High Step Up Flyback With Low Overshoot

Article
High Step-Up Flyback with Low-Overshoot Voltage Stress on

Secondary GaN Rectifier
energies
Radin Za’im 1,2, Jafferi Jamaludin 2,*, Yushaizad Yusof 1 and Nasrudin Abd Rahim 2
Article
High Step-Up Flyback
Department with Low-Overshoot
of Electrical Electronics and System, FacultyVoltage
1 of Engineering Stress on
and Built Environment,
National University of Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia; radinzaim@ukm.edu.my (R.Z.);
Secondary GaN Rectifier
yushaizad@ukm.edu.my (Y.Y.)
2 UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 59990, Malaysia;
Radin Za’im 1,2 , Jafferi Jamaludin 2, *, Yushaizad Yusof 1 and Nasrudin Abd Rahim 2
nasrudin@um.edu.my
* Correspondence: jafferi@um.edu.my
1 Department of Electrical Electronics and System, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
Abstract:
NationalThis paperofpresents
University a new
Malaysia, Bangi technique
43600, Malaysia;to mitigate the high voltage
radinzaim@ukm.edu.my (R.Z.); stress on the seconda
gallium nitride (GaN) transistor in a high step-up flyback application. GaN devices provide a mea
yushaizad@ukm.edu.my (Y.Y.)
2 UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 59990, Malaysia;
of achieving high efficiency at hundreds (and thousands) of kHz of switching frequency. Present
nasrudin@um.edu.my
however, commercially
* Correspondence: available GaN is limited to only a 650 V absolute voltage rating. Such
jafferi@um.edu.my
limitation is challenging in high step-up flyback applications due to the secondary leakage. T
This paper
Abstract:imposes
leakage presents
high voltagea new technique
stress on theto mitigate
secondarythe GaN
high voltage stress
rectifier on theitssecondary
during turn-off transien
Such stress may cause irreversible damage to the GaN device. A new method of aleakage
gallium nitride (GaN) transistor in a high step-up flyback application. GaN devices provide means bypass
of achieving high efficiency at hundreds (and thousands) of kHz of switching frequency. Presently
presented to mitigate the high voltage stress issue. The experimental results suggest that when com
however, commercially available GaN is limited to only a 650 V absolute voltage rating. Such a
pared to conventional secondary active clamp, a 2.3-fold reduction in overshoot voltage stress pe
limitation is challenging in high step-up flyback applications due to the secondary leakage. The
centage is achievable with the technique. As a result, it is possible to utilize GaN as the rectifi
leakage imposes high voltage stress on the secondary GaN rectifier during its turn-off transient.
while keeping
Such stress maythe peak
cause voltage stress
irreversible damage within
to thethe
GaN 650 V limitation
device. with the
A new method of technique.
leakage bypass
is presented to mitigate the high voltage stress issue. The experimental results suggest that when
Keywords:
compared tohigh gain converter;
conventional secondaryhigh
activestep-up;
clamp, a flyback; gallium in
2.3-fold reduction nitride; GaN;
overshoot silicon
voltage carbide; Si
stress
percentage
rectifier; is achievable
voltage stress;with the technique. As a result, it is possible to utilize GaN as the rectifier
leakage
Citation: Za’im, R.; Jamaludin, J.; while keeping the peak voltage stress within the 650 V limitation with the technique.
Yusof, Y.; Rahim, N.A. High
Step-Up Flyback with Low Keywords: high gain converter; high step-up; flyback; gallium nitride; GaN; silicon carbide; SiC;
Overshoot Voltage Stress on rectifier; voltage stress; leakage
Citation: Za’im, R.; Jamaludin, J.; 1. Introduction
Secondary GaN Rectifier.
Yusof, Y.; Rahim, N.A. High Step-Up
Energies 2022, 15, x.
The flyback inverter (Figure 1) is an emerging topology, it started to become popul
Flyback with Low-Overshoot Voltage
https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx
Stress on Secondary GaN Rectifier.
during the last decade upon the publication of the early works in [1–6]. The main a
1. Introduction
Energies 2022, 15, 5092. https:// vantage is the simple structure, which results in low component count (therefore lo
Academic Editor: Ahmed Abu-Siada
doi.org/10.3390/en15145092 cost).The flyback providing
Besides inverter (Figure 1) is an the
isolation, emerging topology, it started
high-frequency to become
transformer popular
also provides th
during the last decade upon the publication of the early works in [1–6]. The main advantage
Received: 28 April
Academic 2022
Editor: Ahmed Abu-Siada
means for a higher voltage step-up. In terms of efficiency, the flyback inverter has bee
is the simple structure, which results in low component count (therefore low cost). Besides
Accepted: 15 June 2022 reported
providingto work atthe
isolation, a promising
high-frequencyefficiency of 95%
transformer alsoinprovides
grid-tiedthePV applications
means for a higheras in [7–9
Received: 28 April 2022
Published: 22 June 2022 Additionally,
voltage step-up.unlike
In termsother isolatedthe
of efficiency, topologies such has
flyback inverter as the
beenforward,
reported topush-pull,
work at a and fu
Accepted: 15 June 2022
Published:
Publisher’s 12 July
Note: 2022 stays neu-
MDPI
bridge
promisingtopology,
efficiencythe
of flyback has the PV
95% in grid-tied advantage of requiring
applications as in [7–9]. no additionalunlike
Additionally, filter induct
tral with regard toMDPI
jurisdictional at its output
other isolatedas pointed such
topologies in [10]. This
as the is because
forward, the flyback
push-pull, transformer
and full-bridge itself the
topology, functions
Publisher’s Note: stays neutral
flyback has the advantage of requiring no additional filter inductor at its
a coupled inductor and therefore forms a 2nd order low-pass LC filter with its outp output as pointed
claimswith
in published maps and institu-
regard to jurisdictional claims in
in [10]. This is because the flyback transformer itself functions as a coupled inductor and
capacitor.
tionalpublished
affiliations.
maps and institutional affil-
therefore forms a 2nd order low-pass LC filter with its output capacitor.
iations.
Np : Ns
Single i pv im Qs Q1 Q2
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Li- PV panel
© 2022 Switzerland.
by the authors.
+
censeeCopyright:
MDPI, Basel, v_s + vg
vpv _ vo
Licenseeis MDPI,
This article Basel,
an open Switzerland.
access article Q3 Q4 240Vrms
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and con- Qp
distributed under the terms and
ditions of the Creative Commons At-
conditions of the Creative Commons
tribution (CC BY) license (http://crea-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Figure 1.Flyback
Figure 1. Flybackinverter
inverter in PV
in PV AC AC module
module application.
application.
4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/energ

