seems to be drills:
controlled practice which permits the students to perform only in a fixed
way. Chorus work, then, seems to be a natural associate of the mechanical
drills discussed in 5.2. If these are an effective way of giving oral practice,
it will be logical to use choral techniques for doing this on an extensive
scale.
5.1.1.1. The‘ripple’technique
The value of chorus work as a repetition procedure is not being
questioned. But can the teacher really hear when the students make
mistakes? If up to ten students begin speaking simultaneously, how can he
hear which ones are speaking correctly? An alternative approach is to build
up the chorus gradually. The teacher asks one student to speak; then with
a circular movement of his hand includes perhaps two more; and then
expands the chorus still further by bringing in two or three more students.
By building up the chorus step by step, the teacher is better able to listen
to what is said on each occasion the chorus is expanded, and thus detect
mistakes. And the students themselves are kept more alert since they do
not know at what point they will be called upon to speak.
5.2. Mechanical drills

It may seem superfluous to describe drills as mechanical. Surely that is
what all drills are: a form of linguistic discipline, requiring the learners to
perform correctly in the language regardless of whether they understand
what they are saying? Certainly the students can get extensive practice in
this way, and generally they can speak without too much intervention on
the part of the teacher. They can produce almost effortlessly an endless
stream of correct sentences, and this must seem attractive to the teacher
with a large number of students in his class. It is at l^ast one step forward
from mere imitation, and less discouraging than responses that are full of
mistakes.
And perhaps it would be wrong to assume that the students gairt
nothing from a form of practice that rules out all possibility of error. It is
possible that in this way they gain some confidence and fluency at the
level of pronunciation. But it is extremely doubtful whether mechanical
procedures (such as the substitution table) have any real learning value: it
is a common experience for students to repeat dozens of sentences of a
certain type and yet be unable to produce the same type of sentence for
themselves. These procedures seem to leave the learners where they started
off: at the level of repetition.
5.2.1. Substitution drills

The substitution table, as shown in the example below, is the most
condensed form of this type of drill.
atlas
has mislaid
dictionary
you asked for lost
The been
he wanted borrowed
photographs
have stolen
maps
The material to be practised is presented to the students in written form

(see 5.1 .(b) ). Only correct sentences can be formed from the table
(provided the students follow the convention whereby singulars are
separated from plurals. The table could in fact have been made a little
more challenging by mixing up the singular and plural nouns in the subject
slot).
The same pattern could be practised through an oral substitution drill,
using callwords as prompts.
Teacher: The dictionary you asked for has been stolen.
Use LOSE
Students: The dictionary you asked for has been lost.
Teacher: BORROW
Students: The dictionary you asked for has been borrowed (etc).
Both types of practice are completely mechanical. Could anything be done
to make it less so? With the substitution table, the students could be asked
to perform operations other than that of merely forming sentences by
‘ringing the changes’. For example, they could use the material in the table
to form exchanges along these lines:
SI: Where are the maps I asked for?
S2: I’m afraid they’ve been mislaid.
Or to form complex sentences along these lines: I’m afraid the dictionary
you wanted hasn’t been borrowed. It’s been stolen.
In the oral drill, the substitution of nouns in the subject slot could be
cued by picture cards, as an alternative to actually providing them with the
words. The drill itself could also be progressively varied as follows:
T: The photographs he wanted have been stolen.

BORROW
S: The photographs he wanted have been borrowed.
T: ATLAS.
S: The atlas he wanted has been borrowed.
T: ASK FOR.
S: The atlas he asked for has been borrowed (etc).
Although in this way the learners have to pay more attention to the form
of what they are saying, the drill still remains inherently mechanical. The
sentences are practised out of context, and the students do not have to
pay any attention to meaning.
5.2.2. Transformation (or Conversion) drills

Transformation drills are used to practise changes, for example, from
affirmative to interrogative or negative; from one pronoun form to
another, and from active to passive (etc). The teacher starts with a model
sentence:
T: I get up early every morning. Use TOM.

S: Tom gets up early every morning.
T: I have a bath.
S: He has a bath.
T: I have breakfast at about seven-thirty.
S: He has breakfast at about seven-thirty (etc).
Although the structural areas for which this type of drill is commonly
used undoubtedly require a great deal of practice, it is unlikely that the
students will master them in this way. There are, clearly, alternative ways
of practising these structural items: for example, by using picture strips.
The sentences can then be elicited without recourse to transformation.
There are, however, certain situations in real life in which we do

actually transform or convert what people say: for example when we
report what someone has said. One way, then, of making such practice
more meaningful is by getting the students to ‘report’ the utterances to
one another. For example:
T: I’m going to a party this evening.

51 (to S2): Did you hear that? He’s going to a party!
T: I’m going to buy a new shirt for the party.
52 (to S3): Just imagine! He’s going to buy a new shirt!
At a later stage many aspects of indirect speech can be realistically

practised in this way. Chain reporting (i.e. one student speaking to another
round or across the class) adds to the interest. But drills of this kind
proceed of course at a much slower pace.
5.2.3. Conclusion
There are many more types of mechanical drill. Indeed they are a common
feature of many textbooks. Question and answer practice is often carried
out quite mechanically, as, for example, when students are required to
reply to questions such as Did you (stay at home last night?/watch TV?/go
to bed early? etc) using a fixed type of response (e.g. Yes, I did).
Conditioned responses to questions are a degree worse than the drills
above (we normally ask questions in order to find something out). But if
we left the drill open (Answer these questions honestly!) the sequence
would no longer be predictable. If the student replies ‘no’ to the first
question, the rest of the drill collapses. In this case we can no longer focus
his attention on a particular type of response, as above. But it is much
more likely that we shall succeed in getting him to pay attention to the
meaning of what he is saying.
5.3. Meaningful practice

We have seen that mechanical drills are capable of giving extensive practice
(because most of them can be done in chorus) and rapid practice (because
once the students have grasped the form of the drill, their responses can
often be prompted by the teacher saying just one word). But they are not
meaningful. It looks as if there is a conflict between two of the ‘needs’
listed in 5.1. — and perhaps this conflict cannot be fully resolved so long as
the class is taught as a single unit. And since at this stage the teacher will
often wish to teach all the students together, let us for the moment
concentrate on making practice more meaningful, regardless of whether it
goes at a slower pace. To some extent we should also be less concerned
about the students always making correct responses. The classroom is a

more flexible place than the language laboratory: drills can be modified,
alternative responses can be called for — and mistakes can be corrected.
5.3.1. Using visual aids

A set of flashcards like the one below is a useful piece of equipment for
the teacher, but since items are depicted in isolation, not in situations,
they are really only visual prompts, and normally only make practice a
little more memorable.
They can, however, be used to yield a limited amount of meaningful

practice. For example, if the students are asked to make true statements in
connection with them: A (piano) costs more than a (guitar). It is easier (to
ride a bike) than to (drive a car). In the area of personal choice, the
students can be asked to express preferences: I’d rather have (a motor
boat) than (a plane) etc. This kind of practice is possible because the
pictures are linked (and arranged in a particular way. See 12.7.).
Wall pictures or scenes created on the magnetboard (or flannelgraph),
on the other hand, depict situations which are complete in themselves and
therefore provide a context for meaningful practice. Moreover, they can be
used to provide guided practice at all levels of language learning. For
example, with reference to the picture of the room on page 38, at an
elementary level the teacher can give the students practice (and at a fairly
rapid rate) in the pattern: There’s a (bookcase) (near) the (door). Having
established the pattern, he needs only to point to relevant items to elicit
sentences of the same type, or he can allow the students to suggest their
own. If he is using a magnetboard (see 12.4.) he can, by removing certain
items (clock, TV set etc), give the students meaningful practice in past
tense forms (for example: There was (a clock) on the (bookcase). John
was watching TV etc). At a more advanced level, he can give practice in
patterns such as If + Past Perfect/would have + past participle. For
example:
T: Mr Jones was standing outside the door of the sitting room. He

didn’t go in. If he had gone in, he would have seen his wife
cleaning the window.
(The students repeat the last sentence)
Teacher points to boy watching TV.
SI: If he had gone into the room, he would have seen his son
watching TV.
Teacher points to girl doing her homework.
S2: If he had gone into the room, he would have seen his daughter
doing her homework (etc).
Visual aids of this kind, which provide a complete representation of a

situation, are an important source of meaningful practice in the classroom
and, with a little ingenuity, can be put to use in a large number of ways.
5.3.1.1. A special technique

One way of making practice even more meaningful on certain occasions is
not to show the picture to the whole class. For example, if the students
have not seen the picture in 5.3.1. — but have been given some idea of
what is represented — they can ask real questions (i.e. requests for
information): for example, Is there (a TV) (in the room)? Is there (a
clock) (on the bookcase)? etc. Either the teacher, or two or three students
selected for this purpose, answer the questions.
For this type of practice even quite small pictures (e.g cutouts from
magazines, photos) can be used. Nor need practice be restricted to
question forms. The students can, for example, make assertions (e.g. /
think there’s a bookcase on the TV set), which those who can actually see
the picture accept or reject (Yes, you’re quite right. There is or Sorry,
you’re wrong. There isn’t a clock on the TV set).
5.3.2. Phasing out the cues

We have already seen (in 5.3.1.) how the teacher can gradually leave the
students free to choose the content of their sentences within a visual
context once the pattern has been established. The same procedure may
be used with verbal prompts. The drill below, which practises the item
would rather, shows how the teacher can progressively reduce his control
over what the students say.
T: Would you like to go to the cinema?

Use: I’D RATHER . .. PARK.
SI: I’d rather go to the park.
T: Would you like to play tennis this afternoon? FOOTBALL
S2: I’d rather play football.
T: WATCH - TV / LISTEN - RADIO (indicates two students to ask and
answer the question)
S3: Would you like to watch TV?
S4: I’d rather listen to the radio.
T: PLAY - CARDS (indicates two students)
S5: Would you like to play cards?
S6: I’d rather have a sleep.
In practice, the teacher might wish to retain control over the drill rather
longer, but he can quickly reach a point where the students both ask and
answer questions (in response to callwords) and in due course allow the
students to make up their own questions and answers, so that they say,
within the limits of the pattern, what they want to.
5.3.3. Open-ended responses

Many patterns can be practised by giving only part of a sentence or a
clause and letting the students suggest various ways of completing it.
Although this type of practice is not contextualised, the students are
required to give answers which are both correct and appropriate. The drill
below practises have as an action verb.
T: John was hungry, so he had a sandwich.
Now suggest other possibilities.
SI: . . so perhaps he had some biscuits.
S2: . . ., so maybe he had some bread and cheese.
S3: . . ., so he had some chocolate.
T: Mary was thirsty . . .
S4: . . ., so she maybe had a cup of tea.
S5: . . ., so she perhaps had a glass of water.
S6: . . ., so she had a glass of beer.
T: Tom was dirty, . . .
S7: . . ., so he perhaps had a bath.
S8: . . ., so he maybe had a shower.
S9: . . ., so he had a wash (etc).
5.3.4. Imaginary situations

For this type of practice the teacher outlines a situation. For example: I’ve
just bought a house. I haven’t much money and I’m furnishing it very
slowly. The students are then asked to form questions of their own but
using a particular pattern (e.g. the Present Perfect with yet would be
suitable for the situation above).
T: Now I want you to ask me questions. For example: Have you

bought a table yet?
SI: Have you bought a bed yet?
T: Yes, of course I’ve bought a bed.
S2: Have you bought a TV set yet?
T: No, I haven’t.
S3: Have you bought a fridge yet?
T: Yes, I’ve just bought one.
The same situation could be used to practise question tags. For example,
in this case the students make assertions such as I suppose you’ve bought
some chairs, haven’t you? Or: I imagine you haven’t bought any pictures
yet, have you?
Some situations can be set up with just a single sentence, as in the drill
below, which practises Conditional sentences of the type If + Simple
Present / modal verb.
T: I hear that George wants to have a meeting tomorrow. If he rings

me, I’ll say I’m busy. Now make your excuses.
SI : If he asks me, I’ll say I’m not free.
S2: If he rings me, I’ll say I’m not well.
S3: If he asks me, I’ll say it’s too soon (etc).
In the last drill of this kind which we shall look at, the students’
responses are in fact completely controlled. Its meaning for them lies not
so much in what they say but in how they say it, and in the fact that they
talk to one another. In each case the situation involves gossiping about
another person.
T: Listen. Mary eats a lot.

She eats too much!
I wish she wouldn’t eat so much!
(The students repeat these sentences until they can say them with
correct stress and intonation.)
T: JOHN — DRINK (indicates three students to speak)

SI: John drinks a lot.
S2: He drinks too much!
S3: I wish he wouldn’t drink so much!
T: ANN - SMOKE (indicates three students to speak)
S4: Ann smokes a lot.
S5: She smokes too much!
S6: I wish she wouldn’t smoke so much! (etc).
5.3.5. Practising concepts

We noted in 4.2.1.(a) that the key items in the dialogue should be
especially those needed to express such concepts as obligation, approval
and disapproval, agreement and disagreement, advice, warnings etc. Clearly
a great deal of guided practice will be needed in these areas to reinforce
what the students have been exposed to through the dialogue. Such
practice could easily become mechanical: it must therefore be combined
with procedures already indicated (e.g. the appropriate use of visual aids
and imaginary situations). In the drill below, for example, contradictions
are practised with reference to the picture in 5.3.1.
T: John’s reading a book.

SI: No, he isn’t. He’s watching television.
T: Mary’s watching television.
S2: No, she isn’t. She’s doing her homework.
T: Their mother’s sweeping the floor.
S3: No, she isn’t. She’s cleaning the window (etc).
It should be noticed that the drill in fact practises a single tense form (the
Present Continuous) but what makes it meaningful for the students is the
framework of assertion and contradiction. There is also no reason why
such drills should not be further livened up by teaching the students to use
such expressions as Don’t be silly! or Don t talk nonsense!
In the next drill, suggestions (with Let’s . . .,) and objections (with But
we haven’t got. . .) are practised.
T: Let’s make some sandwiches.

SI: But we haven’t got any butter!
S2: But we haven’t got any cheese!
<>
S3: But we haven’t got any bread!

T: Let’s make a salad, then.
S4: But we haven’t got any lettuce!
S5: But we haven’t got any tomatoes!
S6: But we haven’t got any oil. (etc).
Again, the situation must be set up before the drill is begun. A pictorial aid
would also be useful: for example, a chart showing different foods, from
which the students can select appropriate items. An important thing to
notice about these drills is that they can be done at different levels. For
example, the suggestion might take the form: Why don’t we. . .? and the
objection: Well, we can’t, can we? We’ve run out of. . .
Various responses are possible in the drill below, which practises
intention (I’m going to . . .) and objection (But you can’t . . ., can you?).
The drill also practises relationships between verb and noun (e.g. drive —
car / ride — bike etc). The items referred to are those illustrated in the
picture set in 5.3.1.
T: I’m going to buy a car.

SI: But you can’t drive, can you?
T: BIKE
S2: I’m going to buy a bike.
S3: But you can’t ride, can you?
(The teacher points to two more students, who choose their own
items.)
S4: I’m going to buy a piano.
S5: But you can’t play, can you? (etc).
Alternative responses, at different levels of difficulty, would be: But do

you know how to play?/You do know how to play, don’t you?/I didn’t
know you knew how to play./I didn’t know you could play.
5.3.6. Expressing relationships

An effective way of making the students think about what they are saying
in a drill is to focus their attention on the meaning relationships that exist
between different elements such as sentences, clauses, phrases and words.
In the drill below, for example, the students are invited to draw inferences
from statements made by the teacher. (The drill also practises must to
express strong probability.)
T: I’ve been working all day.
SI: You must be tired!
T: I haven’t eaten a thing since breakfast.
S2: You must be hungry!
T: I haven’t had anything to drink either.
S3: You must be thirsty!
T: And now I’m going to a party.
S4: You must be . . . mad!
In the drill above, the students state consequences (except in the last
example). In the drill below, they suggest reasons.
T: I just couldn’t lift the box.

SI: I suppose it was too heavy.
T: I couldn’t get anything to eat in the cafe.
S2: I suppose you were too late.
S3: Perhaps you were too early.
T: I feel very tired today.
S4: Perhaps you didn’t go to bed early enough last night (etc).
Perhaps the chief value of this type of practice is that it can be used to
develop the student’s awareness of underlying grammatical relationships
by getting them to perform such operations as definition (What’s (an
artist)? Oh, he’s a man who (paints pictures) ) and paraphrase, as in the
drill below.
T: The box was so heavy I just couldn’t lift it.

S1: Oh, it was too heavy for you to lift, was it?
T: The questions were so difficult I just couldn’t answer them.
S2: Oh, they were too difficult for you to answer, were they?
5.3.7. Implications
There is clearly more than one way of making practice meaningful for the
students. Although these have been discussed under different headings, it
is possible to combine these various procedures to great effect. For
example, concepts can — and generally should — be practised in
conjunction with pictorial aids or one of the other procedures. But, in the
absence of context, it is very easy to revert to mechanical practice. This is
true of the last example in 5.3.6. For, although it is true to life in the sense
that we often do paraphrase (by way of comment) what someone says to
us, it is in fact little more than a variant of the transformational type drill
discussed in 5.2.2. Clearly, the teacher has to be constantly on the look
out to ensure the procedure he has chosen does in fact make practice
meaningful.
Discussion
1 It has been suggested that ‘each form of practice may have its part to
play in the learning process.’ What justification, if any, can you see for
practising drills of the types illustrated in 5.2.1. and 5.2.2? On what
occasions would you yourself wish to use them in the classroom?
2 What are some of the devices that the teacher can use in order to
reduce his control over the utterances the students are asked to produce?
3 Which of these points of view do you agree with? Give reasons.

(a) If the students speak in chorus, the teacher cannot hear if they
make mistakes.
(b) Oral practice should as far as possible be carried out without the
students referring to a written text (e.g. questions in their book).
(c) It is not important if students sometimes make mistakes. These
can be corrected.
4 What are the essentials of good choral practice? Would you use this
technique? If so, when?
Exercises
1 Examine any textbook of your own choosing to see what use is made
of drills of the type illustrated in 5.2.1. and 5.2.2.
2 Find three pictures (e.g. cutouts from magazines) for use along the
lines suggested in 5.3.1.1. Say what use you would actually make of them.
3 Suggest other language items that could be practised in conjunction

with the four pairs of picture prompts in 5.3.1.
4 Suggest other patterns (at different levels of language attainment)

which could be practised in conjunction with the picture in 5.3.1.
5 Here is an example of an exclamatory pattern that can be practised as

part of an exchange:
A: John got into the bath with his watch on.
B: How silly of him!
Work out a drill containing at least five more similar exchanges. Suggest
suitable picture prompts and callwords for use with the drill.
6 With reference to section 5.3.2, select any suitable pattern for practice
in a drill as illustrated in this section. Set out the drill in such a way that
the teacher can gradually phase out the cues.

1 On drills see J Dakin (1972) Chs 4 and 5; M Finocchiaro (1973) p 89
seq; W Rivers (1968) Ch 4; D Girard (1972) Ch 4 and W F Mackey (1965)
268 seq.
2 On chorus work see M Finocchiaro (1973) pp 81-82.
3 On the use of visual material at the practice stage see A Wright (1976).
6 The Practice stage (2):
The use of texts
6.1. The text as context

So far we have not considered the possibility of using the ‘text’ (the
dialogue or prose passage) as a vehicle for giving the students guided oral
practice. However, we are now in a position to appreciate both its
advantages and disadvantages.
Its strength lies in the fact that it offers a ready-made context for
practice. Indeed it would be strange if the teacher did not make further
use of it after he had worked so hard to make the students understand it at
the presentation stage. Its weakness lies in the fact that it is not
immediately accessible to the learners as a context for practice like, for
example, a wallchart or an ‘imaginary situation’. It is a sequence of
sentences, printed on a page or recorded on a tape, which the students are
likely to have only partially in their memories. And, as we have already
noted, we cannot give effective oral practice if the students have to keep
referring to their textbooks. Yet at the same time we would obviously
wish to avoid placing a strain on their memories. For a student may well
be able to understand the text; he may be able to use the language items in
it — and yet be unable to recall a certain detail needed, for example, to
answer a question.
How then can we best help the students? In the first place of course, if
the dialogue or passage is a long one, it can be divided up into meaningful
sections. Practice can then be made to centre on one section at a time
(after the students have been given the chance to refresh their memories
e.g. by listening to the tape or reading it through). Alternatively, we may
use visual material to remind the students of certain parts of the text, thus
drawing on an association between language and image which was
established at the presentation stage. By using expedients of this kind, we
can with care eliminate much of the fumbling for responses which often
results from practice based on a written text.
6.1.1. Question and answer as a practice technique

Question and answer is one of the commonest — and perhaps most
overworked — ways of giving language practice in the classroom. It is also
one of the most misused. Certain basic points in connection with it
therefore need to be made clear.
45
(a) It is only one of many ways of giving practice;.(whether oral or

written). We have already seen some of the alternatives in the preceding
section (see, in particular, the drills in 5.3.5. and 5.3.6. which do not
involve the use of question and answer). Visual aids too enable us to elicit
responses from the students in whatever form we want. This makes it
possible to get closer to a more natural use of language in the classroom:
we do not spend all our time in real life asking and answering questions.
(b) Questions must be as realistic as possible. It has already been

pointed out (in 5.3.1.1.) that questions are normally requests for
information of some kind:1 the person who asks a question expects to be
told something he did not know. Many of the questions asked in the
classroom are so obvious that they would be treated with scorn in real life
(Is Mrs Brown cleaning the window? Well, of course she is! You can see for
yourself, can’t you?) or else the students know that the teacher knows the
answer already.
(c) Questions based on a text must not be worded in language which is

more difficult than the text itself, or call for answers which are more
difficult. Thus with reference to the sample dialogue (reproduced in 6.3.) a
question such as: Did Ann mind if Tom sat down? would probably be too
difficult for the students to answer at this level. It can, however, be easily
re-phrased: Tom wanted to sit down. Did Ann mind? Similarly, the answer
to the question: Why did Ann remark: What a marvellous camera! may
seem obvious to the teacher: Because it was probably a very good one. The
students, however, may have established the connection of ideas — if at all
— only at the level of their mother tongue. On the other hand, if the
question is presented as follows: Tom probably had a very good camera.
How do we know this? the students are not only helped towards the
answer but are given a chance to use the language in the text meaningfully:
Because Ann said: What a marvellous camera! Clearly, therefore, both
questions and possible answers must be worked out beforehand.
(d) The different ways of both asking and answering questions must be
taken into account. The principal ways of asking questions are as follows:
(1) Wh-questions e.g. Who did Tom see on the beach? Where
did he sit down?
(2) Questions formed with an auxiliary e.g. Did Tom see a girl
on the beach? Was she pretty?
(3) Tag questions e.g. Tom saw a girl on the beach, didn’t he?
She was pretty, wasn’t she?
(4) Alternative type questions e.g. Was the girl pretty or ugly?
1 Many of the questions we ask in everyday life are of course merely intended to
maintain rapport with people around us. For example: It’s cold today, isn’t it?
The Practice stage (2): The use of texts 47
The actual choice of question form is likely to be influenced by a number
of considerations. For example, how much do we want to help the
students towards the answer at any given point of practice? Type 1
appears to do this less than the others, so the teacher will probably decide
to ask a number of ‘easy’ questions first to help familiarise the students
with the content of the text (see 6.2.) before asking questions of the first
type. In this case the question forms may be varied: e.g. Tom saw a girl on
the beach, didn t he? Was she pretty or ugly? Did he sit down next to her?
etc.
Another consideration is whether any type of question seems to offer
the possibility of more meaningful practice (as noted in (b) above). Type
1, for example, which requires the students to provide some information
themselves from the text which is not contained in the question,
appears to be more meaningful than the others. Also Type 3, which only
calls for agreement or disagreement, would appear to be more true to life
than Type 2.'
But we must also take into account what kind of answer we want to
elicit from the students. The first type of question may be answered either
with a sentence or a phrase. For example: Who did Tom see on the beach?
may be answered with: He saw a girl or simply: A girl. Type 4 may be
answered in the same way. Was she pretty or ugly? She was pretty or:
Pretty. It should be noticed that both types of answer are in fact equally
correct — and therefore require practice at some stage. It is a mistake on
the teacher’s part always to ask for a ‘complete’ answer: In fact, if the
teacher is particularly concerned to elicit, for example, He saw a girl rather
than A girl (perhaps because he wants to get the students to use the past
tense of see), he should probably use a different type of prompt. For
example, he may make a false statement: Tom saw a man on the beach.
This will result in a contradiction: No, he didn’t. He saw a girl.
Types 2 and 3 can be answered in a variety of ways:
f Yes.
Yes, he did.
Did Tom see a girl
He did, yes.
on the beach?
■ Yes, he saw a girl on the beach.
Tom saw a girl on the
Yes, he did see a girl on the beach.
beach, didn’t he?
Yes, he did. He saw a girl on the
.. beach.
While in the early stages at any rate we should probably wish the students
to use the short form answer with the auxiliary verb (Yes, he did), since
1 Since both Types 2 and 3 elicit the same range of answers, there is a strong case
for using tag questions more frequently in the classroom. They have the
advantage, from a communicative point of view, that the speaker does not
pretend to be asking for information.
this is an important idiomatic feature of spoken English which they need

to master, the students should not be led to believe that these questions
can be answered in only one way. The teacher himself, for example,
should make a point of using a variety of answers when he is answering
questions.
This brings us to the final and obvious point: the teacher himself should
not ask all the questions. The students must be given practice in this too.
We may identify the following stages of practice:
(a) the teacher asks a question and the student answers it;
(b) the teacher ‘cues’ the question. The student then asks the
question and the teacher answers it;
(c) the teacher uses cues to get some students to ask questions and
others to answer them.
We have seen (in 5.3.1. and 5.3.2.) how the teacher can progressively
reduce his control over the drill and ‘phase himself out’ by means of
appropriate cues. In the next section, these procedures are applied to
guided oral practice based on a prose text.
6.2. Using the prose passage for oral practice