Energies 2022, 15, 5092. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15145092 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 2 of 34
It is easy to achieve voltage transformation with the flyback topology because the
output–input voltage is governed by the mathematical relationship of Equation (1) [11].
vo Ns D
= (1)
v pv Np 1 − D
Equation (1) suggests that the output voltage could be varied by adjusting two vari-
ables, the duty cycle, D, and the winding turn ratio Ns /Np (see Appendix A for the derivation
of Equation (1)). The latter is important because by merely using a high ratio of turns, it is
possible to achieve a high step-up transformation (e.g., 18 to 380 V) while still maintaining
a manageable duty cycle. Such high step-up is not usually possible with transformer-less
topologies (such as boost, buck-boost, and Ćuk converter) because they usually require
an extremely high duty cycle to achieve such conversion. For example, stepping up from
18 to 380 V would require a duty cycle of 0.95 using a conventional boost converter. It is
undesirable to operate at such a duty cycle because the output will be incredibly sensitive
to a small variation of input PWM. High voltage step-up transformation is useful in grid-
connected photovoltaic (PV) AC modules (or microinverters). In such an application, the
PV panel is of low DC voltage (18–40 V) while the mains grid is of much larger voltage
(240 Vrms or 340 Vpeak ). Unlike a typical PV array system where mitigation techniques
are required to improve the performance under partial shading [12], microinverter system
performance is unaffected under partial shading because each of the ac-module PV panels
is independent of each other. Each PV panel has its own microinverter with an individual
maximum power point tracker (MPPT).
2. The Secondary Leakage—Rectifier Problem

Figure 2 shows an experimental result of a grid-connected (240 Vrms ) flyback microin-
verter with an input of 37 V (and turn ratio of 1:6). Note that the result in Figure 2 is
from our other high-efficiency grid-connected flyback microinverter prototype. We will
write on further details on the prototype in a future article. As suggested in Figure 2c,d,
if not mitigated, the secondary rectifier could experience very high voltage stress of over
1.1 kV. Such effect could be seen in Figure 2d which is taken at the peak step-up during
which the peak of grid voltage is 340 V. During this transient time in Figure 2d, the primary
switch Qp is turned on, thus, producing a sudden step change to the secondary winding. To
prevent negative current, the rectifier Qs must then block both the capacitor output voltage
vo and the secondary winding voltage. Developing the blocking voltage through a leakage
inductor, however, is tricky because the nature of resonance. A second-order system of
a series LC circuit will cause overshoot voltages and oscillation on the rectifier junction
capacitor (for more details see Appendix C).
High voltage step-up implies that the isolation between the primary and the secondary
winding needs to be solid. This is usually achieved by enlarging the physical distance
between the primary and secondary winding through a thick insulator sandwiched in
between the winding. This comes at the cost of increased leakage because the flux linkage
between the primary and secondary is reduced. The leakage is a lumped inductor in
series with the transformer winding (Figure 3). It could be measured using an LCR meter
by the transformer short circuit test. Kindly refer to Appendix B for more detail. It
is not uncommon to achieve a 5% leakage in the flyback transformer in the high step-
up application. Due to the high leakage percentage, secondary leakage is a problem in
high step-up applications. In short, the existence of the secondary leakage of the flyback
transformer causes leakage oscillation with the diode stray capacitance (or reverse recovery
charge), causing an EMI problem and increasing the diode switching losses. This is then
made worst by the fact that the step-up transformer causes the diode oscillation (or spike)
to be amplified in the primary by the turn ratio.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 35
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 3 of 34
Secondary Snubberless SiC diode

Channel 3: Peak stress (1120V) Without intervention, secondary SiC 1200V SiC diode
Grid Voltage diode (regardless of diode capacitance or absolute maximum
Channel 1: leakage value) always experiences almost voltage rating
Grid Current twice the steady state voltage during
diode turn off transient (see appendix C)
650V (The absolute limit of GaN)
600V
Channel 2: Steady state

Magnetizing Channel 1: voltage line
Current (6A/1V) Secondary Diode
Current
Channel 3:
Secondary Diode
Zoomed at peak stress Voltage
(a) Further ZOOM

(c)
Channel 1: Secondary Snubberless SiC diode Diode blocking Further zoom at peak stress
voltage is Peak stress (1120V)
Secondary Diode Current overdeveloped Channel 3:
due to negative Secondary SiC
current stored
in leakage
Diode Voltage
1200V SiC diode absolute maximum voltage rating Steady State

600V
Channel 3: Ideally we
Secondary Diode only want to
develop the
Voltage blocking Channel 1:
650V (The absolute limit of GaN) Total
voltage to Secondary SiC
this point charge:
(steady state) 18nC Diode Current
Storing energy in diode This charge causes the overdeveloped

capacitance to develop blocking voltage and is lost through high
the blocking voltage frequency oscillation (EMI)
Negative current stored in leakage prevents the
PEAK STRESS at peak grid voltage developing voltage to stop at steady state
(b) ZOOM (d)