In this section examples are given of two ways of exploiting the prose
passage. The sample passage from 4.4. is reproduced below for ease of
reference.
Sample passage
By midday the sun was so strong that Jim could not go any further.
There were no trees near the path, so he took shelter under a big rock.
After drinking the rest of his water, he took off his shirt and rolled it
up into a pillow. Then he lay down on the ground and went to sleep.
He was so tired that he did not wake up until the evening. He was
just about to jump up when he felt something moving near his feet. He
looked down. A long black snake was just about to crawl across his legs!
Jim was so afraid that he could not move. The snake began to crawl
across his legs. It hesitated for a moment, then crawled on and vanished
under the rock. Jim jumped to his feet and pausing only to pick up his
shirt, ran off down the path.
(a) Question and answer practice The following steps are illustrated in
detail for the first paragraph. The teacher might choose to exploit one
paragraph at a time in this way, or take the passage as a whole but treat it
in less detail. Appropriate visual aids (pictures, blackboard sketches -
however rough) are desirable.
Step 1 Familiarise the students with the text by asking questions
(Types (2)—(4) ). Provide additional help where necessary (see
worked example below).
Step 2 Ask wh-type questions, still providing additional help where
necessary.
Step 3 Ask the same questions. Do not help the students to the same
extent towards the answers.
Step 4 Use prompts to get the students to ask you questions.
Step 5 Use prompts to get the students to ask one another questions.
Step 6 Let the students ask and answer questions without the help of
prompts.1
Sample question and answer practice
Teacher Student
Step 1 Was the weather hot or

cold? Hot.
So Jim took shelter under
a big rock, didn’t he? Yes, he did.
Why? Weren’t there any
trees near the path? No, there weren’t.
I see. And did he have
any water with him? Yes.
And did he drink it? Yes, he did.
After that Jim wanted to
sleep. He had a pillow
with him, didn’t he? No, of course not!
Did he use his shirt as
a pillow, then? Yes, he did.
That’s right. He rolled
it up into a pillow. And
then he went to sleep,
didn’t he? Yes.
Step 2 Jim was walking along a

path (in the country).
Why did he stop? Because it was hot.2
Where did he take
shelter? Under a big rock.
1 This procedure may of course be modified in various ways at the discretion of

the teacher.
2 Other answers may of course be invited.
Teacher Student
Under a big rock? Why

there? Because there weren’t
any trees near the path.
Jim was thirsty. What

did he do? He drank some water.
All of his water? Yes, all of it.

Jim wanted to sleep but
he hadn’t got a pillow.
So what did he do? He used his shirt.
What do you mean? He rolled it up into a
pillow.
I see. And what did he
do then? He went to sleep.
Step 3 Where was Jim walking? Along a path.

Why did he stop? Because the sun was hot
Where did he take shelter? Under a big rock.
Why didn’t he take shelter
under a tree? There weren’t any near
the path.
Jim was thirsty. So what
did he do? He drank the rest of his
water.
And how did he make a
pillow for himself? He rolled his shirt up
into a pillow.
Step 4 The teacher points to the appropriate part of the picture. He

next gives the question prompt and then indicates which
student is to ask him the question.
Teacher Student
Jim was walking. Use

Where? Where was Jim walking?
Along a path.
Jim took shelter. Use
Where? Where did Jim take shelter?
Under a big rock.
Question with Why?
Why did Jim . . .? Why did Jim take shelter
there?
Because there weren’t

any trees near the path.
Jim was thirsty. Use
What? What did Jim drink?
He drank the rest of
his water.
Jim didn’t have a pillow.
How did . . .? How did Jim make a pillow?
He rolled his shirt up
into one. And then? What did he do next?
He went to sleep?
Step 5 Repeat the question words from Step 4 and indicate which
students are to ask and answer the questions.
Step 6 Indicate pairs of students to ask and answer questions (or let
them volunteer). These may be of any type. Point to the
picture if necessary to focus attention on a particular item.
(b) Other techniques for oral practice In addition or as an alternative to

question and answer practice there are various other ways in which the
passage can be exploited for oral work. These are set out and illustrated
below. It is not suggested that the teacher should use all these devices to
exploit a single passage but rather that he should select one or two which
seem to be particularly productive when applied to a given text.
Because many of the prompts are ‘open-ended’, it is unlikely that the
first student who is chosen to answer will give all the details required.
Other students may then be called upon to refine the first answer until an
acceptable one has been built up. In this way a single exercise can be used
to provide practice for a large number of students. This is illustrated in (i)
below.
(i) the students are asked to expand a given statement: that is, give
more details in connection with it.
T: I want you to give me more details for each of these statements.

Listen. Jim took shelter. Jim took shelter. Now, what else can
you tell me?
SI: Jim took shelter under a rock.
T: Good. What do we know about the rock?
S2: It was big.
T: Correct. Now, . . . (indicates student)
S3: Jim took shelter under a big rock.
T: Good. Anything else? . . . Where was the rock?
S4: Near the path.
T: Exactly. Sentence, . . .
S5: Jim took shelter under a rock near the path. -

T: Nearly right.
S6: Jim took shelter under a big rock near the path.
This would be a sufficiently complete answer, but there is no reason why

it should not be expanded still further to include reasons: . . . because it
was hot or: . . . because there were no trees nearby. This may in turn lead
to revision of the first statement, so that the final answer might run: Jim
took shelter under a big rock because there were no trees near the path.
Other possible examples for the sample text: Jim slept for some time/Jim
felt something moving/Jim was afraid/The snake hesitated/Jim picked
something up.
(ii) the students are asked to say whether a statement is true or false
(within the context of the passage). If it is false, they are asked to give the
correct version. This again generally has to be built up with the help of
more than one student.
T: I want you to tell me if this statement is true or false. Listen. Jim

stopped because it was hot. . . . (indicates student)
S1: It’s true.
T: Do you agree, . . .?
S2: Yes. It’s correct.
T: All right. Here is the next statement. Jim drank some of his
water.
S3: True.
T: What do you think, . . .?
S4: No, it’s false. He drank all his water.
S5: Yes.
T: Why?
S6: Because it says in the passage: He drank the rest of his water.
T: Quite right, (etc.)
Other possible examples: Jim took off his shirt because he was hot/Jim
slept for a long time/Jim woke up because the snake was crawling across
his legs/Jim left his shirt behind.
(iii) the students are asked to continue a statement: that is, say what
happened next.
T: Tell me what happened after this. Jim took off his shirt. What did
he do then? . . . (indicates student)
SI: He went to sleep.
T: True, he went to sleep. But what did he do before that?
S2: He lay down.
S3: He rolled his shirt up into a pillow.
T: Quite right. Now, . . ., repeat the sentences.
S4: Jim took off his shirt and rolled it up into a pillow.
T: Good. Now, can anyone go on?

S5: He lay down and went to sleep.
T: Now all the sentences, . . .
S6: Jim took off his shirt and rolled it up into a pillow. He lay down
and went to sleep.
T: Use then to begin the second sentence.
S7: Jim took off his shirt and rolled it up into a pillow. Then he lay
down and went to sleep, (etc.)
(iv) The students are asked to explain the point of a given statement.
T: Give me reasons for these statements. Jim could not go any

further. Why not?
SI: Because he was tired.
T: Yes, he was probably tired. Any other reason?
S2: Yes, it was hot.
T: Yes. But what time was it?
S3: Midday. It was very hot.
S4: Yes.
T: Why? What does it say in the passage?
S5: The sun was strong.
T: Good. Can anyone remember the exact words?
S6: Yes. The sun was so strong that Jim . . . (etc.)
(v) the students are asked to say whether a statement is important

within the context of the passage: that is, to evaluate its importance.
T: Is this statement important? Does it affect the story in any way?

There were no trees near the road. . . . (indicates student)
SI: Yes, it’s important.
T: What do you think, . . .?
S2: I agree.
T: Why?
S2: Well, because there were no trees, Jim took shelter under a big
rock.
T: Quite right. Why was that important?
S3: Well, there was a snake under the rock (etc.)
This last exercise is a more difficult one than the preceding ones, and
should normally be done after the others, by which time the students
should be very familiar with the text.
6.3. Using the dialogue for oral practice

It has already been pointed out that in the early stages the language used
in the dialogue is usually more relevant to the needs of the learners. Its
immediate usability was indicated at the presentation stage, where it was
54 t* Teaching Oral English
suggested that the students should be asked to repeat the dialogue,

reproduce it and finally dramatise it (see 4.3.1. Steps 6, 8 and 10). All of
these forms of practice, when applied to the dialogue, provide meaningful
activities. Because the language of the dialogue can be used directly by the.
students, we shall not be concerned with the kind of oral practice
illustrated in the previous section (although many of these operations can
be performed on the dialogue too). Rather, we shall look for ways in
which we can get the students to practise selected items from the dialogue
on a more authentic communicative basis. First, however, let us see what
useful items of language can be extracted from the sample dialogue, which
is reproduced below.
Sample dialogue
Tom: Hello! Do you mind if I sit down here?
Ann: No, of course not.
Tom: Er, my name’s Tom.
Ann: Mine’s Ann. (She notices Tom’s camera) What a marvellous
camera!
Tom: Yes, and it takes marvellous pictures too .. . Do you mind if I
take one of you?
Ann: Well, all right, if you really want to.
Tom: Go and stand over there, then.
Ann goes and stands by the edge of the sea.
Ann: Here?
Tom: Yes, that’s fine. Now look out to sea. OK, don’t move!
Ann (after a minute): Have you taken it yet?
Tom: Yes, of... Oh, damn!
Ann: What’s wrong?
Tom: Do you mind if I take another? I forgot to put a film in the
camera!
Useful items, together with their communicative functions are set out
below:
Structural item Function
(a) Do you mind if . . .? Asking for permission

No, of course not Granting permission
Well, all right, if you Granting permission
really want to (but without enthusiasm)
(b) My name’s Tom Self-introductions
Mine’s Ann
(c) What a marvellous camera! Admiration
(d) Oh, damn! Annoyance
What’s wrong? Enquiry
I forgot to . . . Explanation
In devising guided practice for these items we shall need to:
(i) take into account their relative importance (a), for example, was
the main item around which the dialogue was constructed. More attention
will therefore need to be paid to it. (b), on the other hand, although not
unimportant, is relatively elementary and the students are probably
already familiar with it.
(ii) find ways of expanding and extending the items, so that the
students learn and practice not only these pieces of language but also other
associated items. (This is why the analysis in terms of function is valuable.)
For example, with (a) we should probably want to keep the request form
unchanged (although at some stage of the practice we may wish to vary it
with May I ...?), but extend the range of responses to include, for
example: Not in the least/Go right ahead/Why should I? and refusals: Well,
yes, I do actually /I’d much rather you didn’t. For (c) it would probably be
sufficient if we kept the pattern constant, but introduced other adjectives
to express both admiration: super/fabulous and the converse: rotten/
awful. Useful variations are also possible for (d): Bother!/Hell!/Damn! as
expressions of annoyance and What’s up?/What’s the matter? as interested
enquiries.
Clearly we must be careful not to overload the students at this stage by
introducing too many variations (but they can be given opportunities to
hear the teacher use them. See the practice scheme below). Nevertheless,
we must be on the look-out for ways of extending the students’ command
of the language (both productive and receptive) in this way, since we
cannot expect all the items to turn up dutifully in the dialogue. At best,
these provide us with a framework for expanding their competence in the
language.
(iii) devise appropriate contexts for practising these items

systematically. Stock classroom situations such as Do you mind if 1 .. .
borrow your (pen)/share your book? etc. may provide us with a starting
point but there is nothing memorable about them. In particular, we must
see what use can be made of pictorial aids and ‘imaginary situations’. Both
these techniques can be used to involve the students in guided role-playing
(an activity which will be further developed at the production stage. See
7.3.2. and 8.6.).
The following scheme has been worked out in detail for the main
structural item Do you mind if I. . .? together with the responses. Both (c)
and (d) could be practised along similar lines. Introductions (i.e. (b) ),
given their interpersonal function, could be practised briskly round the
class and left at that.
Step 1 Concrete classroom situations

(a) The teacher makes requests: Do you mind if I (borrow your
watch/borrow your pen/have a look at that ring you’re wearing/
open the window for a while/hold your hand?) (working from a
56 i‘ Teaching Oral English
prepared list) and ’the students make appropriate responses within

an agreed range. For example: No, of course not (= willing
agreement); Well, all right, if you really want to (= reluctant
agreement) and I’d rather you didn’t (= refusal). Thus, even at
this stage, the students are allowed some measure of choice.
(b) The students make requests (to a large extent those from (a) may
be repeated) and the teacher makes appropriate responses. At this
stage he may extend the range of responses to include, for
example: Sure, go right ahead/Why should I?/No, I don’t mind in
the least/Well, if you must /Yes, I do mind etc. In this way the
students built up their understanding of the alternative response
forms.
(c) Some students are chosen to make requests and others to respond
to them. They should be given a short time to think of these
beforehand. The teacher may help by outlining imaginary
situations. For example: Your friend has a new and powerful
motor bike. Make an appropriate request, e.g. Do you mind if I
. . . have a look at it/have a ride on it/try it out/just sit on your
bike? etc.
Step 2 Controlled role-playing

The context for this is provided by a set of 4—6 pictures as in the example
below (see 7.1.2. for further discussion of these).
An agreed-on exchange can then be used with each picture in turn. For
example:
A: I don t want to play tennis. Do you mind if we go swimming

instead?
B: Well, all right, if you really want to.
Notice that the pattern has been slightly modified (I has been changed to
we.) It may be further modified to practise:
A: Do you mind if we don’t play tennis this afternoon?

B: Of course I don’t!
Appropriate responses should then be agreed on with the class. These may
differ slightly from Step 1 (for example, Go right ahead cannot be used
with these situations).
(a) The teacher plays the part of the first speaker (=A), referring to
the pictures either in order or at random, and selected students
make responses.
(b) The students take it in turns to play the part of A and the teacher
makes appropriate responses (using perhaps a greater variety as in
(b) of Step 1). The pictures should be taken in order.
(c) The students are divided into pairs (see 7.1.1.) to practise these
exchanges on their own.
Step 3 Free choice role-playing
At this stage the students practise request forms within the context of a
picture, like the one below, which permits them to choose the content of
their utterances.
58 r Teaching Oral English
(a) Students take it in turns to make requests. For example, Do you

mind if I. . . look through the camera/go up on that platform/ride
one of the horses/fire one of the guns? etc. The teacher responds
(making free use of the full range of responses, with which by this
stage the students should be fully familiar).
(b) The students are divided into pairs (as for (c) in Step 2) to practise
on their own.
Discussion
1 From your reading of this chapter compare the relative merits of the
prose text and the dialogue as a source of oral practice.
2 Give the reasons why it is essential for the teacher to prepare carefully
beforehand questions for oral practice based on a prose passage.
3 Do you agree with the staging of the question and answer practice
based on the sample passage in 6.2? If not, what modifications would
you suggest?
4 What advantages and disadvantages does oral practice based on a text,

as illustrated in this chapter, have over the drills discussed in Chapter
5?
5 List the ways in which visual aids are useful as a support for oral
practice based on a text (both prose passage and dialogue).
Exercises
1 With reference to any dialogue from a textbook of your own choosing,
work out a detailed scheme for practising one of the language items in
it along the lines suggested in 6.3.
2 Work out a scheme for question and answer practice based on the
second and third paragraphs of the sample passage in 6.2.
3 Examples for further practice are given for the first two techniques
discussed in 6.2(b). Work out examples, based on the passage, for the
other three techniques.
4 With reference to the picture set for controlled role-playing in 6.3,

suggest other items (not from the sample dialogue) which could also be
practised through the same set of pictures.

1 On basing oral practice on a text, see D Girard (1972) Ch 6.
7 From Practice to Production
7.1. Transition
The title of this chapter has been chosen deliberately. In 1.2.1. to 1.2.3.
we identified three stages in the learning process that the teacher must
provide for: presentation, practice, and production. It should now be
apparent that these are working categories rather than discrete divisions.
They enable us to take into account the fact that, broadly speaking, the
^earners have different needs at different times: to understand what they
are learning, to use it with some degree of guidance and to use it within
:he framework of self-directed activities. But the operations we carry out
to make this possible overlap: there is some practice at the presentation
stage (e.g. Steps 6, 8 and 10 in 4.3.1.); there is room and a need for some
degree of self-expression at the practice stage (see, for example, Step 1(c)
n 6.3.) while at the production stage the learners will still need help
(though not interference) from the teacher. And of course their
understanding of what they are learning is being extended and deepened
all the time.
But an important feature of the production stage is that the students
should work increasingly on their own, talking to one another directly and
not through the medium of the teacher. Provision must therefore be made
for getting them accustomed to this. What is needed, then, as a first step, is
a transition stage during which the content of what the students say is to
some degree provided but at the same time they are given the chance to
talk to one another without constant supervision - or correction - by the
teacher.
Two things are required to put this into effect:
(a) a change in the organisation of the class;
(b) appropriate materials for the students to work with.
These are discussed below.
7.1.1. Paired practice

For this the students are divided into either twos or threes, so that they
can face and talk to one another directly. The existing seating arrangement
in the classroom may be allowed to determine which of these two
possibilities is adopted.1 If the students are already sitting in groups of
1 But, wherever possible, weaker students should be seated next to more able ones,
so that they can be helped.
59
three, they should be left in this way, since the teacher will want to put
paired practice into operation with the minimum of fuss. And either
arrangement has its advantages. If the students are divided into twos, they
will get more practice in speaking. If they are divided up into threes, one
of the students can ‘monitor’ what the other two say until it is his turn to
have a go. In this way they can be trained to listen out for mistakes and
criticise one another’s performance. This will be valuable when they come
to do group work (see 8.2.).
The teacher will not be in a position to supervise all the pairs while they
practise, but that is not his function. He must first of all give the class
adequate preparation (see 7.1.2. below) for each activity to be undertaken.
He then carries out selective checking, concentrating on those students
who he knows are most likely to be in need of guidance. And because the
students are working with specially prepared materials (see 7.1.2.), there
are not likely to be a large number of mistakes — at least of grammar.
Pronunciation difficulties, especially those of intonation, must be carefully
rehearsed before the students begin practising.
There will, on the other hand, usually be a problem of noise. Even ten
pairs of students practising simultaneously1 will tend to make more noise
than is generally acceptable. The students must therefore be instructed to
speak quietly. When the volume of noise increases, as it inevitably does,
the teacher should interrupt the practice and ask the students to begin
again — more quietly. The co-operation of the students in working
together purposefully is of course essential: for this reason they must be
told beforehand why they are working in this way. And the teacher must
recognise that if everything does not go smoothly at the start, this
is because it takes time for the students to get used to new procedures.
7.1.2. Micro-dialogues
To make paired practice work efficiently, the students need a model on
which they can base for themselves parallel utterances. In this way they
are given guidance without actually having all the words put into their
mouths. At the start these models may take the form of single exchanges
(question and answer, statement and response) but, in order to give fuller
play to communication, there should be a progression towards a pattern of
multiple responses. For this purpose, the structured or micro-dialogue is
proposed, as in the example below.
A: Have you seen (Ann)?

B: Yes, (she’s) just going to the (cinema).
A: By (herself)?
B: No, with (Tom) of course.
The dialogue, then, consists of two, or perhaps three, exchanges. It focuses

attention on one or two significant items, and at the same time permits the
introduction of colloquial features, which might sound artificial in a more
1 Note that we have now attained the last goal mentioned in 5.1.
From Practice to Production 61
62 *' Teaching Oral English
limited exercise. The framework for the parallel utterances which the
students themselves have to produce may be provided in two ways:
(a) by reference to a list of items from which the students are allowed
to choose freely. This approach is illustrated in 7.2.2.
(b) by reference to a picture set, like the one on page 61. Each set
consists of four to eight pictures, certain features of which are varied
consistently in each picture. It is these features which cue the parallel
utterances which the students produce on their own.
Because the visual context is open-ended and may be talked about in

many different ways, a single set of pictures may be used to provide the
jumping-off point for a large number of exchanges or micro-dialogues (this
is shown in detail in 7.2.1.). For example, as an alternative model dialogue
to the one above, we could have:
A: Seen (Tom and Ann)?

B: Yes, they’ve gone to the (cinema).
A: Not again!
B: Well, that’s their business, isn’t it?
Certain points need to be noted about the way these picture sets can be
used.
(a) The students may be asked to talk to one another about the
pictures. For example:
A: Tom and Ann went to the cinema last night.

B: I know. I saw them going. At about eight.
(b) Alternatively, they may be asked to talk to one another through the
pictures. In this case, they have to project themselves into the roles of the
people shown in the pictures. For example:
A: How about going to the cinema?

B: Well, personally I’d much rather go to the park.
Notice also that in this particular example two pictures are linked to
provide a stimulus for each exchange. The practice then continues (taking
the second and third pictures together):
A: How about going to the park?