Figure 2. Experimental
Figure result
2. Experimental on grid-connected
result flyback
on grid-connected inverter
flyback demonstrating
inverter thethe
demonstrating secondary
secondarySiCSiC
diode issue
diode (a)(a)
issue grid current
grid currentand
andgrid voltage
grid voltage (b)(b)rectifier waveform
rectifier wave- in a
half form in a half
grid cycle (c) grid cycleat(c)
zoomed zoomed
peak grid at peak grid
voltage voltagezoom.
(d) further (d) further zoom. Parameters
Parameters of flybackgrid
of flyback inverter: inverter: grid
voltage vg voltage
= 240 Vvrms
g = 240
(340VVrms (340
peak ), vVpvpeak
= ),37vpvV,=turn
37 V,ratio
turnNratio
p :Ns = 1:6,
Np:Ns = 1:6,
magnetizing magnetizing
inductance Lm =inductance Lm = 22 uH,
22 uH, secondary secondary
referred leakagereferred
Ls = 10leakage
uH. Ls = 10 uH.
plications. In short, the existence of the secondary leakage of the flyback tra
causes leakage oscillation with the diode stray capacitance (or reverse recovery
causing an EMI problem and increasing the diode switching losses. This is th
worst by the fact that the step-up transformer causes the diode oscillation (or sp
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 4 of 34
amplified in the primary by the turn ratio.
Secondary
Ideal referred
Transformer leakage
Ls
Lm
Magnetizing Np : Ns
inductance
Figure 3.3.Flyback
Figure transformer
Flyback secondary
transformer leakage. leakage.
secondary
2.1. Problem with Using GaN as a Secondary Rectifier
2.1. Problem
New widewith Using
bandgap GaN as a Secondary
semiconductor Rectifier
technology of silicon carbide (SiC) [13–17], and
gallium nitride
New wide(GaN) [18–22] could
bandgap be used to address
semiconductor the reverse
technology ofrecovery
silicondiode
carbidecurrent(SiC) [13
problem. Due to their construction, SiC and GaN have no reverse recovery charges [20,21].
gallium nitride (GaN) [18–22] could be used to address the reverse recovery diod
However, this does not imply that the problem could be solved by simply switching to
problem.
GaN and SiC. Due to their construction, SiC and GaN have no reverse recovery cha
and To [21]. However,
develop this does
the blocking notthe
voltage, imply
currentthat the problem
charging couldcapacitor
of the junction be solved by simpl
must
go through
ing to GaN theandseries
SiC.leakage inductance, thus energizing the leakage inductance in the
process. The problem is illustrated in Figure 2d, once the rectifier has reached the desired
To develop the blocking voltage, the current charging of the junction capac
blocking voltage, there is still residual current stored in the leakage. Therefore, the excess
go through
energy stored the
in the series
leakageleakage inductance,
(or charge) must be dumpedthus energizing the leakage
onto the GaN/SiC junctioninductan
process.
capacitance. The Thisproblem
charge dumpis illustrated
causes theinvoltage
Figure of2d,the once
junctionthecapacitance
rectifier has reached th
blocking
voltage to be over-developed, exceeding the desired blocking
blocking voltage, there is still residual current stored in the leakage. Therefore, tvoltage (Equation (7)).
GaN and SiC diodes have no reverse recovery charge because they have no p–n
energy stored in the leakage (or charge) must be dumped onto the GaN/SiC jun
junction (unlike a normal silicon diode) [20]. Forming a depletion region in a p–n junction
pacitance.
requires the Thiscarrier charge dump causes
to be removed throughthe thevoltage
combined ofaction
the junction capacitance
of recombination (of block
age to be over-developed,
holes-electron pair) and excess carrier exceeding
sweep out thebydesired
negativeblocking
diode current voltage
([23] on (Equation
p. 537). (7))
Without a p–n junction, such a process is unnecessary. In
GaN and SiC diodes have no reverse recovery charge because they have noGaN transistors, the conduction
between drain and source (and vice versa) occurs in a two-dimensional electron gas channel
tion (unlike a normal silicon diode) [20]. Forming a depletion region in a p–n
(2DEG) [20,21]. Turning off the GaN or the blocking of current occurs when the gate depletes
requires the carrier
the 2DEG channel to betheremoved
underneath gate electrodethrough
[21] by the combined
applying actionvoltage
0 V or negative of recombin
holes-electron
at the gate of the GaN transistor. Without any p–n junction, there is no requirement current
pair) and excess carrier sweep out by negative diode for ([
reverseWithout
537). recovery a (no
p–nholes needed tosuch
junction, be returned
a process to theisp-type region andIn
unnecessary. vice
GaNversa for
transistors,
the electrons). Nonetheless, the GaN drain source still requires a reverse current to fill
duction between drain and source (and vice versa) occurs in a two-dimensional
up its effective drain-source capacitance (Coss ). It is an important concept to understand
gas
that achannel (2DEG)
reverse-biased [20,21].
rectifier (or a Turning
turned-off off the GaN
transistor) doesor notthe blocking
imply that zeroofcurrent
current occu
the
will gate depletes
flow through thethe 2DEG channel
semiconductor. Evenunderneath
in reverse-biased the (or
gate electrode
turned [21] by applyi
off) conditions,
negative voltage at the gate of the GaN transistor. Without any p–ncircuit.
current can still flow through the device if there is a potential difference in the junction, th
Through the semiconductor capacitor, the current can flow in both positive and negative
requirement for reverse recovery (no holes needed to be returned to the p-type re
directions, albeit through a higher impedance due to the reactance introduced by the
vice
junctionversa for the(pF).
capacitance electrons).
The blocking Nonetheless, the GaN
voltage is important drain
because source
it closes still requires
the potential
current to fillThe
gap in a circuit. upcurrent
its effective
will onlydrain-source
stop flowing once capacitance
there is no more (Coss ). It is an
potential important co
difference.
In the narrative of a power electronics engineer, the key is to
understand that a reverse-biased rectifier (or a turned-off transistor) does not imdevelop the blocking voltage
elegantly, such that no unnecessary spikes or overvoltage occurs during the transient.
zero current will flow through the semiconductor. Even in reverse-biased (or tu
Although GaN has no reverse recovery charge, a mitigation technique is still manda-
conditions,
tory in GaN tocurrent can still overvoltage
avoid irreversible flow through damage thetodevice if there is aAspotential
the semiconductor. suggesteddifferen
circuit.
in Figure Through
2, without any the snubber
semiconductor
interventioncapacitor,
on the secondary the current
rectifier,can flowvoltage
the peak in both pos
stress may reach up to 1.1 kV. The voltage step response in a series LC circuit is always
double the steady state (more details in theory Section 3.1 and Appendix C). It may not be
an issue should a 1.2 kV rated SiC diode be employed as the secondary rectifier. However,
to our best knowledge, as of 2022, a 1.2 kV GaN device does not yet commercially exist.
There is a limited number of GaN unique parts that are commercially available. Table 1
lists down the commercially available high-voltage GaN devices (rated drain-source volt-
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 5 of 34
age above 400 V) obtained through a search at the world’s major electronics distributors
Digikey Electronics (Thief River Falls, MN, USA), Mouser Electronics (Mansfield, TX, USA),
Element14 (Leeds, UK), RS Component (Corby, UK), Arrow (Centennial, CO, USA), and
LCSC (Shenzhen, China). Table 1 depicts a concerning trend; the drain-source voltage of
GaN is limited to a maximum of only 600 or 650 V. In the flyback high step-up application,
the steady state voltage of the GaN is around 600 V. This meant a requirement of an ultralow
near-zero overshoot for 600 V devices and 9% overshoot for 650 V. Both are difficult to
achieve with large secondary flyback transformer leakage. Exceeding the absolute voltage
rating of the drain-source will result in irreversible damage to the GaN semiconductor.
We may miss some commercial unique GaN parts (>400 V Vdss ); these components might
not be listed in the major distributors. We do acknowledge that these distributors may
not cover the entire stocks circulating globally. However, since they are the world’s major
electronics distributors, it could be inferred that GaN devices that are not listed at these
sites might be very difficult to obtain and use commercially. A 1.2 kV GaN does exist,
but to the best of our knowledge, it appears it is currently only in the laboratory. Such
recent work is demonstrated in [22] by researchers at MIT, in which a distinctive vertical
FinFET structure is used to achieve a GaN transistor with higher breakdown voltage (not
lateral structure).
Table 1. List of unique GaN parts (>400 V Vdss ) commercially available from major distributors
(Digikey, Mouser, Element14, RS Components, LCSC, and Arrow).
Drain Source Datasheet

Manufacturer Part Number Manufacturer Drain Current Rds On (Max)
Voltage (Vdss) Year
GAN039-650NTBZ Nexperia 650 V 60 A 33 mΩ 2021
GAN041-650WSBQ Nexperia 650 V 47.2 A 41 mΩ 2021
GAN063-650WSAQ Nexperia 650 V 34.5 A 60 mΩ 2020
GS-065-004-1-L GaN Systems 650 V 3.5 A 500 mΩ 2020
GS-065-008-1-L GaN Systems 650 V 8A 225 mΩ 2020
GS-065-011-1-L GaN Systems 650 V 11 A 150 mΩ 2020
GS-065-030-2-L-TR GaN Systems 650 V 30 A 50 mΩ 2021
GS66502B-MR GaN Systems 650 V 7.5 A 260 mΩ 2020
GS66504B-MR GaN Systems 650 V 15 A 130 mΩ 2016
GS66506T-MR GaN Systems 650 V 22.5 A 90 mΩ 2020
IGLD60R070D1AUMA3 Infineon 600 V 15 A 70 mΩ 2021
IGLD60R190D1AUMA1 Infineon 600 V 10 A 190 mΩ 2021
IGT40R070D1ATMA1 Infineon 400 V 31 A 70 mΩ 2021
IGT60R070D1ATMA4 Infineon 600 V 31 A 70 mΩ 2021
IGT60R190D1SATMA1 Infineon 600 V 12.5 A 190 mΩ 2020
NTP8G202NG Onsemi 600 V 9A 350 mΩ 2015
NTP8G206NG Onsemi 600 V 17 A 180 mΩ 2015
P1H06300D8 PNJSemi 650 V 10 A 300 mΩ 2020
TP65H015G5WS Transphorm 650 V 95 A 18 mΩ 2021
TP65H035G4WS Transphorm 650 V 46.5 A 41 mΩ 2021
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 6 of 34
Table 1. Cont.
Drain Source Datasheet