B: Well, personally I’d rather go to the club.
When the students first begin using picture sets of this kind it is best to ask
them to take the pictures in order. When they have worked their way
through each of the pictures in the set, they then reverse roles and begin
again.
The following basic procedure for using the picture sets is suggested.
Step 1 Divide the students into twos or threes (see 7.1.1.) and give
each group a set of pictures.1
Step 2 Say the model exchange or dialogue two or three times, asking
the students to listen carefully.
Step 3 Ask the students to repeat the dialogue line by line after you in
chorus. Give additional practice to make sure that they can
reproduce satisfactorily utterances which require special
attention (i.e. because of pronunciation difficulties).
Step 4 Let the class practise the dialogue with you in chorus. They
should take the part first of one speaker and then of the other.
(Step 5) Until the students are familiar with this type of work, take
them through several or even all the pictures in the set to show
them how each one will produce a parallel exchange or
dialogue. This is especially important if two pictures are being
linked to provide the stimulus as in the last example above.
Students may be asked to help build up the exchanges or
dialogues with you.
Step 6 Write the exchange or dialogue on the blackboard.2 Either
underline or delete the variable items. For example:
A: Have you seen_?
B: Yes,_just going to the_
A: By_?
B: No, with_of course.
This is needed for the students to refer to in case they get confused or
forget a line. They must, however, be firmly instructed and - at the start -
constantly reminded not to look at the blackboard while they are saying
the dialogue. They must at all times talk to one another.
Step 7 Tell the students to start practising in pairs. Make sure that they
have agreed who should say which lines (and, if they are divided
into threes, who will act first as monitor).
Step 8 Carry out selective checking. Interrupt the practice only if the
students make too much noise or if you discover that a certain
mistake is occurring regularly. After correction and repetition,
let the students continue.
Step 9 Invite some of the pairs to say the exchange or dialogue relating
to a particular picture. The other students may be asked to
comment on their performance.
1 Such sets may be easily duplicated or photocopied. Simple pictures like the one in
this section may be drawn on the blackboard. The students can then make their
own copies, which they keep for future use.
2 If the dialogue is at all complicated, it may also be written on the blackboard for
Step 3. As the students learn to say it after you successfully, delete one item after
another until they can say it unaided. Students enjoy the feeling of success which
they get from this.
7.2. Sample exchanges and micro-dialogues

7.2.1. Exploitation of the picture set in 7.1.2.
The exchanges and dialogues in this section are arranged in units, with an
explanatory comment on each. They give an idea of the amount of
practice material that can be derived from each set. It is not suggested that
the teacher should saturate the students with practice related to one
picture set only. Several such sets are needed. Because, however, practice
can be given at different levels of attainment (Unit 1, in particular,
illustrates this), he may and should return to the same picture as required.
Unit 1 Sample exchanges arranged approximately in order of difficulty. In

this unit the students talk about the pictures.
(a) SI: Where are (Tom and Ann) going?

S2: To the (cinema).
(b) SI: Who’s going to the (cinema)?

S2: (Tom and Ann) are.
(c) SI: (Tom and Ann) haven’t been to the (cinema) yet, have they?
S2: No, they’re just going.
(d) SI: (Ann) isn’t going to the (cinema) by (herself), is (she)?

S2: No, of course not. (Tom’s) going with (her).
(e) SI: Does (Ann) want to go to the (cinema)?

S2: Well, (she) does, but (Tom) doesn’t.
(f) SI: Do (Tom and Ann) go to the (cinema) a lot?

S2: (No, not very often).1
(g) SI: What time did (Tom and Ann) go to the (cinema)?
S2: Oh, at about (seven), I think.
(h) SI: (Tom) went to the (cinema) (last night), didn’t (he)?
S2: Yes, and (Ann) went with (him).
(i) SI: When did (Tom and Ann) last go to the (cinema)?
S2: Let me see. Oh, I think it was (on Monday).
(j) SI: Would you have liked to go to the (cinema) with (Tom)?
S2: Well, I would much rather have gone with (Ann)!
Unit 2 Sample exchanges containing more colloquial elements. The

students are still talking about the pictures.
(a) SI: Look! There’s (Tom and Ann) over there!

S2: Yes, they’re off to the (cinema) — as usual!
1 The response here is completely open. The students may give either negative or
affirmative replies.
(b) SI: (Tom and Ann) go to the (cinema) pretty nearly every (night),
don’t they?
S2 Oh, I don’t know. Sometimes they go to the (park).
(c) SI (Tom) went to the (cinema) with (Ann) (last night), you know!
S2 Did (he)! Lucky (him)!
(d) SI I haven’t seen (Tom) (for ages).

S2 Haven’t you? Well, I saw (him) only (last night) — taking (Ann)
to the (cinema).
(e) SI (Tom’s) got a new (girl)friend!

S2 Well, I know that. I saw (him) going to the (cinema) with (her)
(last night).
Unit 3 Sample exchanges in which the students play roles.
(a) SI Do you really want to go to the (cinema)?

S2 Of course I do!
(b) SI We’re not going to the (cinema) again, are we?

S2 Why? Where do you want to go? To the (park), I suppose!
(c) SI Look, I don’t want to go to the (cinema)!

S2 Don’t you? Where shall we go, then? To the (park)?
(d) SI It’s (ages) since we went to the (cinema)!

S2 Oh (rubbish)! We went only (last week).
(e) SI If I come to the (cinema) (today), will you come to the (park)
with me (tomorrow)?
S2 (Of course I will).
Unit 4 Sample micro-dialogues, limited to two exchanges. In this unit the

students talk about the picture. If there are three students working
together, the third one may say the sentences marked with an asterisk.
(a) SI: (Tom and Ann) have gone to the (cinema), haven’t they?
S2: Yes, I (think) so.
* SI: Do they go very often?
S2: Oh, about (once a week) maybe.
(b) SI: Where did (Tom) go (last night)?

S2: To the (cinema), as usual.
* SI: With (Ann)?
S2: What do you think?
(c) SI: That’s (Tom) over there, isn’t it?

S2: Where?
SI: (In front of the cinema).
S2: Yes, that’s (him) all right. And that’s (Ann) with (him).
(d) SI: I wonder why (Tom and Ann) go to the (cinema) so often.
S2: Perhaps it’s because they’ve got nothing else to do.
* SI: Well, they could go to the (park).
S2: Yes, but obviously they prefer going to the (cinema), don’t they?
(e) SI: I saw (Tom and Ann) going to the (cinema) (a little while ago).
S2: Did you? How (odd)!
SI: Why?
S2: Well, I’d swear I saw them going to the (park). Of course, I might
be wrong.
Unit 5 Sample micro-dialogues in which the students play roles.
(a) SI: How about going to the (cinema)?

S2: All right, if you like.
SI: You do want to go, don’t you?
S2: You know very well I love going to the (cinema).
(b) SI: Let’s go to the (cinema), shall we?

S2: But we went there (yesterday).
SI: What would you like to do, then?
S2: Well, I’d rather go to the (park).
(c) SI: We’re not going to the (cinema) again, are we?
S2: Yes. Why not?
SI: Well, can’t we go somewhere else for a change?
S2: All right. Let’s go to the (park), shall we?
(d) SI: Is there time to go to the (cinema)?

S2: I (think) so. After all, it’s only (eight) o’clock.
SI: Really? Well, in that case we could go to the (park).
S2: Oh, not again!
(e) SI : Where would you like to go, the (cinema) or the (park)?
S2: The (cinema). What about you?
SI: Well, actually, I’d rather go to the (park).
S2: Would you? Well, in that case, we can go to the (cinema)
(tomorrow).
Unit 6 Sample micro-dialogues, extended to three exchanges (which is

perhaps the most students can be asked to cope with). These dialogues
contain a higher proportion of colloquial features. In (a) and (b) the
students talk about the picture. In (c) to (e) they play roles.
(a) SI: I saw (Tom) (last night)!

S2: Where?
SI: Going to the (cinema).
S2: By (himself)?
SI: Don’t be (silly). (He) was with —
S2: All right! All right! Don’t tell me! (He) was with (Ann)!
(b) SI: I haven’t seen (Tom) for (ages).

S2: Really? Well, I saw (him) only (last night).
SI: Did you now! Where?
S2: On (his) way to the (cinema).
S1: Who with?
S2: I’ll give you one guess!
(c) SI: I’m going to the (cinema) (tonight).

S2: Are you? Can I come too?
SI: Certainly not.
S2: Why not?
SI: Because I’m going with (Ann), that’s why.
S2: Lucky you!
(d) SI: Let’s go to the (cinema), shall we?

S2: What, now?
SI: Sure. Why not?
S2: But you did say you wanted to go to the (park).
SI: Well, I’ve changed my mind.
S2: Oh, come on, then! Before you change it again!
(e) SI: How about going to the (cinema)?

S2: All right. If that’s what you really want to do.
SI: Well, what would you like to do, then?
S2: Don’t know. Go to the (park), perhaps.
SI: But we went there (yesterday).
S2: So we did. Well, in that case, let’s go to the (cinema).
7.2.2. Micro-dialogues (without picture sets)

As an alternative framework for guided practice in pairs the students may
be given a set of dialogues (about five in number), all of which relate to a
particular situation or theme. Certain elements in each dialogue have to be
varied by the students either with reference to a list of items provided
(together with a copy of the dialogues) or else, at a more advanced level,
freely. The advantage of this form of practice is that it affords more
variety, since the students work with several dialogue frames, and scope
for practising a wider range of language items (for example, if the
dialogues are functionally oriented, as in Unit 2 below, they can be used to
practise a number of patterns which together express a certain concept).
On the other hand, each dialogue has to be rehearsed (following the
procedure laid down for the picture sets in 7.1.2.) before the students are
allowed to practise on their own in pairs. On the whole, therefore, this
type of practice is more appropriate at the post-elementary level, where
the students can be expected to be reasonably proficient in the spoken
language. However, as an alternative procedure, the dialogue sets may be
divided up. In this case the students are prepared for and allowed to
practise (say) two of the dialogues first. The remaining dialogues are then
rehearsed, after which the students can practise all the dialogues in the set.
Examples of different types of dialogue (with various formats in which
they can be presented to the students) are given below.
Unit 1 These dialogues relate to a domestic situation and are concerned

with offering to help and asking someone to help about the house. The
first dialogue is set out in full. The remainder are presented to the students
as frames, which they complete as they wish. Notice that they are also
required to modify the form of the items in the list (by using them as
infinitives or gerunds, for example, or forming different tenses with them).
wash up do the dusting peel the potatoes

dry up hoover the carpet clean out the cupboards
tidy up lay the table look after the children
do the washing cook the supper do the shopping
do the ironing ?
(a) SI: Shall I (make the beds)1

S2: No, you’d better leave that to me.
SI: What shall / do, then?
S2: Oh, why don’t you (do the washing up)1
(b) SI: Who’s going to_?

S2: Oh, / will, if you like.
SI: Well, in that case, I’ll_
(c) SI: Have you_yet?

S2: Just finished. Why?
SI: Perhaps you wouldn’t mind_, then.
(d) SI: Would you like me to_?

S2: No, just-, if you don’t mind.
SI: Hm, I’d much rather have_
(e) SI: Would you like to do me a favour?

S2: It depends.
SI: Just_for me, will you?
S2: Oh, of course. I thought for a moment you were going to ask me
to_!
Unit 2 These dialogues practise reminding someone to do something or

something he should have done. An altnerative format is illustrated, with
variable items bracketed throughout. The students are also given two lists
of items from which to choose. These relate to different contexts. An item
from one list cannot be used in combination with one from the other list
within the same dialogue.
List A lock up turn the heater (on)
turn the light off put the car away
switch the TV off .?
List B pay the phone bill get the theatre tickets
go to the bank renew your driving licence
post my letters send off the invitations
have the car serviced 9
(a) SI: Don’t forget to (lock up), will you?

S2: No, of course not. You know me!
SI: Well, exactly!
S2: What do you mean by that?
SI: Well, the other day you forgot to (turn the TV off). Remember?
(b) SI: By the way, you did remember to (pay the phone bill), didn’t
you?
S2: Hell! I clean forgot.
SI: And I bet you didn’t (get the theatre tickets) either.
S2: I must be getting very absent-minded!
(c) SI: I’m sure there’s something I’ve forgotten to do.

S2: (Send off the invitations) perhaps?
SI: No, I did that.
S2: Are you sure now?
(d) SI: Listen!

S2: What is it now?
SI: You didn’t forget to (wind the clock up), did you?
S2: What a funny time to ask me that!
SI: Well, you told me to remind you!
(e) SI: You’ve got something on your mind. I can tell by your face!
S2: Yes, I’m sorry to bring it up again, but . . .
SI: Oh, come on! Out with it!
S2: I was just wondering whether you had (had the car serviced).
Unit 3 These dialogues mainly practise lexical items concerned with jobs.
All the items are compound in form (this is a particular area of difficulty
for many students). Some of the bracketed items (e.g. brother, sister,
together with the related pronominal forms) have to be varied by the
students.
bank clerk football referee shop assistant

lorry driver insurance agent bus conductor
garage mechanic TV announcer fashion model
air hostess tourist guide hotel receptionist
traffic warden library assistant shorthand typist
pop singer income tax inspector
(a) SI: Er, what does your (sister) do, then?

S2: Works as (a library assistant). -
SI: (She) likes it, I imagine.
S2: Yes, (she’s) had the same job ever since (she) left school.
(b) SI: You’re (a shorthand typist) aren’t you?

S2: Not any more.
SI: What do you do now, then?
S2: I’ve got myself a job as (a hotel receptionist).
(c) SI: Does your (brother) still work as (a bus conductor p.

S2: No, (he) gave that up. (He’s) (a garage mechanic) now.
SI: Is (he)! And how’s (he) getting on?
S2: Oh, fine.
(d) SI: You remember I said I wanted to be (an air hostess)?

S2: Yes. What about it?
SI: I think I’d rather be (a fashion model) instead.
S2: Are you sure that’s what you really want to be?
(e) SI: Well, now you’ve got your degree, what are you going to be?
S2: (An insurance agent).
SI: (An insurance agent)'. But you don’t need a degree to be (an
insurance agent).
S2: I know that. But I’m going to start at the bottom and work my
way up!
7.3. Guided production

There remains the nagging doubt in every teacher’s mind, after he has
presented and given the students practice in new items of language: ‘Bur
can they really use them for themselves?’ In the give-and-take of free
expression activities (which are discussed in the next chapter) certain bits
of the language may never get used, either because they are not needed in
the course of the particular activities chosen or because the students find
some other way of accommodating themselves linguistically to the
situation (on the importance of this see 8.1.). At this stage, then, before
the teacher, as it were, turns the students loose, free to choose what
language they like, free also to make mistakes, he would like to find ways
of eliciting from the students certain items of language without, however,
focusing their attention on them. There are two main ways in which this
can be done.
(a) he can provide appropriate contexts for language use which call for
responses within a predictable range. For example, role-playing.
(b) he can take the students’ mind off the language they are using by
involving them in some form of activity. For example, playing a game.
Notice, however, that in the first case we cannot be sure precisely what
language will be used in a given situation (any more than we can in real
life). The student who is asked to play the part of a customer in a shop
and directed to ask for certain things may, for example, say I want . . .
rather than I’d like . . . (which is perhaps the item the teacher wanted him
to use). To some extent, we shall have to accept this situation provided the
utterances are both authentic and appropriate. It should also be kept in
mind that, although we can organise guided production (three types of
activity are suggested below), perhaps the best sounding-board to establish
whether students have truly learnt certain items of language is the
application of them to their own personal needs, interests and opinions
(etc).
It is clearly therefore very important for the teacher to know a great

deal about the backgrounds of the individual students, so that he can use
this information as the basis for addressing them personally. For example,
if he knows that a certain student lived at one time in another town, he
can, when the opportunity arises, ask: You’ve always lived in this city,
haven’t you, . . .? to elicit: No, I used to live in . . . The student may, of
course, respond with: No, at one time I lived in . . . But this is not itself
evidence that he has failed to learn used to.
The integration of language use with the students’ personalities,

backgrounds (etc.) should be going on all the time and, apart from
occasions such as discussions (see 8.3.) the teacher has constantly to be on
the look-out for opportunities to knit the two together. It requires skill to
do this with apparent spontaneity in a lesson, so that the students are
induced rather than asked to express themselves in a particular way. And
in comparison with other activities, it may seem time-consuming and
sometimes unrewarding. But it is important for the teacher to do this
because it provides opportunities to find out whether the students are able
to use the language without direct prompting from him; its value for the
students is that it gives them a chance to use the language to talk about
themselves.
7.3.1. Micro-dialogues
The micro-dialogues discussed and illustrated in 7.2.1. and 7.2.2. may be
used to provide a framework for guided production (especially those that
involve role-playing). For this purpose the students are only given what
one of the speakers says. For example:
A: How about going to the cinema?

B:_
A: You do want to go, don’t you?
B:__
<>
Or:
A:_
B: But we went there yesterday!
A:_
B: Well, I’d rather go to the park.
The advantage of the micro-dialogue is that it elicits a sequence of

utterances within a defined context. The students may be given practice
either in responding or in initiating, as shown in the examples above, and
they may continue to work in pairs. And the context is not so restricted
that it will elicit just one particular pattern. B, for example, in the first
dialogue above, can choose from a range of possible responses in reply to
A’s suggestion: How about going to the cinema? However, what he says is
also conditioned by the next utterance (which is the reverse of what
would happen in real life). To keep this activity on a genuine
communicative basis and to prevent it from becoming a guessing game, we
must provide the students with a guide to the concept they need to
express. It can be done in this way:
A:_(make a suggestion)
B: But we went there yesterday!
A:_(enquire about wishes)
B: Well, I’d rather go to the park.
The micro-dialogues without picture sets (in 7.2.2.) may also be used in a
similar way. For example:
A:_(ask whether you should do something)

B: No, you’d better leave that to me.
A:_(ask what you should do)
B: Oh, why don’t you do the washing up?
For both types of exercise the students can go on to produce other similar
dialogues by reference either to the picture set or the list of items
provided. Notice, however, that in both cases more variety of language is
possible. For example, Ask what you should do may produce at least three
appropriate responses: What shall I do, then?/What do you want me to do,
then?/What would you like me to do, then? This degree of ‘open-
endedness’ adds to the communicative value of the exercise.
7.3.2. Directed role-playing

In the activity above we noted the importance of giving the students
instructions or directions for language use without actually telling them
what to say. It is rather like giving them a recipe for talk and seeing what
emerges. There are other ways in which this can be done. For example,
functional outlines for conversations may be used in conjunction with
pictorial aids, as in the picture on page 73 :
The following formula may then be used to build up a fairly extensive

conversation:
(a) Exchange greetings

(b) Enquire about health
(c) Make a suggestion for a meeting
(d) Make an excuse
(e) Persuade
(f) Agree (but with some reservations)
(g) Confirm arrangements
(h) Exchange greetings
The whole class may first be asked to participate in building up the first
version of the dialogue within the context of a situation outlined by the
teacher. For example:
T: Tom has had a cold. Ann rings him up ... How

does she begin, do you think?
SI: Hello! This is Ann.
T: Good. Other possibilities?
S2: Hello! Ann here (etc).
T: All right. Now, what do you think Tom says?
S3: I’m glad you rang!
S4: It’s nice to hear you!
T: Good. Perhaps he addresses her by name. Ann!
Supposing he is surprised and pleased. What might
he say?
S5: How nice to hear you!
T: He then asks her about her health.
S6: How are you?
T: And she of course asks about his health because he has
had a cold.
S7: What about you? How are you feeling now?
S8: Are you better now? (etc).
In this way a version of the dialogue with appropriate variations can be

built up orally. The complete conversation might run as follows:
Ann: Hello! This is Ann.
Tom: Ann! How nice to hear you! How are you?
Ann: Fine. But what about you? Are you feeling better?
Tom: Yes, much better, thanks.
Ann: Why don’t we meet this evening, then? We could go to the
cinema.
Tom: Well, I’m not completely better.
Ann: Oh, come on! It’ll do you good to go out.
Tom: Well, look, I’ll ring you later this afternoon and then we can
decide.
Ann: OK. Ring me about four, then.
The purpose of building up a version of the dialogue in this way is not

to provide the students with a model for practice but to stimulate them to
produce one of their own when they work together in pairs. Less elaborate
conversations might be left to the students to produce on their own.
An alternative approach to this type of role-playing activity is to give
the students a fairly precise set of written instructions (e.g. on a card)
along the lines of those below:
You are a tourist talking to a policeman. Ask him:
(a) how to get to the Science Museum
(b) whether it is advisable to take a bus
(c) if so, where the bus stop is and which number bus to take
(d) what time the museum closes
(e) whether there is a place to eat near the museum
The students may first of all hold the conversation with the teacher,
who plays the part of the policeman. Or, if the students are working in
pairs, one of the students takes the part of the policeman. He may either
be allowed to respond freely or work from a parallel set of instructions.
For example:
You are a policeman, answering a tourist’s questions. Tell him:
(a) where the Science Museum is
(b) that it is advisable to take a bus (and why)
(c) where the bus stop is and which bus to take
(d) what time the museum closes
(e) that there is a cafe near the museum (and say where)
A more sophisticated version of the exercise above is to ask the

students to work from a set of notes (the kind one might actually jot
down on a piece of paper as a reminder of certain points). For example:
You are speaking to the land (lady) of a house. You have gone there to
see a furnished room which is to let. Ask about:
(a) rent of room
(b) heating included/extra
(c) cooking facilities
(d) possibility of meals at weekends/Sunday
(e) regulations: musical instruments/parties/pets
7.3.3. Language games
Games are discussed and illustrated in some detail in Chapter 9. Examples
are given here only to show how they may be used to get the students to
use language items at different levels of attainment without focusing their
attention on what they are saying. Since they are involved in an activity
(this does not imply movement: guessing, for example, is an activity), the
language they are required to use may be kept within quite narrow limits
without their being aware of it. Of the three types of activity discussed in
this section, language games seem to offer the best possibility of getting
the students to produce specific patterns.
(a) Elementary level: Corrections In this game the students are invited to
tell the teacher to perform an action (which may be one that has to be
mimed, such as eat or drink). The teacher deliberately performs a different
action, thus eliciting a response from the students in the form of a
correction. For example:
T: Tell me to do something.
SI: Smoke a cigarette.
(The teacher pretends to drink a glass of water)
S2: You’re not smoking! You’re drinking a glass of water!
T: All right. Go on.
S3: Write on the blackboard.
(The teacher pretends to read a book)
S4: You’re not writing on the blackboard! You’re reading a book!
(etc).
The magnetboard (see 12.4.) provides a wide variety of contexts for
playing this game.
(b) Intermediate level: Decisions' The students are told that they are
going to spend three months on a desert island (where there are natural
resources: food and water). They are allowed to take with them three
items which may either be useful or help them to pass the time. After they
have thought about their choices, they are asked to name the three items.
T: All right. What have you decided to take,...?
SI: I’d take a knife, a rope and a radio.
T: Why a knife? Give us some reasons.
SI: Well, I’d take a knife because it would be useful.
S2: What would you do with it?
SI: I could cut up fish with it.
S3: How would you catch the fish? (etc).
If the teacher wishes to find out how well the students can use a particular
item of language (e.g. the modal verb would), he may have to play a larger
part in the questioning himself (deliberately avoiding the use of the item
himself by such phrases as Give me your reasons/Why?/For example? etc.)
1 See 9.2.3. (e) for a more detailed use of this game.

41
(c) Post-intermediate level: Preferences The same situation as in (b) may
. ,, ,
be used, but in this case the students comment on someone’s choices,
saying what they would or would not have done themselves in the
circumstances. For example:
T: ... decided to take a bed, a mirror and a dog with him. What do
you think of his choice?
SI: Well, I wouldn’t have taken a bed.
T: What about you,.. .?
S2: 1 wouldn’t have taken a dog, but I think I would have taken a bed.
T: What about a mirror?
S2: No, I wouldn’t have taken one.
S3: / would have taken one.
T: Why?
S3: Well, it would have been useful... (etc).
The situation is rather more ‘open-ended’ than the previous one, as is

appropriate at this level. However, given the nature of the situation
defined for the students, the teacher can reasonably expect them to
produce a number of sentences using would have (or even might have —
which he should be gratified to hear!). Again he needs to take care to
avoid using himself the form he wishes to elicit from the students.
Discussion
1 Explain how paired practice is organised. What advantages and
disadvantages do you think this form of practice would have in the
average class of students?
2 What are the advantages of the micro-dialogue as a framework for

guided oral practice? Compare the two procedures suggested (with and
without picture sets).
3 What steps must be followed in preparing the class for practice using
the kind of picture set shown in 7.1.2?
4 Two procedures are suggested for using the picture set in 7.1.2: talking
about the pictures and talking through the pictures. Explain the
difference between these procedures and say whether you think one
form of practice is likely to be more valuable for the students than the
other.
5 What is the essential difference between guided practice and guided

production?
Exercises
1 For each of the units in 7.2.1. write two more exchanges or dialogues
of your own.
2 For the picture set below work out five units, like the ones in 7.2.1.
Each unit should contain between three and five exchanges or
dialogues.
3 Draw or specify the design for a picture set similar to the one in 7.1.2.
It should consist of either four or six pictures.
4 Prepare a unit of micro-dialogues like any of those shown in 7.2.2. (i.e.

without any accompanying picture set).
5 Select five dialogues from Units 4 and 5 in 7.2.1. and edit them for use
as guided production exercises along the lines suggested in 7.3.1.
6 Prepare a set of instructions for guided role-playing, similar to the one

in 7.3.2, to prepare a student to play the part of a customer in a
grocer’s shop.
3 The Production stage
8.1. General characteristics

It was observed in 1.2.3. that it is part of the teacher’s job to provide the
learners with opportunities to use the language for themselves: to say what
they want to say rather than what they are directed to say. We are not of
course thinking of some advanced stage of language learning when — mira¬
culously — the students will know enough of the language to be able to use
it fluently in conversation and discussion (for many students this day will
never come) but rather of opportunities that need to be provided regularly
at all levels throughout the course.
Admittedly these opportunities will be more restricted and more
contrived in the early stages: we may only be able to play some language
games with the students or invite their halting comments, say, on a
picture. What they will be able to say will be very limited, and without
doubt they will make mistakes. Nevertheless, the opportunity to say
something has to be given to them, so that they can see the value and use
of what they are learning: to appreciate language as an instrument to be
used rather than as knowledge to be stored away.
And the attempt to express themselves has to be made because they
need to know how to accommodate the little they know of the language
to the situations in which they have to use it, rather than be led to believe
that they will be able to do this at some remote date. It is the teacher’s job
to show them that this is possible: to encourage them by providing them
with the right opportunities and not to discourage them by over¬
correction. For the learners, this is a vital stage of learning, but they will
probably appear to lurch backwards and forwards rather than make steady
progress. Their performance will not be so easily measurable as it was at
the practice stage. Nor is there any easy recipe for success. What is needed
is flexibility, tolerance, patience — and an understanding of the learners’
difficulties.
8.1.1. The problems of the learners

The problems which the learners have at the production stage may be
viewed under three headings:
(a) linguistic The students, it is sometimes argued, do not know

enough of the language to speak with ease. Free expression will merely tax
their limited competence and result in errors which could be avoided if
78
The Production stage -jg
their expression continued to be guided. All this is in a sense true, but

largely irrelevant. It has already been pointed out that they must be
trained to cope with a variety of new situations. And of course the teacher
will be helping them discreetly much of the time. A great deal will depend
on the activities they are called upon to perform. Free discussion, for
example, belongs to the later stages of language learning and even then has
to be carefully prepared for. What one particularly wishes to avoid at this
stage is the frustration that can result from not being able to say anything
in a given situation.
As for mistakes, it is better that they should occur in the classroom,
where they provide feedback for remedial teaching, rather than later, when
the teacher is no longer in a position to help the students. We need not be
unduly worried that mistakes overheard will be picked up by other
students in the classroom: learning rarely takes place so easily!
(b) psychological There are two main problems to be noted here. In

the first place, while many students are happy to speak in chorus (see
5.1.1.) or under the teacher’s direction, they are inhibited when asked to
express themselves freely in the presence of the whole class. This may be
because they have never been sufficiently encouraged to ‘have a go’. But in
part this may also be due to the fear of being corrected by the teacher in
front of their peers. This situation can be set right in two ways. Firstly, the
teacher should avoid unnecessary correction. When he does feel that it is
called for, he should do it obliquely rather than directly — leading the
learner to perceive his mistake rather than rubbing his nose in it! Secondly,
provision must be made on an increasing scale for the students to work on
their own. A step was made in this direction through paired practice
(7.1.1.). This must now be taken a stage further through group work (see
8.2.).
The second problem is that of interest. In order to talk, the students
must have something to talk about (see (c) below). But how do we select
topics and themes which will arouse their interest? There is no easy answer
here, but clearly the starting point must be the learners themselves: their
own background and experience. Whatever activities we involve them in
must relate — or be shown to relate — to these.
(c) cognitive Here we must consider the question of providing the

students with something to talk about: a topic, a theme, a stimulus of
some kind. The first thing to note is that this need not be verbal. A picture
or set of pictures may be far more effective in conveying ideas for the
students to talk about. The special role of pictorial aids at this stage is
discussed below (8.4.). Secondly, topics or themes chosen for this purpose
should not call for specialised knowledge. If information is needed to
arouse talk, it can be provided through a text (spoken or written) or
through a pictorial aid. What we should be especially concerned with is not
what the students know but their opinions and their reactions. In
discussion the teacher will need all his skill to elicit these from the
students. Pictorial aids will be invaluable in arousing responses, particularly
on an imaginative level, as will be shown in 8.4.2. below.
8.2. Group work

At the presentation and practice stages of learning it is normally both
economical and effective to teach the whole class as a single unit. But the
‘class’ is after all a purely arbitrary unit whose size may vary, and to
increase the amount of practice the students can get, as well as making it
more realistic by getting them to talk to one another, we have already
suggested dividing the class up into pairs (7.1.1.). Our concern now at the
production stage is to provide the students with an environment within
which they can communicate easily and freely, and within which they can
work together independently and meaningfully with only the minimum
amount of direction from the teacher. The solution lies in forming smaller
units or groups.
How these are organised is explained in detail in 8.2.1. Here we should
note that the group, made up of perhaps six to eight students under the
direction of a group leader (one of the students themselves), whose
function is to co-ordinate the activities of the group and to serve as
required as a link with the teacher, is a largely autonomous practice unit.
The activities which the students are asked to undertake in their groups are
defined by the teacher and discussed first with the class as a whole, but
once this has been done, the students should be allowed to work to a large
extent on their own. Divided into groups, the students are now able to sit
together, facing one another in a small and intimate circle (rather like a
club meeting) and talk freely. The teacher is still present and he has an
important — and usually demanding — role to play in helping and advising
the students as required, but he has abdicated his previous one and become
something like a guide or consultant.
Of course it cannot be pretended that all will go smoothly from the
start (difficulties are also discussed in 8.2.1.). Like all procedures - from
chorus work, when the students have to speak in unison, to paired
practice, when they have to begin to work on their own - group activities
take some time to get accustomed to. (This is true both for the students
and the teacher.) But the students quickly appreciate the value of
self-directed activity, of being allowed to be ‘agents in their own learning.’
Above all, they are motivated to go on learning (the importance of which
was noted in 1.2.3.) because they are made aware that they can use for
themselves, on however limited a scale, the language they are learning. It
should not be forgotten that for many learners (especially children and
adolescents) group activities offer the only opportunity of putting the
language to a real and immediate use.
The Production stage 81
8.2.1. Organising group work

(a) Structuring the group The size of the groups has to be worked out
in relation to the number of the students in the class, but as a general rule
there should be between five and eight students in each group and not
more than five or six groups in the class. The groups should be formed by
the teacher and should include students of mixed abilities, on the principle
that they will help one another in various ways. Later on the students may
be allowed to change groups. Each group should have an identifying label
(e.g. a name or number) and a set position in the classroom to work in so
that, when the students are asked to do group work, they can begin with
the minimum of fuss and delay. Usually group work will involve some
re-arrangement of the classroom furniture.
(b) Group leader Each group should have its own ‘leader’ (or
co-ordinator — whichever label is preferred). Initially, he may have to be
appointed by the teacher but, since he must be changed from time to time,
the students may later be allowed to choose their own. The function of
the group leader is not to dominate the group but to co-ordinate then-
activities and to serve as a link with the teacher.
(c) The role of the teacher The teacher’s main task is to prepare the
students (sometimes by briefing the group leaders) for the activities they
must undertake. Having done this, he should to a large extent leave them
to get on with their work. However, this does not mean that he can sit
back and relax. The students should be encouraged to consult him as the
need arises and, depending on the type of activity and on the level of the
students, he should visit the groups and listen in. If he participates in an
activity, he should try to do so as if he were a member of the group. His
job is no longer to control or correct them. But he should observe their
difficulties and mistakes, noting both individual and general problems. In
the light of this he will be able to shape both his class teaching and group
activities in future lessons.
(d) Duration and frequency Many factors are involved here (the
number of lessons per week, the level of the class etc.) but once the
students have enough language for communication activities - on however
limited a scale — some group work should be carried out about once a
week for perhaps half a class period. Longer sessions may sometimes be
needed (to complete a project, for example, in which the students are
especially involved) and in general it is inadvisable to interrupt an activity
which is going well.
(e) Problems Some teachers feel dissatisfied because group work is

time-consuming, and because they cannot see their students making
obvious and measurable progress. It is true that progress cannot be
measured in the same way as it could at the practice stage, but it should be
remembered that the students are not merely consolidating what they have
learnt but also using, perhaps for the first time, what they have learnt only
superficially at earlier stages. This is of great motivational value and offsets

the apparent disadvantage that group work is time-consuming. It is also
sometimes argued that lazy students will take advantage of group work to
be even lazier! However, since students usually get more deeply involved in
group activities than in regular class work, laziness is certainly not likely to
increase.
Students may also sometimes resort to the use of the mother tongue.
This cannot always be avoided and should be accepted on occasions if it is
needed to further the activity in hand. But most activities suggested in this
chapter will not normally require the use of the mother tongue and
adequate preparation with the class before group work begins will help to
smooth out language difficulties.
Finally, there may, from time to time, be problems of ‘discipline’. We
have noted that it takes time for the students — and the teacher — to get
used to new procedures. But the real problem is not ‘active’ indiscipline or
bad behaviour, which can be easily detected and corrected (and in any case
tends to disappear when students are involved in learning) but ‘passive’
indiscipline in the form of non-participation, when the students opt out of
learning. This, however, is much less likely to result from group work than
from more conventional class teaching.
8.2.2. Group activities

Suggestions are made in the following sections. Many language games (see
Chapter 9) can also be played in groups. It should be noted that, when the
students are organised for work in this way, they can talk to one another
and therefore, in discussing an activity (for example, what to put into a
dialogue) real conversation is one of the side-products.1 Generally they
will need a fairly concrete project to work on with a well-defined goal (e.g.
arriving at an interpretation of a picture, preparing a dialogue for
dramatisation). And, although they work separately in their groups, the
final stage is not reached until the class is re-formed and the students are
given the opportunity to show or discuss what they have achieved. The
culmination of group activities, therefore, always takes place within the
context of the class as a whole.
8.3. Preparing for and organising discussion

By discussion is meant any exchange of ideas and opinions either on a class
basis, with the teacher as the mediator, or within the context of the group,
with the students talking amongst themselves. It may last only for a few
minutes or it may continue for a whole lesson (in which case it belongs, of
course, to the more advanced stage of language learning). It may be an end
1 For this reason activities which involve reading and writing can be used to
stimulate oral production. Writing, for example, is no longer a private activity but
involves the discussion and comparison of ideas.
in itself, a technique for getting the students to talk, or it may serve as the
preliminary or final stage of some group activity. These conditions will
affect the precise requirements for discussion. But there are two further
factors which will in general determine whether a discussion is a success or
a failure.
The first is the question of the topic or theme. This was discussed in
8.1.1, where it was noted that the stimulus might be either visual or verbal
and where it was stressed that, in order to arouse the interest of the
students, topics must relate to their own experience and environment. This
is equally important for class and group discussions, and will be further
dealt with in the following sections.
The second factor is the role of the teacher. What part does he play
either in a class discussion or when he participates in one during a group
activity? Perhaps in either case his role is not essentially different. First,
we might note, it is not his job to inform, to thrust his opinions on the
students, but rather to encourage the students to express theirs. The
teacher’s opinion, if offered at all, should serve only to stimulate further
ideas on the part of the students, not to inhibit them. Secondly, he should
appear to be more interested (and genuinely interested) in their ideas than
the way in which they express them: we have already noted that at this
stage the teacher should not be preoccupied with mistakes that the
students may make. In general, he should only make corrections if he feels
that a student has not made his meaning clear to the class or group, and
this should be done with tact, perhaps through a restatement of what the
speaker has said. His job as mediator is, after all, to keep the channels of
communication open. For that reason he also has the responsibility of
keeping the discussion going (at least when it is on a class basis): not, of
course, by doing all the talking himself, nor by making general
observations or addressing questions to no one in particular, but by
stimulating one or two students in particular to say something through, for
example, a pointed question. Part of the teacher’s preparation for
discussion should therefore be to decide which questions or which points
are best addressed to certain students.
Throughout this kind of work the teacher’s attitude will be of vital
importance: he must be informal and relaxed; he must appear interested
and he must of course be patient. But, above all, he must be prepared.
There is no point in bringing an interesting or attractive visual aid into the
classroom in the mere hope that it will spark off discussion spontaneously.
The teacher must have worked out guidelines for its exploitation
beforehand - even if discussion ultimately goes off in another direction
(as we shall see in 8.4.1, this often happens when the students are called
upon to interpret a picture). Similarly, a topic, whether presented through
a set of pictures as in 8.4.3. or through a text of some kind, must be
analysed carefully beforehand to determine those features through which
it can be related to the background and experience of the students. It is
the identification of these, as well as of possible related difficulties of
n
language, which will determine largely the ultimate success or failure of a
discussion. -
8.4. The function of visual aids at the production stage

At the presentation and practice stages visual aids serve mainly to provide
a clear contextual setting for the items being taught: either to illustrate
their meaning or to elicit responses that relate to what is depicted in the
picture. This picture, for example, could be used to show the meaning of
the statement: There’s a vase of flowers on the table. It could also be used
to elicit the same pattern from the students, or for related practice e.g.
Where did I leave the flowers? You left them on the table. For this
purpose we exploit the visible features of the picture, and for that reason
it is important that those features should at all times be clear (see 12.7.).
At the production stage, however, although pictures may be used on a
referential level (e.g. within the context of a detailed picture such as a
scene shown in a wall chart, the students may be asked to describe what
they can actually see) their main value lies in stimulating interpretation
and discussion. It is in this way that we can get the students’ own point of
view. For this purpose we shall want to go beyond what can actually be
seen in the picture to what is implied by it. Although most pictures can be
used in this way (for example, even the picture above could be the object
of speculation: Who do you think put the flowers on the table? Why? Did
(she) buy them or pick them in the garden? etc), it is better to select or
design ones whose ‘open-endedness’ is likely to provide a fertile source of
speculation. This approach is discussed and illustrated in 8.4.1. In addition
to this, as a group activity, we shall also find good use for pictures which
imply dialogue (see 8.4.2.) and for pictures, or sets of pictures, which
provide a basis for discussion (see 8.4.3.).
It should be kept in mind that there is nothing elementary about visual

aids in themselves (although, unfortunately, they tend to be closely
associated with the early stages of language learning). It is the use we make
of them that counts. The importance of visual aids at the production stage
is that they offer a non-verbal framework for language practice and can
therefore be used at different levels of proficiency.
8.4.1. Pictures for interpretation

The pictures in this section are not meant to be described; if they were
approached in this way, their visible features would be rapidly exhausted
and all talk would soon be over. Instead, the students should be invited to
identify the ‘unknown’ aspects of the picture: what is implied but not
seen. It is these unseen features which will provide a framework for
discussion. For example, in the first picture below, we can see a woman
looking out of a window. But we do not know what she has seen, where
the object (person or thing) is; who she is talking to and what she is
saying. On each of these points there may be as many as a dozen points of
view, and it is precisely this diversity of opinion which will give rise to
discussion. Of course, the students are not used to looking at pictures in
this way and at the start these points will probably have to be identified
for them. But they will soon begin to perceive them for themselves.
The first exploitation of the picture could be carried out as follows:
Step 1 Elicit from the students the guidelines for discussion, such as the
ones above. These may be written on the blackboard together with any
<>
useful items of language. Avoid putting ideas into the students’ heads and
discourage them from making up their minds about the picture too
quickly.
Step 2 Divide the students into their groups and ask them to discuss the-
various guidelines. To some extent the actual talk that results from this is
an end in itself, since the students are using language in a natural way, but
they may also be asked to agree on an interpretation acceptable to the
whole group. It is impossible to predict how the discussion will go or what
bizarre interpretations may be thrown up in the course of it, but the kind
of language which students at an elementary level might reasonably be
expected to use could take the following form:
SI: I think she’s seen a man . . .
S2: Where?
SI: In the street.
S3: What’s he doing?
SI: Oh, he’s just fallen off his bike.
S4: But the woman’s laughing.
S2: She isn’t laughing. She’s smiling.
S4: Well, why is she laughing?
SI: Perhaps she doesn’t like the man.
S5: I don’t agree with this. I think ... (ere).
Step 3 The class is re-formed and a spokesman from each group presents
the interpretation of his group, which (depending on the amount of time
available) is then commented on by the other students in the class, who
can ask questions, raise objections etc.
But there are still other uses that can be made of such pictures for oral
production. For variety we now turn to the second picture, which we
assume has been interpreted in the same way (that is, the students have
made their minds up about the following: who the woman is; what time of
day it is; why she has a lot of washing up to do; why she has not done it
etc). We may now set the students communication tasks to perform (either
as individuals or as part of a group activity). One exercise might be: You
have a lot of washing up to do: persuade someone to help you! Or: You
ring up a friend and find that (he) is feeling very depressed (this is a
feature of the picture): how would you cheer (him) up?
Notice that in this way we begin to make the picture relate to the
students personally. But we must go still further so as to begin to draw on
their own experiences. For this purpose an informal class discussion might
be initiated by asking the students, for example: What would you do in
this situation? Do you have to help with the washing up at home? Do you
like (mind) it? From there we might broaden the discussion to talk about
‘Women’s Lib’. For example: Are women trying to become more
independent in your country? In what way? What is the attitude to this?
etc. Or we might lead the discussion in a different direction (though still
related to the picture) to talk about some of the things that the students
find depressing: traffic, rising prices, pollution etc.
We should note (referring back to 8.3.) that all these points, as well as
the initial exploration of the picture to work out the guidelines, should be
prepared carefully and in some detail by the teacher before the lesson.
Many of the possibilities afforded by such pictures1 will be lost unless the
teacher is sufficiently well prepared. And it should be remembered that
there is not one level of exploitation only. The same picture may be used
more than once with a class at different stages of the course. There is in
fact great value in doing this because, on each occasion the students use
the picture, they should be able to express themselves in more complex
language about it. In this sense it provides a kind of gauge of their language
growth. Thus the students who could only say at one time (with reference
to the first picture in this section): She is looking out of the window at her
children. They are playing in the street should eventually be able to
produce: Well, she just happened to look out of the window, you see, and
she saw a cow eating the flowers in her neighbour’s garden!
8.4.2. Pictures for dialogue production and role-playing

This activity overlaps with the one described in 7.3.2. (and indeed could
be used as an extension of it). At this stage, however, we are concerned to
stimulate free expression and therefore the amount of guidance the
students are given must be accordingly reduced. Also, since the students
are now working in groups, they can not only collaborate to produce
acceptable dialogues but they must also first discuss the ideas and language
to be used. Once again, then, talk is a side product of the activity.
The teacher must therefore gauge carefully the amount of guidance that
needs to be given. But where he must help the students is in providing an
I For this purpose cutouts and photos (one for each group) may be used. See also:
Donn Byrne and Andrew Wright: What Do You Think? (Longman 1974.)
effective stimulus: one that will set their imaginations working. While, for
example, the first picture in 8.4.1. could lead on to this activity (for
example, a conversation between the woman who is looking out ot the
window and another person in the room, whom she wishes to persuade to
come and look too), the stimulus is a weak one compared with the picture
below, where a dialogue between the two people — and probably an
ii
(b
an
emotionally charged one — is implicit in the picture. A general discussion,
therefore, of the situation to suggest some of the angles from which the
dialogue can be built up (e.g. Why is the man annoyed? What do you think
his wife has cooked him? What do you think she says? Does the man eat
his supper or not? etc.) together with an indication of useful language (e.g.
expression of intention, of annoyance, and in particular vocabulary items
connected with food) may be sufficient preparation before the students
are divided into their groups. The actual building up of the dialogue with
the class’s participation (along the lines described in 7.3.2.) could prove to
be counter-productive because it would influence their interpretation too
much. Except for some general guidance as indicated above, the teacher
can best help the students with this activity after they have divided into
groups and have begun to work out their ideas. The visual stimulus might,
however, .be supplemented with an audio one in the form of a recorded
dialogue, which the students listen to once or twice. This has the
advantage of bringing the situation alive for the students, but since they
have not elaborated the dialogue themselves, they are less likely to be
directly influenced by it.
A possible model dialogue for this situation is given below:
Mrs Fry: What’s the matter? Don’t you want it?
Mr Fry: Fish and chips again! I’m tired of fish and chips!
Mrs Fry: It used to be your favourite meal.
Mr Fry: Yes, but not three times a week!
Mrs Fry: Three times a week! Rubbish! You haven’t had it for over
a week.
Mr Fry: Well, I still don’t want it.
Mrs Fry: Well, in that case you’be better go and cook your own
supper. And Til have the fish and chips.
The following procedure may be used for this type of activity:
Step 1 Show the students the picture (with or without a recorded

version of the dialogue). Discuss the situation shown in the
picture with them along general lines (getting the students to
give their ideas) and provide them with some useful language (as
suggested above).
Step 2 Divide the students into groups and ask them to discuss their
ideas. This step is important because it gets them to use
language. Visit the groups and advise on language difficulties.
Let the students write their dialogues down when they have
elaborated them in sufficient detail.
Step 3 Re-form the class and let each group present their dialogue.
These can then be compared and discussed.
Step 4 (Probably in a later lesson) Let the students rehearse their

dialogues in their groups, but preferably without learning them
off by heart. All the students may take turns in doing this. The
aim should be to get the students to act out the situation, using
appropriate language spontaneously.
Step 5 Re-form the class and let each group choose students to act out
their interpretation of the situation.
It should be noted that additional situations for producing dialogues

can normally be derived from the one established as above. For example,
the two people in this situation would be quite likely in real life to tell
someone else what had happened. Thus Mrs Fry might talk to a neighbour,
while Mr Fry might tell a friend at work about it. These two possible
situations may therefore be used as alternative or additional group
activities.1
8.4.3. Picture sets for discussion