Manufacturer Part Number Manufacturer Drain Current Rds On (Max)
Voltage (Vdss) Year
TP65H050G4BS Transphorm 650 V 34 A 60 mΩ 2021
TP65H070LSG-TR Transphorm 650 V 25 A 85 mΩ 2021
TP65H150G4LSG Transphorm 650 V 13 A 180 mΩ 2021
TP65H300G4LSG Transphorm 650 V 6.5 A 312 mΩ 2022
TP65H480G4JSG-TR Transphorm 650 V 3.6 A 560 mΩ 2021
TP90H050WS Transphorm 900 V * 34 A 63 mΩ 2020
TP90H180PS Transphorm 900 V * 15 A 205 mΩ 2021
TPH3202LD Transphorm 600 V 9A 350 mΩ 2018
TPH3205WSB Transphorm 650 V 36 A 60 mΩ 2018
TPH3206LD Transphorm 600 V 17 A 180 mΩ 2018
TPH3207WS Transphorm 650 V 50 A 41 mΩ 2018
TPH3208LD Transphorm 650 V 20 A 130 mΩ 2018
TPH3212PS Transphorm 650 V 27 A 72 mΩ 2017
XGP6508B Xinguan Tech. 650V 21 A 150 mΩ 2019
There are commercial GaN MOSFETs with higher voltage ratings, our search found that
there is only two commercially available GaN with 900 V (highlighted with asterisk *) rating
from Transphorm Inc. (Goleta, CA, USA), the TP90H050WS (newly released in 2022), and
TP90H180PS. However, it is important to note that they are not 100% GaN High Electron
Mobility Transistor (HEMT) devices. Instead, the manufacturer combined GaN HEMT and
silicon MOSFET and has them connected in cascode configuration. The main disadvantage of
this is that, unlike enhancement mode HEMT GaN, the body diode is not without a reverse
recovery charge. It is unclear whether there will be more of 900 V rated GaN in the future.
If so, the manufacturer would likely charge a premium for GaN devices with higher voltage
capabilities. Regardless, based on the trend in Table 1, it is self-evident that GaN rated at either
600 V or 650 V would remain in the market for years to come.
Additionally, it is interesting to note that Wolfspeed (previously Cree) is also a major
GaN manufacturer. However, Wolfspeed’s GaNs are RF GaNs that are meant for radio
frequency operation (such as radar). They are not meant for general power electronics usage.
These RF GaN devices are extremely fast that could work at GHz frequency. Some examples
include CG2H80015D, CG2H80030D (8 GHz transistor), CGH60008D, and CGH60030D
(6 GHz transistor). However, the drain-source breakdown voltage is limited to only
120 V. Such is typical for RF GaN. GaN has a wide application and is not only limited to
power electronics. Due to GaNs ability to conduct electrons more efficiently than silicon,
GaN is also used in radio, light-emitting diode [24–26], in HEMTs [27], laser photodiode
detectors [28], and radiation detectors [29].
It is preferable to use GaN as a synchronous rectifier due to the lower forward voltage
(small drain-source resistance). Using 1.2 kV SiC MOSFET is possible; however, unlike the
SiC diode, SiC MOSFET’s body diode is not without zero reverse recovery charge.
2.2. Research Motivation

In short, to be able to utilize the advantages of GaN in a high step-up application,
it is important to develop an active method to allow GaN to operate under high-leakage
conditions such that its absolute maximum voltage rating (650 V) is not exceeded. For
this reason, this article presents a new technique to alleviate the high voltage stress on the
secondary gallium nitride (GaN) rectifier in a high step-up flyback application. Such is
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 7 of 34
achieved by using a newly proposed leakage bypass technique to reduce the voltage stress
on the secondary GaN rectifier.
2.3. Previous Solution in the Literature

A literature search found that the adverse effect due to secondary leakage of the
flyback remains scarcely documented. The literature work in flyback mostly deals with
step-down applications. The rectifier problem is not immensely problematic in flyback step
down (for example, 240 Vrms to 5 V) because the diode does not experience large voltage
stress in step-down operation. Therefore, simply allowing the diode current to slowly drop
to zero as in [30–32] is sufficient to minimize the reverse voltage problem. However, this is
not the case in the high step-up flyback. Simply turning off the diode at zero current does
not imply there will be no reverse current problem because the diode must still develop a
high blocking voltage at its turn-off instant, and this effect of diode reverse recovery could
be seen or mentioned in [10,33–36], in which the diodes experience leakage oscillation.
Due to the large voltage stress on the secondary semiconductor power device, previous
work has proposed the use of the clamping method in [37], and in [38] the active clamping
of the flyback inverter for secondary device protection. Vartak [39] presented the high
step-up flyback converter with additional diodes and a capacitor to provide clamping on
the secondary device. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that the switching of the secondary
power device is not performed using GaN. The work in [40] proposed the use of a hybrid
boost-flyback converter, in this case, the diode’s high voltage stress and EMI problem are
addressed by using a resonant LC circuit. This, however, has the disadvantage of losing
the isolation (because the boost shares the same ground with flyback).
Alternatively, this rectifier problem could be solved using the quasi-resonant method [41]
(Figure 4). The diode reverse voltage could be developed through quasi-resonant oscillation
(when the transformer is un-driven); therefore, an abrupt reverse current is not required to
turn off the diode. This is provided that the timing of the turn ON of the primary switch is
made to coincide with the quasi-valley of the primary switch voltage (also the quasi-peak of
diode reverse voltage). However, such implementation is only possible in boundary conduction
mode (BCM) and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). This is not possible in continuous
conduction mode (CCM) because the continuous conduction implies that the leakages are not
free to oscillate with the semiconductor capacitance, and therefore the state of quasi-resonant
does not exist in CCM. In short, it was found that previous work in high step-up flyback
microinverters [41,42], is mainly concerned with the soft switching of the primary switch and
not on the secondary diode. The reason for this is clear; the diode is not problematic in BCM
and DCM as they can be solved through the quasi-resonant scheme. Due to control complexity
in CCM (RHP zero problem) [43–48], previous works were mainly concerned with the CCM
control complexity issue, and therefore the work on solving the secondary rectifier-leakage
problem in CCM is still uncommon. In CCM flyback operation, a higher magnetizing inductance
is usually employed, and this results in higher leakage magnitude (compared to DCM and BCM
transformers). In short, in CCM, secondary leakage is a concern that still needs to be addressed.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 8 of 34
Qp PWM Qp ON Qp OFF
ip
Primary
Current
VQp
Primary
Switch
Voltage
is
Secondary
Current
VQs
Secondary
Rectifier
Voltage
time
Correctly Timed Quasi Incorrectly Timed Quasi Resonant