By a set is meant a number of pictures (photographs, drawings, cutouts
from magazines) which are assembled (e.g. on a large piece of paper) so as
to present a topic from different angles, both providing the students with
facets that can be talked about one by one and pointing contrasts which
are calculated to provoke discussion.
Let us imagine, for example, that we want to start a discussion on
teenagers. Our set may provide a number of examples of teenagers today:
their dress, their hairstyles, their preoccupations — and some of the things
they do to annoy the older generation. At the same time it could present a
contrast with teenagers in the past (e.g. in the time of the students
parents) and also underline one or two fundamental similarities. The set
1 Notice that these activities also provide natural contexts for reported speech
(often practised artificially in the classroom).
may also focus attention on a particular point: for example, by showing a

famous — but respectable — man with long hair. '
Once again, the need for careful preparation in working out the various
angles from which the pictures can be exploited systematically must be
emphasised. In the set below, for example, which shows different ways of
making a living on the streets, we would first want to get the students to
identify the topic. As a starting point, they may also be asked to describe
what is happening in each picture. Then, to develop discussion, we might
focus attention on such points as why people do this kind of work,
how much they earn, whether there are certain advantages and
disadvantages in it (for example, what happens when it rains?). The

teacher’s notes for this stage, then, might well consist of a number of
questions along these lines, and perhaps a ‘viewpoint’ (which he attributes
to someone else) such as: Some people say these people earn a lot of
money . . . We must also, however, relate the topic to the students’ own
background and experience. This we can do by asking them to say, for
example, which of these occupations are common in their country, and
whether there are others which are more typical, and also how they
themselves feel about these occupations: do they approve or disapprove?
Do they know anyone who earns his living in this way? Would they like to
— and if so, which occupation would they choose?
Notice that the discussion may be either a class or a group activity. This
is illustrated in the steps which are set out below.
Step 1 Prepare the class for discussion by asking the students to

identify the topic and comment on the pictures one by one
(this is important where there are a large number of pictures, to
make sure that all the students are aware of what is depicted).
Step 2 Initiate discussion about the topic along general lines by asking
questions or making certain statements.
Step 3 Either let the discussion continue on a class basis or else select
one or two specific points for the students to discuss in their
groups. For example, they may be asked to work out the
advantages and disadvantages of this kind of work.
Step 4 After the groups have discussed these points and come to some
conclusion, re-form the class and ask a spokesman from each
group to give his group’s ideas.
Related oral exercises may also be done either in groups or by the
students individually. For example, the students may be asked to imagine
that they have to interview one of the people in the picture and to think
of five questions they would like to ask him. A dialogue can then be
developed around these questions. The students may also be asked to carry
out communication tasks that relate to the topic: for example, your
(brother) wants to take up one of these occupations rather than a regular
job. What advice would you give (him)?
Such activities, which serve to relate the topic to the students in some
personal way might normally be the final stage in exploiting the picture set.
However, if time is available, the students can also be asked to work on a
project in their groups: for example, an investigation of the various ways
in which people earn their living on the streets (in their country), with
reference, perhaps, to such things as tradition. They may also be asked to
supplement the set by finding pictures of their own or to build up an
entirely new set (e.g. in the form of a wall sheet, which can then be hung
up for display). Much of this work can, of course, be done out of class in
the students’ own time. Its value, as an educational activity, lies in the fact
that it takes language study out of the classroom and, integrates it with the
students’ own environment.
8.5. The ‘text' as a stimulus to discussion

If we think of discussion as essentially an exchange of opinions and ideas
rather than the formal exploration of a topic (which is only possible at the
advanced level of language learning) there are clearly many ways of
providing suitable stimuli. Visual presentations of a topic, for example, can
be accompanied by a text of some kind, preferably to be listened to rather
than read. For example, a sequence of three or four pictures showing an
accident in which a motorist knocks a man off his bicycle could be
accompanied by a recorded version of the argument which subsequently
took place between them, in which each blames the other. Their different
versions of the accident could be more formally organised into two
accounts which, for example, they give to their friends or as evidence in
court (neither of which, in all probability, is true in all respects). The
students can then be asked to discuss and compare the two versions.
Topics can also be presented through the medium of the text alone. In
this case what is required is not a text which presents the students with a
mass of information but a slanted one which offers an exaggerated or
one-sided point of view. For example, if the topic is space travel (assuming
that this is one the students are to some extent familiar with and
interested in) $ text which merely describes a lunar mission is less likely to
stimulate the students to discussion than one which questions, for
example, whether we should be spending vast sums of money on space
exploration when this could be better spent on projects which would
improve life on earth.
Suitable material for this purpose (particularly on topical issues) can be
found in newspapers and magazines (including those in the students’
mother tongue), and ready-made points of view can often be taken from
the ‘letters to the editor’ section. Columns in magazines that deal with
readers’ ‘problems’ may be used to solicit opinions and advice from the
class in a realistic way.
8.5.1. The use of songs

The ‘text’ as a stimulus to discussion may be in the form of a song (which
of course can be used to provide an additional or perhaps contrasting
comment on a topic presented visually or through another type of text).
Two songs on the same theme may also be set in contrast. There are many
obvious advantages in using songs for this purpose rather than more
conventional texts. They are real and once again provide a link between the
classroom and the outside world. They are enjoyable and therefore
memorable. Even if they present difficulties of comprehension, there is an
incentive to overcome them. The explanation of certain lines in the song
may in fact be a way of opening up discussion. And of course the active
involvement of the students can be secured by asking them to join in by
singing (for this purpose they will normally need a copy of the words).
A wide range of ‘pop’ and folk songs (which despite the natural
repetition of patterns and vocabulary that they afford, could have a bad
effect at the practice stage because deviations in grammar and
pronunciation are not uncommon) can be used to explore themes —
emotional, social, political — which are of direct and immediate interest to
the students. Often enough the students themselves will be able to suggest
precisely the songs that can be used for this purpose.
8.6. Role-playing
The activities in the preceding sections generated a great deal of talk —
perhaps the most natural kind of all we can hope to achieve in the
classroom, because it involved the expression of personal opinion. What we
have not done through these activities is to exercise the learners to any
great extent in using language in those situations where they are most
likely to need it in everyday life.
To do this we should, ideally, now abandon the classroom. The
alternative is to try to create those situations in the classroom itself. This is
what we have partly tried to do at other stages of language learning (see in
particular 6.3. and 7.3.2.). And we should certainly take this a stage
further by getting the students to improvise freely within the context of
situations such as those listed in 4.2.1. For example: you are a customer in
a greengrocer’s shop. Ask for three things you want. Or: your watch is
broken. Take it to the watch repairer's, find out how much it will cost and
how long it will take to get it repaired. In these situations the students
continue to be themselves except when they play the part of shopkeepers,
for example (and in playing such roles, they can be given much more
guidance because they will be using language which for the most part they
will only need for recognition purposes).
But while the value of these activities cannot be questioned, it has to be
acknowledged that they do not always succeed in involving the learners
deeply - perhaps because they do not exercise them sufficiently on an
imaginative level. The solution seems to lie in asking the students to play
roles in situations which require a greater effort of imagination and
interpretation: acting, that is, within situations defined by the teacher but
not working with scripts that have been prepared for them. There is no
reason at all why much of the language used in such situations should not
have a strong functional value, as we shall see in 8.6.1. It is the situations
in which it is used - admittedly ones in which the learners may never find
themselves — that are different. And we might note that this is a more
natural type of activity to be carried out in the classroom, it does not
invite comparison with real life because it does not pretend to be real. It is
something that can be entered into with enjoyment and without restraint.
Both children and adults, once they have overcome their initial inhibitions,
normally enjoy acting. We need not be overconcerned if there are one or
two students who find themselves unable to participate fully. Dramatic
activities, like those discussed in 8.4.1. and 8.4.2, involve more than just
performance: the situation has to be discussed, the characters developed,
the scene elaborated and the language to be used worked out. In these and
other matters all the students can participate fully.
8.6.1. Dramatisation
The situations which the students are asked to dramatise will have to be
outlined for them. For this purpose they may be presented either through
a sequence of pictures or in the form of a scenario, such as the following
one:
Sample scenario
A railway carriage. Two old ladies follow a porter, who is carrying
their suitcases, along the corridor towards a compartment. The porter
finds an empty compartment and puts their suitcases on the luggage
rack, where there is one other small suitcase. The old ladies sit down
and the train leaves. They notice a loud ticking coming from the small
suitcase. The noise alarms them and they throw the suitcase out of the
window. They sit down. A man comes into the compartment and also
sits down. He looks up towards the luggage rack for his suitcase .. .
Notice that there is no indication at all where or even whether the

characters speak. This leaves the students entirely free over the question of
dialogue. The points at which dialogue might occur should be discussed
with the students before they divide into their groups. The following are
the main possibilities:
(a) the old ladies talk to one another as they follow the porter along the
corridor;
(b) the old ladies talk to the porter;
(c) one or both of the old ladies talk to the porter before he leaves;
(d) the old ladies talk after they sit down;
(e) the old ladies discuss the noise they hear;
(f) the old ladies discuss what to do;
(g) the old ladies continue talking after they have thrown the suitcase
out of the window;
(h) the man says something when he notices that his suitcase is missing.
Only in a few places would it be strange if no speech at all took place:

they are (c), (e), (f) and (h) - although the last is not essential because the
scene could be cut before this point. But for the students it does mean
that we can focus their attention on producing really appropriate language
at the essential points, even if for (c) it consists only of ‘Thank you,
porter’ as one of them presses money into his hand, getting them to
improvise conversation at the others (e.g. (d) and (g) can be filled in with
‘small talk’).
The students may also be allowed to introduce small modifications into
the scenario. For example, the porter may pass another porter in the
corridor and exchange greetings with him; a man may be seen leaving the
compartment hurriedly as the porter goes in; someone may look into the
compartment just before the train leaves but decide not to take a seat. The
students may be encouraged to think of ways of inserting minor roles for
all members of the group in this way.
Some language points may also be discussed with the class (especially if
they do not affect interpretation). For example, the porter may wish to
say: Shall I put . . .? At (e) and (f) the old ladies may want to say: Shall
we .. .? or: Why don’t we . . .? or: Let’s ... It may be necessary to show
the students (as perhaps it is also useful to demonstrate at this point) that
the dialogue can be put across quite simply. 1
Porter: Ah, here’s an empty compartment. Where shall I put
the luggage?
1st Old Lady: Put the big suitcase up there (She points) and the
other one up there (She points again). Thank you
very much, porter. Here you are.
Porter: Thanks very much.
2nd Old Lady: Listen! Can you hear a noise?
1st Old Lady: It’s coming from that suitcase. It’s only a clock.
2nd Old Lady: No, it isn’t. It’s too loud. Perhaps it’s a . .. bomb!
1st Old Lady: A bomb! Oh dear, what shall we do?
2nd Old Lady: Let’s stop the train.
1st Old Lady: I have an idea. Let’s throw the suitcase out of the
window!
2nd Old Lady: All right. I’ll open the window.
1st Old Lady: Well, that’s all right now.
Man: Where’s my suitcase? It’s gone!
Thus, even at a very elementary level, an adequate dialogue can be

worked out (the only exception being the item too loud, which the
students will have to be given. Part of the teacher’s preparation is, of
course, to try to anticipate such difficulties by working out a basic script
beforehand).
A matter to which the students must be encouraged to give the

maximum attention (and which will be the source of a great deal of talk in
their groups) is the interpretation of the characters, which alone will make
their dramatisation credible. This should first be discussed in general terms
with the class as a whole. For example, with regard to the old ladies, they
must establish a complete ‘identity kit’ for each: their names, their ages,
their relationship (sisters, friends); what they look like (both physical
appearance and how they are dressed). They should also decide where the
old ladies are going, since this may come up as ‘small talk’. At the start it
will be necessary to impress on the students that their discussion of these
1 No indication is given below of time lapses in the action.

points is an essential preliminary to the elaboration of the dialogue, which

will remain largely formal unless the characters are real and concrete.
The following steps are therefore suggested:
Step 1 Present the situation to the class as a whole, using either

pictures or a scenario (or both in combination). Discuss any
possible language difficulties (e.g. essential formulas and
vocabulary items). Emphasise that the characters must be
worked out fully through discussion.
Step 2 Divide the class into groups. The students agree on an

interpretation of the characters (these should be written down
in case the activity is continued in a later lesson).
Step 3 The students work out the dialogue and at the same time also
discuss and note down movements, facial expressions etc. that
accompany it. Both the characterisation and the dialogue may
then be discussed with the teacher.
Step 4 The students rehearse their dramatisation. Different students

may be tried out in the various roles (both for the practice it
involves and also to see who is best suited to a particular role).
Those students who are not taking part in the ‘final
performance’ may give their attention to ‘props’ (which will
normally have to be improvised: e.g. schoolbags may be used as
suitcases).
Step 5 The groups act out their various versions.
Discussion
1 What are the main characteristics of oral work at the production stage?
What are the principal problems that the students have and how, in
general terms, can they be helped to overcome these?
2 The group is a largely autonomous practice unit. Explain how it is

organised and show in particular how this affects the role of the
teacher.
3 List the main advantages and disadvantages of group work.
4 In discussion the teacher’s main role is to act as mediator: to keep the

channels of communication open. What are the various ways in which
he does this and why is his preparation so important?
5 List the various ways in which visual material can be used to good
effect at the production stage. How do these differ from its use at
earlier stages? What are the advantages of using visual material over a
‘text’ as a stimulus for discussion?
6 Dramatic activities involve more than just performance. What else is

involved and how is this a valuable source of oral practice?
7 From your reading of Chapter 8 discuss the various ways in which oral
work at the production stage can be made to relate to the learner’s own
background and environment. Why is this important?
8 How do the various suggestions for oral work in Chapter 8 meet the
needs of the ‘conversation lesson’? Are there other possibilities?
Exercises
1 With reference to section 8.4.1. work out a set of lesson notes for use
with the two pictures below:
2 Write two short dialogues, as suggested in the last paragraph of 8.4.2,

which are ‘derived’ from the longer dialogue in the same section.
3 Assemble a set of pictures (e.g. cutouts from magazines, photos,

cartoons, drawings) which could be used to stimulate a discussion on
the subject of Work. Say why you have chosen the pictures and how
you would use them.
4 Work out a set of lesson notes for discussion on the picture set: Making
a Living on the Street in 8.4.3.
5 Find suitable ‘texts’ for discussion from newspapers and magazines, as

<1
suggested in 8.5. Say why you have chosen these and how you would
use any one of them.
6 Select five songs (traditional, folk, ‘pop’) which could be used to-
stimulate discussion as suggested in 8.5.1. Say how you would use any
one of these.
7 Draw or specify the design for a picture set to accompany the scenario
in 8.6.1.
8 Write a scenario similar to the one in 8.5.1. and work out a basic script
which would indicate the kind of language the students would need in
order to dramatise it

1 On oral work at the production stage see W Rivers (1968) Ch 8.
2 On the use of visuals see A Wright (1976). Also D Byrne and A Wright:
What Do You Think? Books 1 and 2, (Longman).
3 On drama see David Adland: The Group Approach to Drama
(Longman).
9 Language games
9.1. The role of games in the learning process

The title of this chapter perhaps suggests a misleading comparison with
activities that have been described in previous ones. Are games played for
enjoyment rather than instruction? We should like to think that all
language activities, properly conducted, are enjoyable. Are games, then,
introduced mainly to provide a welcome break in the lesson routine?
Certainly they may have this function, and the teacher may often wish
with good reason to give the students a rest from more intensive forms of
language practice if he sees their attention and interest waning. But this is
not their chief value. The maximum benefit can only be obtained from
language games if they form an integral part of the programme, at both the
practice and production stages of learning. Used in this way, they provide
new and interesting contexts for practising language already learnt — and
often for acquiring new language in the process.
One significant difference between language games and the activities
hitherto described is that they introduce an element of competition into
the lesson. While we would not wish the students to become excessively
competitive (and of course by organising them in teams or groups we at
least make this corporate rather than individual), we should recognise that
it provides a valuable impetus to a purposeful use of language: the students
want to have a turn; they want to stay in the game (if this is one that
involves elimination); they want to be the first to guess correctly and they
want to gain points (whether for themselves or for their team).
These, in fact, are some of the mechanisms that serve to take the
students’ attention off the form of what they are saying, so that often the
teacher can introduce quite tightly controlled practice, involving many
repetitions of the same item, without the students being aware of it. And
in contrast to many of the procedures which we use to accommodate
language learning to the classroom — which have to be learnt by the
students and accepted by them as conventions — games are a natural form
of self-expression both for young and old, and are an activity they all are
already familiar with. The students accept that games have to be played
according to certain rules: this is how they are played in real life. Once
again, then, in this way we manage to establish yet another link between
the classroom and the learners’ own environment.
99
(i
9.1.2. Suiting the game to the learners’ needs

Although we would normally wish to allow the students the maximum
amount of self-expression, we must also try to avoid the frustration that
can result from their not being able to make the appropriate responses a
game may call for. For this reason games have to be graded to some
extent. This does not mean that a game should be chosen only on the basis
of whether it uses language already known to the students: on the
contrary, games often afford opportunities for the introduction of new
language in memorable contexts, since we can often provide the students
with the language they need precisely at the moment that they become
aware that they need it. Nevertheless, as for other activities, the teacher
should work out beforehand what language items are likely to be needed
in the course of a game so that it can be played with the maximum success
and enjoyment.
It should also be kept in mind that a game can be put to work in
different ways. In order to underline this point, the examples of games in
9.2. have been arranged under three headings:
(a) games that practise a particular structure;

(b) games that may be ‘adjusted’ so that they can be played at different
levels of language proficiency;
(c) games that are essentially ‘open-ended’. That is to say, we cannot
predict with any degree of certainty what kind of language, within a given
range, may come up in the course of the game.
Games of the type (a) and (b) are appropriate to the practice stage and
(c) to the production stage of learning.
Some of the games suggested involve the use of visual aids. A high
percentage might also be labelled ‘guessing games’. This is also a significant
feature of language games. As we have already noted (see 5.3.1.1.) this
element permits questions to be asked realistically — as requests for
information. On the other hand, games that involve physical movement on
any scale have, with one exception, been excluded for obvious reasons.
9.1.3. Procedures for playing games

The following general procedure for playing games is suggested:
(a) Choose games on the basis of their suitability in terms of the

language they practise and also with regard to the students themselves (e.g.
their age and interests. The size of the class must also be taken into
account).
(b) Prepare the game carefully beforehand. In particular, if the game is
in any way open-ended, try to predict the language items that may be
needed.
(c) Explain to the students (in the mother tongue if necessary) the
purpose of and rules for the game.
(d) Give the students one or more ‘trial runs’ before the game is played
in earnest.
Language games 101
(e) Involve as many students as possible e.g. by dividing the class into
two teams and also by letting students take over from you if the game
permits.
(f) If games are played on a team basis, points should be awarded for
each correct answer and the scores written up on the blackboard.
Deductions may be made for grammatical errors (e.g. half a point), but
credit should always be given for creative expression.
9.2. Some examples of language games

9.2.1. Games that practise a single structure
(a) What have I got in my (bag)?
This is a guessing game. The teacher has a number of objects in his (bag)
and the students have to try to guess what they are by asking: Have you
got. . .? The objects may be either real ones such as a knife, a key, a watch
etc., or cutouts (or models, if available). In the latter case, a wider range of
vocabulary items may be practised (for example: animals, articles of
clothing). The students must of course be given some indication of the set,
otherwise guessing becomes frustrating.
Procedure Tell the class the rules of the game. Divide the students into
two teams and indicate ones from each team in turn to ask a question.
Keep the questioning going at a brisk pace: if a student fails to ask a
question reasonably quickly, give his turn to a member of the other team.
Afterwards, the class may be divided up into groups. Each group is then
given a card with pictures of the items pasted on it, and one of the
students is appointed to answer the questions.
Notice that the pattern may be modified to include, for example:
You’ve got a . . . haven’t you? or: I think you’ve got a . . .
(b) Simon says . . .

This is an elimination game (and the only one in this section which
involves some physical movement in the classroom). The teacher (or a
student) gives a number of commands. If he prefaces the command with
Simon says, the students have to carry it out. If he gives the command
alone (e.g. Stand up or Put your left hand on your head), the students
must do nothing. The students who carry out a command which has not
been prefaced with Simon says are eliminated from the game.
Procedure Explain the rules of the game carefully. It is essential for a
game of this kind to give the class one or more trial runs, to make sure that
everyone has understood what is required. If the class is large, the students
may be divided into groups and take part in turns. The winners from each
group are subsequently allowed to enter the ‘finals’.
The game must be played briskly and for this reason the teacher should
work from a prepared list of commands. This also ensures that the orders
are given in proper sequence. For example, if the students are sitting
down, the teacher should not say: Simon says: Stand on one leg but
rather: Simon says: Stand up, followed by: Simon says: Stand on one leg.
(c) Hiding and finding

This game practises prepositional phrases. An object, for example, may
actually be hidden in the classroom. In this case, two or three students are
asked to go out of the room while it is being hidden. On their return, they
try to guess the location of the object by asking questions such as: Is it (at
the back of the classroom)? etc. (That is to say, the questions asked must
be of the kind that can be answered by yes or no.) Alternatively, a wall
picture may be used. In this case the teacher decides where the object is
imagined to be hidden in the picture. All the students can then participate
by asking questions.
Procedure (On the assumption that a wall picture is being used) divide
the class into two teams. Decide where the object has been hidden and
write this down on a slip of paper, so that the students know that you
cannot change your mind in the course of the game. Encourage the
students to guess systematically (i.e. starting with general questions such
as: Is it (indoors)? Is it on the (left) of the picture?) and to follow up one
another’s questions (this involves them in careful listening). You may
encourage the students by hinting when they are ‘warm’ (i.e. if they are
guessing along the right lines).
(d) Likes and dislikes

The students have to guess what various members of the class (in turn) like
and dislike doing the most with reference to an agreed list of activities (e.g.
swimming, dancing, reading etc) by asking questions of the form: Do you
like . . ■ ing? This is a rather more sophisticated game than the preceding
ones because the student who is answering must use a variety of sentences
such as: Yes, I do, very much/No, I don 7. I hate it!/Well, I don’t mind . . .
ing.
Procedure Write on the blackboard, with the participation of the class,
a list of appropriate activities. You may also write up some of the verbs
needed in their replies (as indicated above). Tell the students that they
should each write down which activity he likes the most and which one he
really dislikes. Let the class first question you about your likes and
dislikes. For example:
SI: Do you like reading?
T: Well, I don’t mind reading.
S2: Do you like swimming?
T: Yes, I do. I quite like it.
S3: Do you like dancing?
T: No, I hate dancing! (etc).
Then ask a student to come to the front of the class and let the other
students question him in the same way until they have guessed what he
likes and dislikes. They may be asked to use alternative forms of asking
Language games 103
questions: e.g. You do like (swimming), don’t you? I suppose you like
(walking) etc.
(e) What did I see (while I was walking along the street)?
This is a guessing game in which the students have to ask questions using
the pattern: Did you see + object + -ing form (e.g. Did you see a man
(riding a bike)?).
Procedure The context for this game is provided by a wall picture: e.g.
one showing a street scene, where there are a number of different actions
depicted (a woman crossing the road, a man going into a shop, a policeman
directing the traffic etc). Ask each student to select one action which he is
to pretend he saw and to write this down on a piece of paper. Do this
yourself and let the students ask you questions as for Game (d). For
example:
SI: Did you see the policeman directing the traffic?
T: No, I didn’t.
S2: Did you see the woman waiting near the baker’s?
T: No, I didn’t.
SI: Did you see that pretty girl riding a bike?
T: Yes, I did!
Then ask one of the students to come to the front of the class and take
your place.
9.2.2. Games that may be used to practise different structures
(a) Sentence building

In this game a model sentence is given to the class. For example: I went to
the (supermarket) and bought (a pound of sugar). The students then take
it in turns to add another item to the list (e.g. a packet of tea, a jar of
jam), repeating the complete list each time, until someone makes a
mistake.
Notice that the game can be used:
(a) to practise sets of lexical items: e.g. associated with a particular

shop (baker’s, grocer’s).
(b) to practise a variety of patterns at different levels. For example: If
you go into town, will you buy me . . . (Or: would you mind buying me
. . .). Or: / had to go to the (baker’s) to buy some. . . The pattern chosen
must be at the right level for the class.
Procedure This game may be played with the class divided into two
teams. Write the sentence frame to be used on the blackboard and after
explaining the game to the class (or reminding them of it), give the first
example: e.g. If you go into town, would you mind buying me a
newspaper? In this situation there is no great restriction on the items to be
‘bought’. Then ask one student from each team in turn to add an item to
the sentence. Any student who makes a mistake (e.g. by forgetting an item
or putting them in the wrong order) loses a point for his team. The game
(I
must be kept going quickly and if a student is slow in:answering, his turn
should be given to a member of the other team.
(b) Don’t answer ‘Yes’ or ‘No’

This is an elimination game, in which the students in turn have to answer
questions put to them by the class without using ‘yes’ or ‘no’ in their
answers. This gives the possibility of practising a wide range of responses.1
For example:
(i) Of course not/Obviously/Perhaps/ . . .

(ii) I think so/I doubt it/I’m sure . . ./I’ve no idea/ . . .
(iii) What do you think?/Why ask me?/Don’t ask such silly
questions/Mind your own business!/ . . .
Each time the students play the game they can work within an agreed list
(which always includes responses previously practised).
Procedure The questions asked may be either of the personal kind, which
the students should be encouraged to ask in a sequence (e.g. Do you like
coffee? Do you drink it a lot? Have you had a cup today?) — so that they
learn to listen to what the previous student has said — or may be general
ones (e.g. questions about what can be seen in a wall picture. There’s a
grocer’s shop on the corner, isn’t there? Is there anybody in the shop?
She’s talking to the grocer, I suppose? etc).
Explain the game to the students and indicate possible responses. Then
let the students ask you questions first. For example:
SI: Did you come to school by bus?
T: As a matter of fact I did.
S2: Were there a lot of people on it?
T: Not many.
S3: Did you have a seat?
T: Certainly.
S4: Did you read on the bus?
T: Yes of...!
The teacher then asks a student to come to the front of the class and take
his place.
(c) Conversation gambits

The students are invited to question you (or a member of the class) with
reference to a certain statement made: e.g. I went to a marvellous party
last night! This gives the students intensive practice in asking questions
with both w/z-words(e.g. What did you drink? Whose party was it? etc) and
with auxiliary verbs (e.g. Did you dance? Did you meet anyone
interesting? etc).
1 This game should not be played until the normal short form answers with Yes
(I. ..) and No (I. . .) have been well established. The students should also be told
which of these responses might sometimes be considered impolite in everyday
conversation.
Language games 105
Procedure The game is best played with the students asking the teacher
questions. These may be worded in different ways. E.g. You did dance,
didn’t you? I suppose you had a lot to eat? To get the best results the
initiating statements should be introduced quite casually at some point in
the lesson, so that the students are not even aware perhaps that they are
playing a game.
9.2.3. Open-ended games
(a) ‘Glug’
This is another guessing game. The teacher thinks of a verb, and the
students try to find out what verb the teacher has in mind by asking
questions in which an invented verb such as glug or diggle is used in the
sentence instead of a real one.
Procedure Explain the game very carefully to the class and give
examples of the kind of questions the students can ask, using both the
correct verb and glug in your examples. Then give the class a trial run,
which might go as follows. In this case the verb the teacher has in mind is
wash.
SI: Are you glugging now?
T: No.
S2: Do you glug a lot?
T: Quite often, yes.
S3: Do you like glugging?
T: I don’t mind it!
S4: Do you glug before you come to school?
T: Of course!
S5: Have you always glugged?
T: Yes, as long as I can remember, (etc.)
The questioning continues until the students are able to guess the verb.
Notice that in the course of the game they use a wide variety of forms
(tenses, infinitives and gerunds).
(b) What’s my line?

In this guessing game the teacher (or a member of the class) chooses a
certain occupation and the students ask questions to try to establish what
it is. Questions mostly involve the use of the Simple Present.
Procedure Illustrate the kind of questions the students will need to ask
in order to arrive at the solution: e.g .Do you work (indoors) ? Do you use
(your hands)? Do you earn a lot of money? Do you work by yourself? etc.
Then choose an occupation (perhaps helping the students by miming an
action connected with your job) and allow them up to twenty questions to
find out what it is. Students may then be asked to come to the front of
the class to take your place.
For variation pretend that the person concerned is a relative, so that the
students practise asking questions with Does . . .?
(c) Comparisons
The students have to point out the advantages and disadvantages of, for
example, two kinds of car (e.g. a saloon car and a Land Rover) or
accommodation (e.g. house and flat). Pictures will provide a useful
stimulus.
Procedure Divide the students into groups and ask them to compile a
list of as many advantages and disadvantages as they can think of for the
items chosen. E.g. in the case of the saloon car and the Land Rover: the
saloon car is cheaper, easier to drive in town, to find a parking place for.
They may be asked to compile their lists against a certain time limit (e.g.
five minutes). The class is then re-formed, and the various suggestions
discussed and written up on the blackboard. Each group is awarded one
point for every correct suggestion and a bonus point for any idea which
none of the other groups thought of.
(d) Identity game

For this game the students are shown a picture of a person (man or
woman) and are asked to invent a background for him along the following
lines: his nationality, age, whether married or single, occupation and
(three) interests or hobbies. The picture should show the face of the
person only and may be cut out of a magazine.
Procedure Write on the blackboard or dictate to the students the items
as indicated above which they have to elaborate. Ask them to write their
ideas down (and do this yourself). Allow the class 3—5 minutes to work
out their answers. Then discuss each item in turn with the class. For
example, various suggestions are put forward about nationality: (He’s)
French. I think (he’s) Italian. (He) may be Spanish etc. Encourage the
students to use a variety of structures to express these ideas, particularly
nationality and age, which are perhaps the most controversial ones.
Reasons and explanations should also be given. Finally, give your ideas to
the class and let the students question you about them.
(e) What would you take with you to .. .?

The picture on page 107 may be used in a variety of ways.
Procedure When the game is first played, the students may be asked to
choose three of the items shown in the picture and say why they would
take these with them if, for example, they had to spend three months on a
desert island (which has natural resources such as water, vegetation, wild
life). Discussion then takes place concerning each student’s choice (and for
this reason, because there is a lot to be said, the game is best played in
small groups). On subsequent occasions the game may be re-played with
reference to the other places shown in the picture.
The students may also be asked to relate the items concerned to the
different places shown and assess their usefulness or suitability: for
example, If I went to a desert island, I would take a knife with me. I
would also take a knife camping. I might take one to the moon but I
Language games 107
wouldn’t take one to hospital. They may be asked to identify those items
which have the widest and narrowest applicability.
Other variations are: (a) choose a present for someone going to one of
these places and say why you have chosen it; (b) suggest three uses for
certain of the items e.g. axe, rope, telescope; (c) say which of these items
are expensive, cheap, dangerous etc; (d) which of these items have you got
at home (and what is it used for)?
Discussion
1 What is meant by a ‘language game’? In what way do they offer an
effective form of oral practice?
2 Games have to be graded to some extent. Explain why this is necessary

and suggest ways in which this can be done.
3 Are games a valuable form of listening comprehension practice? If so,

why?
4 Which of the games in 9.2. can be effectively played in groups? What

would be the advantage of playing them in this way?
Exercises
1 Examine any textbook of your own choosing to see what use is made
of games or game-like activities. If the textbook does not include any
games, suggest an appropriate one for one of the lessons.
2 Suggest another guessing game similar to the one in 9.2.1 (a).
3 Suggest other patterns that could be practised through the game in

9.2.2(a).
4 Find suitable visual material for the Identity Game in 9.2.3(d). Invent
your own set of answers for one of the pictures.
5 Suggest other uses for the picture in 9.2.2(e).
6 Devise a language game of your own and say how you would play it
with the class.

W R Lee (1965).
For a game to be played in the classroom see also Jabberwocky
(Longman).
IO Oral composition
10.1. The nature and purpose of oral composition

As its name implies, this activity requires the students to compose a ‘text’
— a sequence of connected sentences — orally (rather than in writing).
Apart from a great deal of incidental but valuable oral practice that can be
obtained in this way, it serves two main purposes:
(a) to develop oral fluency in such tasks as narration, description and

reporting;
(b) to prepare for written composition.
It may therefore be an end in itself ox a means to an end. Although to a

large extent similar procedures may be used for both types of activity,
there is one important difference to be kept in mind. If (b) is our goal, we
shall be especially concerned with helping the students to organise their
text (unless it happens to be a dialogue) through, for example, the
appropriate use of co-ordinate and subordinate patterns, sentence linkers
and sequencing devices (e.g. however, moreover, therefore, finally, next
etc) and other ‘cohesive’ features of the written form of the language.’
Although oral preparation alone will not teach the students how to write
(it also has the important function, of course, of motivating them for
written work through discussion of ideas), it can be effectively used to
show the students how to reshape their sentences and link them together.
Oral narration,1 2 on the other hand, which is only meant to be listened to
and not read, does not require the same degree of organisation.
10.1.1. The use of visual aids

Oral narration requires more than just the provision of a stimulus in the
form, let us say, of a topic to talk about. The students have to sustain their
narrative3 and for this purpose they need something on which to base it.
1 For example, sentences in a written text are knit together by (amongst other
things) the careful use of pronominal forms and through clause and group order.
For example: John was born just before the war. At that time. . .
2 This term is henceforth used to refer to oral description and reporting as well.
3 Unless the students have been asked to prepare the composition beforehand: e.g.
give a report on a (film). But this type of exercise tends to encourage the students
to learn their narratives off by heart (unless they speak from notes, which would
be much better training) and does not involve the class in building up the text.
109
This is not essential in the case of oral preparation for a written
composition because the teacher himself plays a more prominent part (see
10.3.) but it is nevertheless desirable. The necessary framework may be
provided by a text, which the students hear and are then asked to
reproduce in some way (e.g. from a different viewpoint. See the last
paragraph of 10.3.1.). But a visual aid, on the other hand, in the form of a
sequence of pictures like the one below, provides a complete framework
for both types of oral composition and (in contrast to the text) may be
used at different levels of language proficiency. All the same, it should be
remembered that a sequence of pictures of this kind is no more than a
scaffolding around which the composition may be built up. Unless it is
properly used, it will lead to the production neither of correct sentences
nor of good compositions.
Notice that the sequence may be shown to the students in various

ways:
(a) All four pictures may be shown

simultaneously. This enables the students to A B
have an overall understanding of the theme
from the start. The disadvantage is that their
attention may wander from picture to
C D
picture.
Ora/ composition Ill
(b) The teacher may build up the
composition by showing first one picture
A + 3
and then the next. This focuses attention on
the appropriate picture. It also makes it
possible to ask the students to guess what + C + D
will happen next.
(c) The teacher may show at the start

only two of the pictures in the sequence e.g. ?
the first and the last (the students can then
reconstruct what happened in between) or
the first and the third (the students can then D
guess what happened next).’
10.2. Oral narration

The purpose of this activity is to develop the students’ ability to tell a
story (describe an event etc) in a relaxed and natural style of speech. The
students should not therefore be expected to organise their sentences as if
they were going to write them down. For example, with reference to the
opening sentences of the sample passage in 6.2: The sun was so strong
that Jim could not go any further an oral version of this (indeed the way a
native speaker would probably tell the story himself) might run: It was
midday and the sun was very strong. It was so hot that Jim could not go
on. He had to stop. That is to say, shorter sentences are more likely to be
used and perhaps not always linked together, and there may be some
repetition of ideas.
Various ways of giving practice in this skill are set out below/ These
suggestions are arranged approximately in order of difficulty (i.e. the
amount of guidance given Is progressively reduced). Note that the
instruction: the students listen to a text means that they hear a story (or
other suitable material) which the teacher reads to them or tells them (this
would make it more informal) or plays to them on a tape. The text may be
repeated more than once at the discretion of the teacher.
Practice stage
(a) The students listen to a text (like the sample passage about Jim and
the snake in 6.2.). Before being asked to retell the story, their attention is
drawn to the main events through question and answer practice or through
one or more of the techniques described in 6.2(b).
1 This approach, however, is not possible with all sequences, which must therefore
be examined carefully before deciding which approach to adopt.
2 Some of these might be classified as reproduction exercises. They do not, as
viewed in this section, involve writing, but this could be the next stage.
j 12 Teaching Oral English
(b) The students listen to a text. They are guided in the retelling ot
the story by keywords written on the blackboard. For example (with
reference to the first paragraph of the sample passage):
midday no trees shelter big rock shirt (as pillow) sleep
The keywords are intended only to remind the students of the story rather
than actually help them with constructing the sentences (though this may
need to be done if the students are weak).
Guided production
(c) The students listen to a text. They are guided in the retelling of the
story through a visual sequence similar to the one in 10.1.1. (The
technique of showing only two of the pictures in the sequence may be
used.) The pictures thus serve as prompts and no help is given with the
language.
(d) The students listen to a text. They are then asked to retell the story
without further assistance.1
(e) The students hear part of a story: this serves as a stimulus. They are
then asked to complete the story with the help of either keywords or a
picture sequence. When this type of exercise is first done, more help may
be given through the keywords, as in the example below.2
Text to be heard
John was cycling along an empty country road when he heard a
loud noise in the sky. He looked up and saw a squadron of jet fighter
aircraft flying in formation. He was so interested that he forgot to look
where he was going, and his bicycle ran off the road into a ditch.
Keywords
front wheel bent - too heavy to carry — far from any houses —
stopped a passing car — went to nearest garage - asked garage to
find and repair bicycle — went home by bus.
Production 'stage
(f) The students are asked to tell a story which they have not
previously heard with the help of keywords and phrases written on the
blackboard. They should be given time to think about the story first (but
not allowed to write it down). The amount of guidance given through
keywords will depend on the level of the class. An example of a possible
story is given below.
my house very small — one spare room — got telegram from friend
— arriving Saturday with four children — alarmed — phoned friend
— bringing two tents — went to station - car very small - lots of
luggage — no sign of tents — left on train
1 As a variation on this procedure they may be allowed to take notes.

2 Reproduced from D H Spencer: Guided Composition Exercises (Longman 1967):
172 (b).
Oral composition 113
(g) The students are asked to tell a story with the help of a visual
sequence similar to the one in 10.1.1. Again they should be given time to
think about the story before being asked to speak. Except at more
advanced levels of language learning, when students may sometimes be
asked to speak impromptu (e.g. in debates), this represents the minimum
amount of guidance that can be given the students without frustration
setting in and class time being lost.
10.2.1. ‘Broadcasting’ as a framework for oral narration

As an alternative setting for some of the exercises above the students may
be asked to practise oral narration in the form of mock broadcasts. This
provides a realistic setting for the activity and may be carried out in two
ways:
(a) on the spot commentary For this suitable visual material is needed:
for example, wall pictures showing scenes with plenty of action in them.
This might be a fire, for example, so that the commentary would run: ‘. . .
the firemen have now arrived. There are two fire engines. Some of the
firemen have got hold of a ladder. They are putting it against one of the
windows on the first floor etc.’ Notice that this activity can be done at
quite a simple level.
(b) interviews Many of the exercises in 10.2. could be carried out (or
at least repeated) in the form of interviews with the understanding that
they are being broadcast ‘live’. For example, the story of Jim and the
snake could be told in this way, with one of the students playing the part
of Jim and the teacher the part of the interviewer, whose role is to present
the person being interviewed and to clarify and sustain the narrative where
necessary. For example:
Interviewer: Well, I have here with me (in the studio) Jim Stone. He
had a very lucky escape the other day. Will you tell us about it, Jim?
Jim: Well, I was on a long walk in the country. It was midday and the
sun was very hot, so I had to stop. I decided to take shelter under a big
rock.
Interviewer: Under a rock? Why? Weren’t there any trees near the path?
(etc.)
(b) is an especially effective device for story-telling because it enables
the student to identify realistically with the narrator. Some modification
of the original text is also required, which results in the exercise being less
mechanical. If the students are asked to take the part of the interviewer,
they will need to be given time for preparation and rehearsal.
10.3. Oral preparation lor written composition

Many of the exercises in 10.2. could be used as oral preparation for
written composition. In this case greater attention would have to be paid
to the way sentences are linked (as noted in 10.1. See also 6.2(b) (iii) for
an example of how this is done) and the teacher would play a
correspondingly larger part in helping the students to build up the
composition. In the following sections, however, we shall be concerned
with the way picture sequences may be used for this purpose.
10.3.1. Using a picture set for narrative composition

The teacher’s own preparation is of cardinal importance. As part of this he
must:
(a) identify the main points of the story as shown in (or clearly implied
by) the picture sequence. This is more or less what the students will
actually see when they first look at the pictures. For example, with
reference to the sequence in 10.1.1, the main points are: There is a man on
a bike. (He is in a hurry and) he isn’t looking where he is going. He is
approaching a main road. A lorry is just passing. The man runs into the
back of the lorry. He is knocked off his bike. The lorry driver stops and
comes round to see what has happened. He phones (the hospital). The man
is taken away in an ambulance.
(b) note the language needed to express these main ideas and identify
any difficulties. For example: The man isn’t looking where he is going. Is
there an alternative way of expressing this? Perhaps: He isn’t looking in
front of him. He is looking down. Are the passive forms essential? He is
knocked off his bike could be simplified to: He falls off his bike. Notice
that the systematic identification of the main points in (a) makes this task
easier. If the teacher had gone into class unprepared, the students might
have been frustrated by unnecessary difficulties. The teacher need not
by-pass all these difficulties: he may decide to use this as an opportunity,
for example, to introduce the passive or he may use the more difficult
form himself first and then get the students to use it.
(c) note what kind of background is needed for the story. For example,
we need to- decide who the man is and where he is going, and also perhaps
why he is in a hurry. If the story is elaborated in any detail, it may be
necessary to consider other points such as whether his brakes were in bad
condition, whether he was badly injured as a result of the accident etc.
The teacher does not actually decide such matters himself; they should be
agreed with the students at the start of the lesson.
(d) work out questions (etc.) for involving the students in building up
the story. This is illustrated below.
The following steps are suggested for building up the story orally in
class. They are worked out in detail for Picture A only.
Step 1 Decide tvith the help of the class who the man is (e.g. his name
is Tom) and where he is going (e.g. to work. In this case the
accident takes place in the morning). This is perhaps sufficient
for the first go at telling the story.
Oral composition 11 5
Step 2 Ask preliminary questions (mostly types (2) to (4) in 6.1.1.) to

familiarise the students with the language needed. For example:
Teacher Student
Tom wasn’t walking along

the road, was he? No, he wasn’t.
Was he on his bike, then? Yes.
Was he going slowly? No, he wasn’t.
He was in a hurry, then,
wasn’t he? Yes, he was.
Was he going along a main
road? No.
Was he approaching a main
road,then? Yes, he was.
Was he looking in front of
him? No.
Quite right. He was looking
down. He wasn’t looking
where he was going.
Step 3 Ask questions (mostly type (a) ) to begin to establish the story.
Where was Tom going? To work.

Right. He was going to
work. How was he going to
work? On his bike.
Why was he in a hurry, do
you think? Because he was late.
What was he approaching? A main road.
Was he looking where he was
going? No, he wasn’t.
The teacher may then recapitulate or use prompts to get the students to do
this. The story so far would run: Tom was going to work. He was on his
bike. He was in a hurry. He was approaching a main road. He wasn’t
looking where he was going. These, then, are the sentences that have to be
built up into a connected sequence.
Step 4 Use varied techniques to elicit a connected sequence of

sentences. For example:
Where was Tom going? To work.

How? On his bike.
Sentence? Tom . . . Tom was going to work
on his bike.
Was he in a hurry? Yes.
Why? Because he was late.
Sentence? He was in a hurry because he
was late.
Ele was going along a
main road, wasn’t he? No. He was approaching
a main road.
Correct. And he wasn’t
looking . . . Complete
the sentence. He wasn’t looking where he
was going.
Both sentences. He was approaching a main
road. He wasn’t looking
where he was going.
Shall we join these
sentences with and
or with butl But.
All right. Now make
one sentence using but. He was approaching a main
road but he wasn’t looking
where he was going
Now repeat all the
sentences from the
beginning. Tom . . . Tom was going to work on
his bike. He . . . (etc.)
These steps are then repeated for the next picture (which the teacher may
first ask the students to guess about if he has covered up the other pictures
as suggested in 10.1.1(c) ). When the sentences for this picture have been
elicited, the students may be asked to relate the story for the first two
pictures. When the whole sequence has been completed in this way, the
students should be able to tell the entire story with ease.
For written work, the students can be asked to tell the story from a
different angle (e.g. Tom’s point of view. In the case of this sequence,
however, further modification will be needed because he is knocked
unconscious! E.g. After that, I remember nothing but they told me
afterwards that the lorry driver . . . etc). The students may also be given
suggestions for expanding the story slightly. E.g. Where did Tom work?
Why was he in a hurry that morning? Did he see the lorry at the last
moment? Why couldn’t he stop? Was he badly injured? The written
version of the story could also be in the form of a newspaper report: in
this case the story would have to be re-presented to read as ‘news’.
A full oral preparation, therefore, along the lines shown above, need
not reduce written work to an act merely of repetition. There are many
ways in which the written version can be made to vary from the oral
account which was built up in class.
10.3.2. Using a picture sequence with a dialogue element

The picture sequence on page 117 offers the possibility of building a dia¬
logue element into the composition as perhaps its main feature (compare
this, for example, with the sequence in 10.3.1. where the dialogue is only
intrinsic at one point and even this — the inset of the driver phoning - is
primarily a prompt for: The lorry driver sent for an ambulance) Each
situation depicted clearly implies talking and this is underlined for the
students by presenting them with a series of balloons. The fact that these
are empty should serve as an inducement to supply the words.
But what words? If the students work on their own in groups they are
not likely to have much difficulty in providing a number of utterances
which are both appropriate and imaginative even if they may sometimes
make mistakes. If, on the other hand, the activity is oral composition with
the whole class, once again the whole sequence needs to be carefully
analysed beforehand to ensure that it is exploited in the most effective
way and that things do not go wrong in class.
In addition to working out the story-line and related language which is
needed for the narrative framework (as in 10.3.1.) - though perhaps in
less detail since the dialogue will play a more prominent part in the
composition - the teacher has also to determine the content of the
dialogue which these situations suggest. For this the following procedure is
suggested.
(a) Decide whether the ‘topic’ of the dialogue is clearly implied by the
situation or not. In this sequence, for example, the dialogue in B is more
or less open, while the nature of the others is fairly strongly implied.
(b) Decide what concepts are being (or could be) expressed in these
situations. Thus we have:
Picture A asking for/granting permission

warning/advice + response (= reassurance)
Picture B surprise, admiration etc
Picture C blame, abuse, threats
Picture D reporting of event

blame/reproach + denial of fault
This functional outline, however hypothetical, is as important for this type

of composition as the working out of the main events was for the narrative
composition in 10.3.1.
(c) Work out possible language items at the level of the students (but
allowing for the introduction of new but relevant language) to express
these concepts. For example: May (Do you mind if) I borrow the car
tonight?
(d) Work out possible dialogue frames for practising these items with
the class. For example:
Boy: You aren’t using the car tonight, are you, Dad?
Man: Well, no. Why?
Boy: In that case, do you mind if ...?
Man: Well, all right, but...!
(e) Decide what background will be needed for the composition (as for
10.3.1.).
The following steps are suggested for building up the dialogues implied
by each picture. This is shown in detail for Picture A only.
Step 1 Discuss the background for the story as in 10.3.1.
Step 2 Use cues to build up the dialogue for each picture.
Teacher Students
Eric has a date with Jean

and he wants to use the car.1
What would you say in
this situation? May I borrow the car
tonight?
Do you mind if I use the
car, Dad?
Good. But perhaps he
begins by saying: Are you
using the car tonight, Dad?
What are some possible replies?
Yes? No, I’m not.
I don’t think so.
1 As agreed at Step 1.
All right . . . and . . .