Resonant in DCM/BCM in DCM/BCM (worst case)
Qp PWM Qp PWM Qp OFF Qp ON

Qp OFF Qp ON
ip ip Primary current
No primary current
oscillation oscillation
Primary Primary
Current Current
VQp VQp Qp ON is timed to

Qp ON is timed to
Primary coincide with quasi Primary coincide with quasi
Switch resonant valley Switch resonant peak
Voltage oscillation of VQp Voltage oscillation of VQp
is is
Maximum
secondary current
Secondary Secondary
No secondary oscillation
Current Current
current oscillation
Qp OFF is timed to Qp OFF is timed to

coincide with quasi coincide with quasi
resonant peak resonant peak
oscillation of VQs oscillation of VQs
VQs VQs
Secondary Secondary
Rectifier Rectifier
Voltage Voltage
Minimal voltage stress on secondary time time

rectifier as rectifier blocking voltage Very high voltage stress on secondary
has been pre-developed by the quasi rectifier as the blocking voltage (on
resonant oscillation rectifier’s capacitance) has to be
developed through the leakage
Figure 4.asQuasi-resonant
Figure 4. Quasi-resonant as arectifier
a solution to the solutionproblem
to the rectifier
is onlyproblem is in
possible only possible
DCM in DCM and BCM
and BCM.
2.4. Scope of Study

2.4. Scope of Study
It must be madeItcrystal
must beclear
made crystal
that clear
in this that in
paper, thethis paper,
scope the scope
is limited to isonly
limited to only studyin
studying
the secondary leakage-rectifier
the secondary leakage-rectifier problem underproblem under a high
a high step-up step-up
condition in condition
CCM. Focusing in CCM. Focusin
on this issue,
on this issue, however, does however, does
not require usnot require
to build us to build a grid-connected
a grid-connected closed-loopclosed-loop
flyback flyba
inverter
inverter (although (although
we have we have
previously previously
built built a grid-connected
a grid-connected PV flybackPV flyback microinverter
microinverter
[49]). the
in [49]). To produce To produce the high
high voltage voltage
stress stress phenomenon,
phenomenon, it is sufficient
it is sufficient to build to abuild
higha high ste
up DC–DC converter with an input PV voltage of 18 V mpp and a DC output voltage of 3
step-up DC–DC converter with an input PV voltage of 18 Vmpp and a DC output voltage
V (21.1 gain).
of 380 V (21.1 voltage voltageFurthermore,
gain). Furthermore,
at the at the of
time time of writing
writing this this study,
study, a GaNa GaN diode does n
diode
commercially exist; therefore, the typical secondary diode
does not commercially exist; therefore, the typical secondary diode is replaced with a GaN is replaced with a Ga
MOSFET operating in synchronous rectification mode.
MOSFET operating in synchronous rectification mode.
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 9 of 34
3. Principle
3.1. Theory of the Problem
As depicted in Figures 5 and 6, during state (a), the magnetizing inductance discharges
its energy and transfers them to the secondary. Hence, the secondary rectifier conducts in
3. Principle
forward bias. In this state, the rectifier’s voltage is simply the forward voltage drop of the
3.1. Theory
rectifier, of the
while theProblem
secondary rectifier current is given by Equation (2) (p. 53 in [23], noting
the dot convention).in Figures 5 and 6, during state (a), the magnetizing inductance dis-
As depicted
charges its energy and transfers them to theNsecondary.
p Hence, the secondary rectifier con-
the=rectifier’s
ducts in forward bias. In this state,i Qs im −voltage
ip is simply the forward voltage (2)
Ns
drop of the rectifier, while the secondary rectifier current is given by Equation (2) (p. 53
Qp turns ON (closes) at the start of state (b), as a result, the magnetizing inductance
in [23], noting the dot convention).
will experience a potential difference equivalent to the PV voltage (at maximum power
point vpv = Vmpp ). The dot convention implies= that−this voltage is reflected to the secondary
(2)
as a negative polarity voltage source as in Equation (3) and Figure 6b (p. 55 in [23], noting
the dotQconvention):
p turns ON (closes) at the start of state (b), as a result, the magnetizing inductance
Ns to the PV voltage (at maximum power
will experience a potential differencevsequivalent
= − Vmpp (3)
Np this voltage is reflected to the secondary
point vpv = Vmpp). The dot convention implies that
as aDuring
negative polarity
this time, voltage source as
the secondary in Equation
rectifier is still(3)forward
and Figure 6b (p.
biased 55 in [23],
because noting the
it carries
the dot convention):
residual current stored in secondary leakage. Due to the change in voltage source polarity,
the secondary residual current discharges to zero, and the differential equation governing
=− (3)
rectifier current is as in Equation (4) (derivation detail in Appendix D).
During this time, the secondary
diQs rectifier
1 Niss still forward biased because it carries the