(indicates two students
to repeat the exchange) Are you using the car tonight,
Dad?
No, I’m not.
You aren’t . . .
(indicates two more) You aren’t using the car
tonight, are you, Dad?
No, I’m not.1
Now let’s go on. What
do you think Eric says? May I borrow it, then?
Do you mind if I use it?
Good. Or perhaps he
says: In that case.
In that case, do you
mind if / use it, then?
What does his father say? All right.
All right BUT . . .! . . . But be careful!
Good. . . . and . . .
(indicates two students) In that case, do you mind
if / use it, then?
All right. But be careful!
Now the whole dialogue
so far. (Indicates
two students) . . . (etc).
Note that for one or two of the pictures the dialogue may be developed in
greater detail (e.g. for pictures C and D, where much more is said).
Step 3 Build up the narrative framework of the composition, using

question and answer. The dialogue is then fitted into the
narrative. Both direct and reported speech forms should be
used.
What did Eric want to

do? He wanted to borrow his
father’s car.
Why? He had a date with his
girlfriend.
A new one? Yes.
Sentence?
One night Eric . . . One night Eric wanted to
borrow his father’s car
because he had a date with
his new girlfriend.
1 The teacher may practise several pairs of students in this way.

What did he say to his . <

father? Are you using the car
tonight, Dad?
His father said he
wasn’t, so Eric asked
if . . . . . . Eric asked if he
could borrow it.
Did his father agree? Yes.
All right. His father
His father agreed but
said ‘Be careful’.
Or: told him to be
careful. Sentence? His father agreed but
told him to be careful.
Good. Now from the
beginning again . . . (etc).
The procedure set out for 10.3.1. is then followed: that is to say, each
picture is described in turn and the description linked to that of the
preceding one(s) until the students can repeat the entire text with ease.
Notice that for written work several variations on the oral composition
are possible. For example, the story may be told from the point of view of
Eric, his father or his girlfriend. Each will result in a different emphasis
being given to certain points in the story. For example, Picture C will
occupy more prominence in Eric’s account, while Pictures A and D will
figure more prominently in his father’s. His girlfriend, on the other hand,
can describe only Pictures B and C from first hand experience; for the
other pictures she reports what Eric told her. In addition to this, the
students may also be asked to vary and perhaps elaborate the basic
dialogues either as individual assignments or as group activities.
Discussion
1 It is suggested that oral composition serves two main purposes. What
are these two purposes and in what way do they require a different
kind of preparation?
2 The sequence of exercises suggested for oral narration has been

arranged under three headings: practice stage, guided production and
production stage. What is the difference between the exercises in each
of these three sections and what part do visual sequences play in each?
3 Unless a sequence of pictures like the one in 10.1.1. is properly used, it

will produce neither correct utterances nor good compositions. With
reference to 10.3.1, outline the teacher’s own preparation and explain
why it is important.
4 Do you agree with the stages suggested in 10.3.1. for developing oral
composition using a narrative sequence? If not, suggest either
modifications or an alternative approach.
5 Show how the teacher’s preparation for oral composition using a

picture sequence with a dialogue element differs from the one with a
narrative sequence.
6 A full oral preparation need not reduce written work to a mere act of
repetition. Refer to both types of composition (narrative and dialogue)
to show how the oral version may be modified.
Exercises
1 Draw or specify the design for a picture sequence either along the lines
of the one in 10.1.1. or 10.3.2. and say how you would use it.
2 Write or select a text suitable for use in the scheme suggested in 10.2.
for developing oral narration.
3 Use the keywords in 10.2(f) to show how two different version of the
same story (one elementary, the other more advanced) can be
developed from these.
4 With reference to the procedure suggested in 10.3.1. for developing

narrative composition, elaborate Steps 2—4 for Picture B in the
sequence.
5 With reference to the procedure suggested in 10.3.2. for developing

composition with a dialogue element, elaborate Steps 2—3 for Picture
B.
6 As part of your preparation for the composition with a dialogue

element in 10.3.2, write out the dialogues which Pictures C and D
suggest. Bear in mind that these will probably be longer than the ones
for the preceding pictures.
V
|| Play reading
■ 1.1. The use and purpose of play reading

Play reading as it is considered in this chapter is not simply a means of
providing practice in reading aloud.1 To regard it even largely in this way
would be to neglect many of the valuable activities it affords for language
practice. Nor is it simply an extension of dialogue practice on a greater
scale (although a play can and should be used to combine and re-present
known language in new contexts. See 11.1.1.). The situation itself, even in
a short play like the one in 11.3, can be much more fully explored and
developed than through a dialogue, and the language used in a
correspondingly more meaningful way.
But in striking contrast to the dialogue, a play has characters, not just
speakers, who are presented through a combination of words and actions.
It is meant to be acted rather than said, and although it may not always be
practicable to produce a play in the fullest sense, nevertheless the fact that
it does combine both words and action should not be ignored. We have
already noted (in 8.6.) the importance of getting the students to interpret
roles in some depth by discussing, for example, the personalities and
appearance of people in a given situation; their relationship to one another
and the way this influences their choice of language; and their facial
expressions and movements as they speak. In role-playing the students
were invited to create their characters within certain defined limits; now
they are required to take into account words and actions provided by a
text before arriving at an interpretation of the roles. The sort of questions
they must now ask themselves are: How would a particular character say
this line? (Is there more than one way of saying it?) How would he look as
he says it? How might he move? etc.
While it is not suggested that every line in the play should be explored
in such detail, it should be clear that discussing the play, both the text and
the setting, is not only essential to making the activity of play reading
meaningful but is also a powerful stimulus to a purposeful use of language,
because interpretation can only be reached through talk. Thus, play
reading is not just a diversion from other more routine classroom
1 Reading aloud is not an especially valuable form of giving oral practice, nor is it a
communication skill that most students will require. However, if it needs to be
practised (for examination purposes) dialogues and plays provide a better
starting-point than prose passages.
122
Play reading 123
activities: like role-playing, it is a way of learning to use language through

discussing how to use it.
11.1.1. The language of the texts

It needs to be stressed that the students should not be presented with
language difficulties that will complicate their interpretation of the text.
As we have noted, plays afford a good opportunity to re-introduce known
items of language, both structures and vocabulary, and to extend the
students’ understanding and mastery of them in new contexts. And
because there is more depth of situation than in the dialogue, repetition of
these is not likely to result in boredom.
The material therefore has to be specially written or adapted to the
level of the students. Provided that the language is natural, and includes
forms typical of the spoken language (so that it can actually be said
aloud), there is little risk of it being too simple: one of the problems to
which the students have to address themselves is how to interpret the text
(taking into account the factors noted in 11.1.) and even one that presents
them with no major structural or lexical difficulties (like the one in 11.3.)
nevertheless has to be made meaningful through appropriate expression —
the correct use of stress and intonation to convey attitude, degrees of
emphasis etc.1
11.2. Suggested procedure for play reading

The following procedure for play reading is suggested for general guidance
only. While it takes into account factors noted in 1 1.1, it may be modified
in various ways, depending largely on the extent to which the teacher
wishes to leave the students free to form their own interpretation. For
example, he may ask them to read the play first by themselves in groups,
so that they have some ideas about it before they hear a recording.
However, it is assumed that in the average class more help will need to be
given at the start and the whole process perhaps speeded up.
Step 1 Read the play to the students in as lively a manner as possible

or, if possible, play them a recording of it.
Step 2 Discuss the play with the students, inviting their ideas about,
for example, the setting, the characters and their personalities.
Step 3 Assign roles to the students. More than one student may be
given the same role (in proportion to its prominence in the
play) so that everyone is involved from the start.
1 See 2.3. This is an important way of giving speech training in non-specialist language
programmes. Listening to plays is also a valuable form of listening comprehension. See
3.4.
Step 4 Read (or play the recording of) the play a second time,1
pausing to draw attention to or invite comments on certain
points. This might be in connection with attitudes expressed by
the characters: for example, the third speaker in the play in
11.3. below says: Oh, was I? Is this real or pretended surprise?
Or draw attention to the way certain words are stressed.
Notice, for example, that when the second speaker in the play
below says I think you’re next, Mrs Ball she emphasises you’re
(which in other contexts perhaps the students have been
discouraged from stressing) rather than next, because the latter
word occurs in the previous utterance. Drawing attention to —
and practising — such points will help the students to perform
better without influencing their interpretation of the roles. The
students may underline (or suitably mark in some way) items
such as this in the text.
Step 5 (Optional) Ask selected students to come to the front of the

class and read. This enables them to be seen and heard, and to
speak to one another. The remainder of the students listen, but
may be asked to come out at any point and take over their
appropriate roles. While guidance may be given at this stage,
corrections should be kept to a minimum, so as not to hold up
and spoil the reading. Mistakes should be noted, however.
Comment on these and other matters in general terms
afterwards, and also ask the students to give their impressions of
the reading.
Step 6 Divide the students into groups. Ask them to elaborate the
characters in detail and discuss the setting etc. They should read
through the play (or the relevant scene) together, and ask for
guidance when needed.
Step 7 (Possibly in another period) Ask the students to choose their

roles and rehearse the play.
Step 8 Ask the groups in turn to act out the play (or a scene from it).
The other students should listen critically and be prepared to
discuss the performances afterwards. Recordings may also be
made of the performances.
1 If the play is a long one, read one scene only. When the activity is resumed in
another lesson, repeat or recapitulate what has been practised previously.
Play reading 125
11.3. An example of a short play: Let The Boy Speak1

Characters
Mr Smith a greengrocer
Miss White
Mrs Ball customers in the shop
Mrs Wood
Johnny Bell a small boy
A greengrocer’s shop. Mr Smith is serving behind the counter. One

customer is going out. Three women are waiting in the shop.
Mr Smith: Yes? Who’s next, please?

Miss White I think you’re next, Mrs Ball. You were here before me,
weren’t you?
Mrs Ball: Oh, was I?
Mr Smith: What can I do for you, madam? Do you need any fruit?
Mrs Ball: Let me see. Ah yes, I want . . .
A small boy runs into the greengrocer’s shop. He pushes his way between
the women and stands in front of the counter.
Johnny: Please, Mr Smith . . .!

Mr Smith (not letting him continue): One moment, young fellow! I’m
serving this lady. And these two ladies are also waiting. (He
turns to Mrs Ball again) Yes, madam? What were you
saying?
Johnny: But sir!
Mrs Ball: Be quiet! I want three pounds of potatoes, Mr Smith.
Mr Smith: Three pounds of potatoes. Certainly. I have some good ones
here. (He points to the potatoes near the counter) Eight
pence a pound. Are these all right?
Mrs Ball: Yes, I’ll take those.
Mrs Wood (looking at Johnny): The children today! They push in!
Miss White: They can’t wait! They want to be first!
Mrs Wood: How old are you?
Johnny: Nine, madam.
Mrs Wood: Only nine! And you pushed in front of this lady!
_Johnny:
„.. I had to. I wanted . . .
Miss White (not letting him finish): Young people must learn to wait. You
can’t push in front of people. You’re not the only customer
in the shop, are you?
Johnny: No, madam.
Mrs Ball: Did your mother send you?
Johnny: No, I wanted . . .
Mrs Wood (quickly): Ah, you wanted something for yourself! You
couldn’t wait, could you? What’s your name?
The title might usefully serve as a maxim for the teacher in the classroom!
Johnny: Johnny Bell.,

Miss White: You live in Church Street, don’t you? I’ve seen you there.
Johnny: Yes, madam. .
Miss White: Yes, I know your mother. I’ll speak to her about you.
Johnny: But I only wanted . . .
Mr Smith: That’s enough, young man. We don’t want to hear. (He
turns to Mrs Ball) Here you are, Mrs Ball. Three pounds of
potatoes. Is that all? That’ll be twenty-four pence, please.
Thank you.
Mrs Ball gives Mr Smith the money. She takes her potatoes and leaves.
Mr Smith: Next, please.

Johnny: I’m sorry but . . . (No one listens to him).
Miss White I want some apples, please. Two pounds.
Mr Smith: What about these? (He points to some apples on counter)
They’re only twenty pence a pound.
Miss White. No, they look rather green. Have you any sweet ones?
Mr Smith: Certainly, madam. I have some good ones but they’re still
in my car. Twenty-five pence a pound.
Miss White Can I see them?
Mr Smith: I’ll go and get them.
Mr Smith goes out of the shop. After a minute he runs in again.
Mr Smith (shouting): They’re not there! There was a box of apples in my

car and now it’s gone! The car’s empty.
Johnny: I saw two men near your car, Mr Smith. They opened the
door and took out a box of apples.
Mr Smith: My apples! I’ve lost a big box of apples. (He turns to
Johnny and shouts in an angry voice) Why didn’t you tell
me?
Johnny: I wanted to tell you, sir, but no one let me speak!
Discussion
1 Play reading is not simply an extension of dialogue practice. What are
the main differences between the two activities?
2 Interpretation can only be arrived at through talk. What sort of things

can the students be asked to discuss in connection with the play? What
other activities suggested in this book offer similar opportunities for
purposeful discussion?
3 Do you agree with the procedure suggested in 1 1.2? If not, suggest

appropriate modifications.
Play reading 127
Exercises
1 Read through the play in 11.3. and list, as part of your lesson
preparation, any points you might want to discuss with the class as
suggested in Step 3 in 11.2.
2 Write a play, about the same length and level as the one in 11.3, based
on the scenario in 8.6.1.

1 D E Adland: The Group Approach to Drama (Longman).
2 John Seely: In Context (Oxford University Press)
12 Audio-visual aids to
language learning
12.1. The place of audio-visual aids

Constant reference to audio-visual aids has been made throughout this
book. This chapter is intended both to emphasise their importance and in
some cases to compare and contrast the effectiveness of one aid with
another. Guidance is also given where appropriate on practical matters
such as the construction of aids.1 However, it must not be forgotten that
their value depends on how much they contribute to the learning process.
Hence the title of this chapter. Their function is not to make the lesson
more colourful or to demonstrate the teacher’s versatility either in
constructing or handling them, but to make learning more effective. The
teacher must constantly ask himself such questions as: Which is the most
appropriate aid I can use for this situation? Does this aid actually do (for
the learners) what I think it does? Is it in fact necessary to use an aid at
all? Because, after all, one audio-visual aid is always present in the
classroom: the teacher himself, and he would be well advised to consider
how to make the best use of himself before he looks at other possibilities.
12.2. The textbook

In the early stages of language learning the textbook2 should be regarded
as a form of visual aid whose primary function is to reinforce what has
been learnt orally. Ideally, oral work should be carried out as far as
possible without recourse to a written text (on the part of the learners).3
In practice, it has to be accepted that many learners, especially those who
have passed the primary stage of education, learn less effectively if they
are deprived of the written form of the language for long periods. For
example, it may sometimes help the learners to see the written form of the
dialogue while it is being presented - to the extent that they feel more
relaxed, although this is not recommended as a regular procedure. Again, it
1 These notes cannot take the place of a more complete statement. In the visual
field, see, for example, A Wright (1976).
2 The printed matter is referred to here. Many modern courses contain a pictorial
element which.is an integral part of each lesson and can be used separately from
the actual text.
3 Unless it is an integral part of the activity. Play reading is the only one dealt with
in this book.
128
Audio-visual aids to language learning 129
will sometimes be necessary to write model sentences or micro-dialogues

(see 7.1.2.) on the blackboard as an aid to practice.
In general, a regular and well-organised programme of listening
comprehension practice will do much to help students who feel insecure
unless they can see a written text. And lessons designed to promote oral
fluency should never be allowed to become text-centred. It is difficult, for
example, to give effective oral practice if students have constantly to refer
to exercises in their book or are trying to find answers to questions by
reference to a passage. Numerous alternatives to this kind of work have
been proposed and illustrated in the course of this book.
12.3. The blackboard

The blackboard may be used to provide written models or sketches of
material to be practised orally. It is an important aid (easily neglected
because it is always present) because it provides a focal point of attention
for the whole class. Handwriting, therefore, must be legible and drawings
must be large enough to be seen at the back of the class. Unwanted
material should always be cleaned off so that it does not distract the
students’ attention.
The principal uses of the blackboard as an aid to oral practice are set
out below.
12.3.1. Written work

(a) Model sentences For example, to illustrate a key pattern in a
dialogue or one to be used in intensive oral practice. Model sentences may
be written in full with the important elements underlined. For example:
Mary had the windows cleaned.

Tom got his hair cut.
Or else a structural outline or skeleton may be provided. For example:
[have + object + past participle form

Subject +
Iget
(b) Model dialogues The main occasions on which dialogues will need to
be written up on the blackboard are:
(i) When the one in the textbook has to be replaced or modified. See
4.2.1.
(ii) When dialogues are being built up with the participation of the
class. See 7.3.2.
(iii) To provide a model for micro-dialogue practice. See 7.1.2. Step 6.
(c) Keywords These may be written on the blackboard as prompts lor

the type of mechanical drill discussed in 5.2.1. and 5.2.2. (though as a rule
the teacher gives an oral cue in the form of a callword). Keywords may be
presented in the form of a list from which a choice has to be made. See for
example language game (d) in 9.2.1. Keywords are also used in oral
composition, as illustrated in 10.2.
12.3.2. Sketches
Some practice — but no great skill — is all that is required to do these
adequately for the purpose of language practice in the classroom. While in
general it will often be more economical to have these on picture cards
(see 12.7.) or in the form of wall pictures (see 12.6.) so that they are
available for use when required, there are many occasions when it is
invaluable for the teacher to be able to build up a picture (e.g. of objects
or scenes) in the presence of the students. Drawings should be as
functional and simple as possible, as shown in the illustration below:
An action series of four to six ‘pinmen’ as in the set below provides

multi-purpose pictorial cues for a wide variety of patterns.
Notice that, like the micro-dialogue sets, these pictures can also be used in
combination. For example: Did John go riding on Saturday? No, he went
skiing.
12.4. The magnetboard

In its simplest form the magnetboard consists of a sheet of metal (e.g. zinc
or tinplate), measuring about 50 by 70 centimetres and mounted on wood,
to which charts or cutouts can be attached by means of small magnets. It
resembles the flannelgraph (see 12.5.) with the important difference that
the material placed on it may be easily and safely moved around and also
superimposed (i.e„ one cutout may be placed on top of another). It can be
used like a wall picture (see 12.6.) but it is dynamic, not static, because
the material can be manipulated to create different situations. It is also a
relatively inexpensive piece of classroom equipment which can be made by
the teacher if it is not available commercially.
The material to accompany the magnetboard is made up of backdrops
and cutouts.
12.4.1. Backdrops The backdrop, as shown below, is like a piece of

stage scenery. It is a sheet of thin paper which covers the whole of the
magnetboard and is held in place by four or more small magnets. The
cutouts are then superimposed to build up whatever scene is required, thus
making the magnetboard an altogether more powerful aid than if cutouts
were used on their own. Only the main outline of the picture (e.g. the
walls of a room, with a door and a window) need be shown on the
backdrop, the other details being supplied by the cutouts. This again adds
to the flexibility of the aid: the room, for example, can be converted into
different kinds of interior scenes such as the rooms of a house, an office or
even a restaurant. A set of basic backdrops might consist ot a room, a
street, a beach, a port, an airport and a general purpose exterior scene as
shown in the third example below.
12.4.2. Cutouts Cutouts may frequently be found in magazines.1
Otherwise they should be drawn on thick paper (to make them durable)
1 See, however, 12.7(a).
with felt pens of different colours. A high standard of artwork is not

required: it is sufficient for the objects to be clearly drawn (preferable
with black edges, to make them stand out, and without using too much
colour) and to be large enough to be seen at the back of the class (e.g.
20—25 centimetres is an ideal size for most objects). For this reason the
relative proportions of the objects will often have to be ignored: it is not
vitally important, for example, if a vase of flowers is larger than it should
be in relation to the table on which it is placed because it is not there
permanently, as in a wall picture. Examples of cutouts are given below.
Notice that the dotted lines show the cutting edge for the cutouts (again
with a view to making them more durable). The uncut portion will not
show up against the white backdrop.
A basic set of cutouts would include people (men, women, children and
professions e.g. policemen etc) performing various actions (sitting,
walking, running, carrying something); objects to be found in the house
(furniture, clothes etc); objects to be seen in the street (cars, buses, bike,
bus stop etc); and objects for the general exterior scene (trees, flowerbed,
bench, animals, sun, moon and a ‘neutral’ house which can be converted
into a school, hotel, hospital etc. by means of appropriate labels and
symbols.
The cutouts are held in position on the backdrops either by placing a
magnetic counter over them or by attaching a magnetic strip to the reverse
side.
12.4.3. Uses of the magnetboard

The main uses of the magnetboard, which has been frequently referred to
in the course of this book, may be summed up as follows:
(a) to provide a general setting for dialogues and passages at the

presentation stage (for example, the main characters in the course book
may be reproduced as cutouts);
(b) to illustrate the meaning of particular structural or lexical items in a
dialogue or passage;
(c) to provide contextualised practice for structural items at the
practice stage (see in particular 5.3.1. and 5.3.5.);
(d) to accompany language games. The game, for example, in 7.3.3(a)
could be played on a much broader basis with the help of a magnetboard.
See also 9.2.1(a);
(e) to provide visual material for oral composition. In this way the
pictures can be built up in the classroom (often with the help of the
students).
12.5. The flannelgraph

This aid (also known as the flannelboard and feltboard) consists of a board
covered with flannel, which thus provides a surface to which cutouts can
be attached. The cutouts are also backed with flannel or some other rough
material. The flannelgraph thus resembles the magnetboard and can be
used in much the same way. It costs less to make but is more limited in
scope. For example, cutouts cannot be moved around so easily nor can
one cutout be superimposed on another.
12.6. Wall pictures

Useful environments, for example, would be interiors such as a room, an
office, a restaurant, and exteriors such as the street, a station, the beach
etc. Each scene should show a number of activities and should not contain
too much detail. Posters (e.g. connected with travel) are often suitable lor
this purpose but otherwise, where wall pictures are not commercially
available, they can be produced by the teacher with the aid of fairly
durable paper and felt pens.
These are chiefly used to show scenes, like the one below.
12.6.1. The uses of wall pictures

Apart trom the incidental teaching of vocabulary items (for which picture
cards (see 12.7.) are usually more effective) they may be used:
(a) to present and practise grammatical items. This use need not be
restricted to ‘present’ time only: the teacher can equally well refer to the
picture as if the actions shown in it were taking place or had already taken
place in the past, in this way the wall picture can be used for guided
practice at all levels from elementary to advanced, along the lines
illustrated in 5.3. (see in particular 5.3.1.). Such practice can often be in
the form of exchanges or micro-dialogues (see 7.1.2.) with appropriate
items for substitution provided by the teacher.
(b) to present and practise concepts (approval and disapproval, agree¬

ment and disagreement, advice, warnings, etc.) as illustrated in 5.3.5. The
picture above, lor example, could be used to provide communication
practice in such areas as asking for and giving orders, regrets (e.g. I wish
... I hadn t left my camera in my room/been able to save my new camera
etc) and making plans (What will you do now the hostel has been burnt
down? I think . . . I'll go and live at home/I may go and look for a small
flat etc).
(c) to provide a context for language games (see Chapter 9).

(d) to serve as a context for free expression and discussion at the

production stage (see 8.4, 8.4.1. and 8.4.3.).
(e) to stimulate the production of dialogues (see 7.3.2. and 8.4.2.).
(f) to provide a context for oral composition (see Chapter 10).
I 2.7. Picture cards

At the presentation stage picture cards, either specially drawn (in black
and white) or made by pasting pictures cut out of magazines on stiff card,
may be used to illustrate the meaning of lexical and structural items.
When vocabulary is being taught, the following points should be kept in
mind:
(a) many pictures in magazines are not sufficiently clear to convey

meaning (e.g. there is sometimes too much confusing detail. Also the
colours used do not always help to make the items stand out when viewed
from a distance). Cutouts must therefore be critically looked at from the
point of view of the students before they are used in class. E.g. Do they
make the meaning clear? Can they be seen from the back of the
classroom? (See the notes on the production stage below for other and
more valuable uses of cutouts.)
(b) several examples of an item should be given. For example, to

illustrate the meaning of dog, the students should be shown a number of
pictures of different kinds of dogs, partly to make it clear that the word
being taught is not animal or one particular kind of dog, and partly to
establish an association of the word dog with several images.
To illustrate the meaning of structural items, a number of cards for
each item will be required. For example, for going to, the set might consist
of pictures showing people about to eat (an apple etc), drink (a cup of tea
etc), smoke (a cigarette etc) and so on. Verbs and lexical items previously
taught should be selected for use with the new pattern.
At the practice stage picture cards serve mainly as visual prompts to
elicit correct responses rapidly. The pictures must therefore be boldly
drawn and be unambiguous. The cards may be flashed in front of the
students (i.e. shown quickly: hence the term flashcard) or placed on the
magnetboard. Cards linked together to form pairs will be found useful (see
for example 5.2.2. and 5.3.1.). Sets of object cards as referred to in 5.3.1.
(which consist of simple line drawings of paired items such as bicycle/car,
radio/TV set, guitar/piano etc) may be placed on the magnetboard or
otherwise displayed to provide rapid practice in a variety of patterns,
particularly in the form of exchanges (question and answer, statement and
comment). For example:
A: I’m going to buy (a bike).

B: Are you? I’m going to buy (a car)!
Or:
A: Did (Mary) buy (a TV set)?

B: No. She hadn’t enough money, so she bought (a radio)
instead.
Or:
A: Would you like to have (a piano)?

B: Well, actually I’d rather have (a guitar).
Each item in the pair must be shown in the appropriate order for a rapid
drill of this kind. For example, for the first exchange above, the less
prestigious item appears first; for the other two exchanges it appears
second.
Paired items (objects and actions) may also be produced on reversible
cards, as illustrated below. Picture B is drawn on the reverse side of the
card showing Picture A. On the side of the card facing the teacher there is
an indication of what the students can see (e.g. TYPING), so that the
teacher does not have to remind himself by peering over the top of the
card. The arrow in the top right hand corner indicates the direction in
which the card should be reversed.
A B
With a set of cards of this kind, particularly those that illustrate actions,
the teacher can give practice in a wide range of patterns either in the form
of exchanges or micro-dialogues. For example, if the same character is
depicted on both sides of the card, practice drills as illustrated below may
be carried out rapidly with the class (who must first be given a model or
structural outline, which may be written on the blackboard). For the
micro-dialogue below, the teacher should first ‘flash’ Picture B and then
‘project’ Picture A.
A: Is Mary cleaning?
B: Not at the moment.
A: What’s she doing, then?
B: Typing a letter.
Or, by showing first one side of the card and then the other for about the
same length of time, compound sentences may be elicited. For example:
Mary typed some letters before she cleaned the house. After Mary had
typed some letters, she cleaned the house.
If different characters are depicted on either side of the card, dialogues
such as the one below can be practised.
A: What was (Mary) doing last night?

B: Typing some letters, I think.
A: And was (Ann) typing as well?
B: No, she was cleaning the house.
At the production stage, in order to practise free expression of various

kinds, more sophisticated picture material is desirable and for this purpose
cutouts from magazines, which normally have a high standard of attractive
artwork, are especially suitable. Cutouts can be used to form picture sets
for discussion (see 8.4.3.). Similar pictures can be used for speculation (see
8.4.1.), for dialogue practice and role-playing (see 8.4.2.) and numerous
language games (see in particular 9.2.1(a) and 9.2.3(d) ).
12.8. The overhead projector

The overhead projector is an extremely versatile aid which can be used to
good effect in the language lesson to replace many of the aids so far
described, in particular both the blackboard and the magnetboard. Its
main advantages are that it can be used in a lighted room; the teacher can
face the class as he uses it; and he writes or draws on a horizontal surface
(i.e. on special transparencies) with a pen or pencil. Sketches (etc) can thus
be produced with ease in the presence of the class or, if they are prepared
beforehand, can often be conveniently copied from existing material. The
machine itself, however, is too heavy to carry around (this is its main
disadvantage) and therefore has to be already available in the classroom.
The overhead projector is especially valuable for sketches of the kind
mentioned in 12.3.2. in connection with the blackboard. Transparencies
can also be used instead of picture cards at the practice stage (see 12.7.).
All the material described for the magnetboard, both backdrops and
cutouts, can be prepared for use with the overhead projector (and, being
smaller, is easier to store and carry around). Scenes like those described for
wall pictures (12.6.) can be built up through the device of ‘overlays’ (that
is, one transparency is placed on top of another), thus making it possible
to show movement (or other changes), as illustrated below.
Visual material for oral composition, both scenes and picture sequences,
can also be projected on the overhead projector, which can be further used
to provide a written text to accompany oral work (see, for example, 7.1.2.
Step 6 for micro-dialogues).
12.9. Filmstrips, slides and films

Commercially-produced materials usually carry with them their own
instructions for use. Other materials, however, which have not been
specifically produced for language teaching, can be used with good effect.
Slides, for example, are particularly useful at the production stage for all
the types of activity suggested (i.e. interpretation, discussion and creating
dialogues). Filmstrips can be projected simultaneously with taped
dialogues and commentaries. Documentaries (and other types of film if
available) can be adapted for class use by fading out the sound track and
substituting for it a commentary, including dialogue, at the appropriate
level required (this may also be done by the students themselves as a group
activity).
12.10. The tape recorder

For a listening comprehension programme such as the one described in
3.4. a tape recorder together with support material is virtually
indispensable. Only a few of the activities which are described in that
section can be carried out ‘live’, either by the teacher or (on rare
occasions) by native speakers brought into the classroom. The battery of
materials needed to sustain such a programme has to be built up in a
variety of ways: while some commercially-produced materials (perhaps
designed for other purposes) can be fitted into the programme at certain
stages, other needs can only be met by recordings which the teacher
himself has produced with the help of colleagues or native speakers who
can be prevailed upon to ‘lend a voice’.
Again at the presentation stage a recording1 of the main lesson dialogue
is essential if the text is to be presented to the students as a specimen of
the spoken language. Our concern at this stage is not just to provide the
students with a model reading but to present them with a situation in
which language is being used meaningfully, and this can only be done if
different — and appropriate - voices are used to bring the dialogue alive.
More than this, at this stage the ‘disembodied’ voices on tape need to be
supported by suitable visual material in order to make the situation in
which the dialogue is taking place complete. The teacher is then fully
equipped to present a unit of spoken language in the classroom, repeating
it several times if necessary without any distracting variations. And when
he wants the students to reproduce the dialogue themselves, he is once
again able to offer them the same constant model for imitation as often as
is required.2
At the practice stage recorded material should be used with great
discretion. The teacher’s presence in the classroom and his ability to suit
practice to the learners’ exact needs to a large extent makes its use on any
great scale unnecessary. Taped drills of the mechanical manipulation kind
discussed in 5.2. have little to recommend them except that they can serve
to lighten the teacher’s load and introduce some variety into the lesson. If
used, they should be accompanied by visual material (e.g. a filmstrip or
equivalent material in the textbook). The type of practice suggested in 5.3,
1 This may be in the form of a gramophone record, though see 12.11. for dis¬
advantages. _ ...
2 This is necessary no less for the teacher who is teaching his mother tongue as a
foreign language than for the non-native teacher, although the former has of
course far more resources to draw upon.
however, is best carried out by the teacher himself (whose pronunciation

and style of delivery might be guided by reference to recorded materials).
Recordings of micro-dialogues, on the other hand (see 7.1.2. and 7.2.2.)
provide more stimulating models for imitation than the teacher can hope
to produce by himself.
Recorded material again becomes important — and in some cases
essential — at the production stage. For example, pictures for dialogue
production and role-playing may be accompanied by a recording of a
model dialogue to stimulate the students’ own creative impulses (see
8.4.2.), and indeed a recorded dialogue could be used for this purpose on
its own.
While the main use of the tape recorder is to provide the students with
suitable material to listen to at different stages of the language programme,
it should also be used to make recordings of their voices when this is
appropriate. The best opportunities for this are presented when the
students have produced something of their own: for example, the
dialogues referred to in 8.4.2, the dramatisation of scenarios discussed in
8.6.1. and the plays which they have rehearsed and produced in their
groups. The possibility of making a tape of these and other activities (e.g.
in the form of a mock broadcast) provides a strong incentive to carry out
the activity to the best of their ability. At the same time, recordings made
in these circumstances (rather than more formally, when the students are
asked to read ‘something’ into a microphone) give the teacher valid
material on which he can base an assessment of their oral competence.
12.11. The record player

This may be used as an alternative to the tape recorder to provide recorded
material along the same lines as described in the previous section. It is,
however, .difficult to handle a record player effectively for certain
activities (e.g. where repetitions of portions of the text are needed, or
when repetition by the students is required).
Discussion
1 From your own experience as a language teacher (or learner) say
whether you think the oral presentation of new material (e.g. a
dialogue) should sometimes be accompanied by a written text. Give
reasons.
2 Compare the relative merits of the following aids: (a) the magnetboard;
(b) the flannelgraph; (c) the wall picture; (d) the overhead projector.
3 Explain how the following are used with the magnetboard: (a)
backdrops; (b) cutouts.
4 The tape recorder should be used appropriately as a support for oral
work. Give examples of occasions when recorded material would be (a)
essential; (b) desirable; (c) unnecessary.
5 From your experience, which of the aids discussed in this chapter have
you found most useful?
Exercises
1 Compile a list of ten patterns which could be practised in the form of
exchanges through the ‘action’ set of pictures in 12.3.2.
2 Draw one of the backdrops listed in 12.4.1. and design a set of cutouts
to accompany it. Say what use you could make of these.
3 Draw a wall picture showing one of the scenes suggested in 12.6. and
devise appropriate exercises for use with it (following the lines of
exploitation suggested in 12.6.1.).
4 Collect twenty cutouts from magazines and say how you would make
appropriate use of these at either the presentation or production stages
of learning.
5 Suggest further patterns that could be practised in the form of

exchanges through the paired picture cards discussed in 12.7.
6 Design a similar set of cards yourself and say what use you would make
of them.
7 Draw five ‘reversible’ picture cards, as suggested in 12.7, showing pairs
of actions, and work out micro-dialogues to accompany these.

1 On the use of visuals see S P Corder (1966) and A Wright (1976).
2 On audio-visual aids see WR Lee and H Coppen (1968) and M
Finocchiaro (1973) pp 155 — 186.
V
Select Bibliography
A Books
ABERCROMBIE, D
Problems and Principles (Longman 1956)
ALLEN, J P B and CORDER, S P

The Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics Vol 2 (OUP 1 975)
CORDER, S P
The Visual Element in Language Teaching (Longman 1966)
CORDER, S P
Introducing Applied Linguistics (Penguin 1973)
DAKIN, J
The Language Laboratory and Language Learning (Longman 1973)
DORRY, G N
Games for Second Language Learning (McGraw Hill 1966)
FINOCCHIARO, M and BONOMO, M

The Foreign Language Learner (Regents Publishing Co 1973)
FRASER, H and DONNELL, W R

Applied Linguistics and the Teaching of English (Longman 1969)
GIRARD, D
Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (Longman 1972)
HARDING, D W
The New Pattern of Language Teaching {Longman 1967)
HALLIDAY, M A K, McINTOSH, A and STREVENS, P

The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching (Longman 1964)
LADO, R
Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach (McGraw-Hill 1963)
LEE, W R
Language Teaching Games and Contests (OUP 1 965)
LEE, W R and COPPEN, H

Simple Audio-visual Aids to Foreign Language Teaching (OUP 2nd Ed
1968)
142
Select Bibliography 143
LESTER, M
Readings in Applied Transformational Grammar (Holt, Rinehart and
Winston Inc 1 970)
MACKEY, W F
Language Teaching Analysis (Longman 1965)
PIMSLEUR, P and QUINN, T

The Psychology of Second Language Teaching (CUP 1971)
QUIRK, R
The Use of English (Longman 1962)
RIVERS, W
Teaching Foreign-Language Skills (University of Chicago Press 1968)
WALLWORK, J
Language and Linguistics (Heinemann 1969)
WIDDOWSON, H G
Language Teaching Texts (OUP 1971)
WILKINS, D
Linguistics in Language Teaching (Arnold 1972)
WILKINS, D
Second-language learning and teaching {Arnold 1974)
WRIGHT, A
Visual Materials for the Language Teacher (Longman 1976)
B Articles
Journals referred to:
ELT = English Language Teaching

VE = Visual Education
A VLJ = Audio-visual Language Journal
ETF = English Teaching Forum
BALL, W J
‘An Analysis of the Sentence Patterns of Everyday English’ {ELT Vol
XX No 1)
BENNETT, W A
‘The Organisation and Function of Visual Material in Second Language
Learning’ {VE February 1970)
COLE, L R
‘The Visual Element and the Problem of Meaning in Language
Learning’ {A VLJ Vol 4 No 2)
CORDER, S P
‘A Theory of Visual Aids in Language Teaching’ {ELT Vol XVII No 2)
COSGRAVE, D C
‘From Pattern Practice to Communication’ {ETF Vol IX No 6)
HILL, L A
‘Uses of the Tape Recorder’ {ELT Vol XV No 3)
LEE, W R
‘Speaking Together’ (ELT Vol XIV No 1)
McCREADY, G
‘Developing a Lesson round a Dialogue’ (ETF Vol V No 1)
MONTGOMERY, M
‘Exploiting the Tape Recorder’ {EL T Vol XXV No 1)
PALMER, A
‘Communication Practice v. Pattern Practice’ {ETF Vol IX No 4)
PECK, A J
‘Teaching the Creative Use of a Foreign Language’ {A VLJ Vol IX No 3)
RAINSBURY, R C
‘Getting meaning into the Drill’ {ETF Vol IX No 2)
RICHARDS, B
‘A New Way of Looking at Projected Pictures’ {ETF Vol IX No 4)
RICHARDS, B
‘The Tape Recorder in the Classroom: Ambiguous Dialogues’ {ELT
Vol XXIII No 3)
RIVERS, W
‘Rules, Patterns and Creativity’ {ETF Vol VIII No 6)
SMITH, D G
‘Contextualisation: Towards a more Precise Definition’ {A VLJ Vol VII
No 3)
WINTER, L
‘Using the Tape Recorder for English Teaching’ {ELTVol XXIII No 2)
Index
Acting see Play reading and Role — mechanical 33—6

playing — substitution 34—5
Audio aids 139—40 — transformation 35—6
— record player 140 Films 1 7, 138—9
— tape recorder 139—40
Filmstrips 138—9
Aural comprehension see Listening
comprehension Flannelgraph 133
Flashcards see Picture cards
Blackboard 129—30
— drawing 1 30 Free expression
— importance of 78
Chorus work 32—3
Communication Games 75—6, 99 — 108
— language used for 3 — 5, 21, 41—2, Grading 3-5, 20, 22
54-5, 117-18 Group work 80—2
Completion drills 39—40 Guided practice 59—70
Composition, oral 109 — 21 Guided production 70—6
— oral narration 1 11—13
Intelligibility 10
— oral preparation for dialogue
composition 116—20 Language learning 3—6
— oral preparation for narrative — and mistakes 36—7, 79
composition 114—16 — and rules 5—6
— oral fluency 9, 10
Concepts
— practising 41—2 Learners 3
— importance of understanding
Dialogue
background 71, 87, 91 — 2
— advantages of 21
— needs of 3-5, 32
— as listening comprehension
— problems at production stage
15—17 passim
78-80
— at practice stage 53 — 8
— at presentation stage 5—6, 23—6 Learning, stages of 2—3
— at production stage 87—9 Listening comprehension 8—9,
— compared with plays 122—3 13-19
— evaluation criteria 21 — 3 — activities 15—17
— in composition 11 6—20 — difficulties for foreign learner
— micro-dialogues 56—8, 60-70, 13
71-2 — nature of 13—14
Dictation 17—18 — nature of programme 13-15
Discussion 82-4, 89—92 Magnetboard 37—8, 131-3
Dramatisation 94—6 Manipulation drills see Drills
Drills 32-44 Micro-dialogues
— chorus work 32—3 — procedures 60—3
— completion 39—40 — with picture sets 56—7, 64—7
— meaningful 36—43 — without picture sets 67—70, 71
145
Motivation Record player 140
— and oral ability 10—11 Reproduction exercises see Oral
Oral communication 8—12 narration
— interdependence of skills 9—10 Ripple technique 33
— nature of 8
Role playing 56—8, 62, 72—4,
Oral composition see Composition 87-9, 93-6
Oral narration 111 — 13 Situations
Oral production 9 — classroom 55—6
Overhead projector 137 — 8 — imaginary 40—1
— in dialogues 22
Paired practice 59—60
Slides 138-9
Picture cards 37, 135-7
Songs 17, 92—3
Pictures
— for dialogue production 72—4, Substitution drills 34—5
87-9, 1 16-20 Syllabus 5—6
— for free expression 85—7, 89—92 Tape recorder 139—40
— for micro-dialogues 56—7, 64—7
— for narrative composition 114—16 Teacher
— role of, general 1 —3
Play reading 122—7 — at practice stage 2
Practice, Guided 59—70 — at presentation stage 2
Practice stage 32—58 — at production stage 2—3, 81,
— drills 32-44 82-4
— general characteristics 2 — task of 1
— meaningful drills 36-43 Textbook
— mechanical drills 33 — 6 — as visual aid 128—9
— use of dialogues 53—8
Texts
— use of prose passages 48—53
— use of visual aids 37—9 — at practice stage 45 — 58
— at production stage 92
Presentation stage 20-31
— general characteristics 2 Transformation drills 35 — 6
— use of dialogues at 5—6, 21—3, Translation 24
23-6
Visual aids 1 28-39
— use of visual aids at 23 — 5, 27
— at practice stage 37—9
Production, Guided 70—6 — at presentation stage 23-5, 27
Production stage 78-98 — at production stage 84—92
— activities at 85—96 — blackboard 1 29—30
— general characteristics 2—3, 78 — films 17, 138-9
— learners’ problems 78 — 80 — filmstrips 138—9
— use of dialogues 87—9 — flannelgraph 133
— use of visual aids 84-92 — for micro-dialogues 56-8, 60-7
— for oral composition 1 09—11
Prose passages
— for role playing 72—4, 87-9
— at practice stage 48—53
— magnetboard 37-8, 131-3
— contrasted with dialogue 21
— picture cards 37, 135-7
— presentation of 26—9
— slides 138—9
Questions 38—9 — textbook as visual aid 128—9
— use of 45-8, 48—51 — wall pictures 133—5
— alternative techniques to 51—3 — with listening comprehension
materials 16
Recorded materials
— as stimulus to discussion 92—3 Vocabulary
— for listening comprehension — teaching of 135
15-17 Wall pictures 133—5
on o The Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers series
nnn is concerned with teaching techniques and problems
nnn at a practical level. It aims to provide teachers with

guidance and assistance in the classroom situation, and
C7
is of great value to the experienced and inexperienced
Longman teacher alike.
Teaching Oral English is a practical handbook on the
teaching of the skills needed for oral communication.
The author examines the teaching of oral English
both in terms of reception and production, and stresses
the importance of providing guidance in the early
stages and opportunities for free expression
as the learner progresses. Special emphasis is placed
on the use of visual aids and group work in the
classroom, and separate chapters are devoted to the
use of language games and the development of oral
composition. The numerous examples, exercises, and
suggestions for discussion throughout the book are
designed to encourage the practising teacher or
teacher-in-training to examine and evaluate teaching
materials. A general bibliography and detailed
references for further reading in each area are included.
ISBN 0 582 55081 5

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© Longman Group Ltd. 1976

All rights reserved. No part of this

First published 1976

ISBN 0 582 55081 5

Printed in Hong Kong by

It is a common experience on training courses to find that teachers,

1 Language learning in the classroom l

3.1 Learning to understand 13

4 The Presentation stage 20

4.1 The presentation of new material 20

5 The Practice stage (I): The use of drills 32

5.1 The needs of the learners 32

6 The Practice stage (2)s The use of texts 45

6.1 The text as context 45

7 From Practice to Production 59

8 The Production stage 78

8.1 General characteristics 78

9.1 The role of games in the learning process 99

10 Oral composition 109

10.1 The nature and purpose of oral composition 109

11 Play reading 122

12 Audio-visual aids to language learning 128

12.1 The place of audio-visual aids 128

Select Bibliography 142

I. I. The task off the language teacher

1.2. The role off the teacher

1.2.1. The presentation stage: the teacher as informant1

1.2.2. The practice stage: the teacher as conductor

1.2.3. The production stage: the teacher as guide

1.3. The learners

1.4. The needs of the learners

1 S P Corder Introducing Applied Linguistics (1973) p 27

1 R Lado Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach (1963) p 38

more gradually. And thirdly, as we noted in 1.2.3, the students must be

I.S. Language learning in the classroom

3 From your experience of teaching (or learning) a foreign language,

4 Which of the following views on language learning do you believe in?

2 Here are three situations in which a foreign language user might

Suggestions and references for further reading1

All references are to books listed in the Bibliography on pages 142—3.

2.1. The nature of oral communication

2.2. Pedagogical implications

2.2.1. Listening comprehension

Receptive r Understanding Speaking "

2.2.2. Oral production

2.2.3. Interdependence of the oral skills in communication

1 Listening comprehension is dealt with in detail in Chapter 3.

2.4. Oral ability and motivation

2 Oral communication is a two-way process between speaker and

3 Suggest some reasons why you think oral proficiency in a foreign

2 Suggest at least two different ways in which a change of stress and

3 In 2.2.1. it was stated that dialogues in textbooks do not always

Suggestions and references for further reading

2 On the spoken and written forms of the language, see J Wallwork

3.1. Learning to understand

3.2. The nature of the programme