residual current stored in secondary= −
leakage. DueVto
mpp +change
the vo in voltage source polarity, (4)
dt L s Np
the secondary residual current discharges to zero, and the differential equation governing
rectifier
At the current is as
start of in Equation
state (4) (derivation
(c), the current crossesdetail
zero.in Once
Appendix D).
the rectifier current crosses
zero, the rectifier would start to become reverse biased. As such, the rectifier would
transform from behaving as a forward-biased =− diode+ to a non-linear capacitor (with(4) its
junction capacitance varies with the reverse voltage). As shown in Figure 7c,d, the non-
At the start
linear capacitor of state (c), the
characteristic current crosses
is specified zero. Once the rectifier
in the manufacturer’s current
datasheet. Thecrosses
negative
zero, the rectifier would start to become reverse biased. As such, the rectifier would trans-
current charges the junction capacitance hence developing the rectifier’s blocking voltage
form from behaving as a forward-biased diode to a non-linear capacitor (with its junction
in the process. The junction capacitor forms a series LC circuit with the leakage. Through
capacitance varies with the reverse voltage). As shown in Figure 7c,d, the non-linear ca-
Kirchhoff’s KVL, the differential equation governing the current is given by Equation (5)
pacitor characteristic is specified in the manufacturer’s datasheet. The negative current
(note the derivation detail in Appendix D).
charges the junction capacitance hence developing the rectifier’s blocking voltage in the
process. The junction capacitordiQsforms a1 series
Ns LC circuit with the leakage. Through Kirch-

hoff’s KVL, the differential equation = −governing the+
Vmpp vo − vis
current Qs given by Equation (5) (note (5)
dt L s Np
the derivation detail in Appendix D).
Negative current charges the rectifier’s junction capacitance. Peak negative

(b) (c) leakage current is reached once rectifier voltage passes the steady state line
Qp closes
rectifier
conducts All the energy stored in the peak negative leakage current
(a) residual (d) are dumped into the rectifier junction
voltage stress of rectifier is experienced
capacitor. Peak
Voltage and Current
leakage
Rectifier
current
conduct Residual energy stored in junction capacitor at the start of this period (the
magnetizing
current
(e) peak voltage) re-circulate through the series LC (leakage-junction capacitor)
circuit until all the excess energy are dissipated as heat or electromagnetic
radiation
Rectifier Voltage vQs

Steady state voltage
Peak due to Ns Vmpp Vo
primary
active
Np
clamp Rectifier Current iQs
current
t=0
time
Figure
Figure 5. 5.The
Thesecondary
secondaryrectifier
rectifier voltage
voltage and
and current
currentin
inthe
theexistence
existenceofof
leakage.
leakage.
Energies 2022,15,
Energies2022, 15,5092
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 3510 of 34
Secondary
referred i m :Magnetizing current
Magnetizing current leakage i p :Primary current
discharging to secondary N : N i Qs :Secondary Rectifier current Qs forward biased
p s
ip i m Ls
Vmpp Qs Ls
Lm VQs
18V
Vo 380V Np
i Qs = im ip 380V Vo
Ns
Qp
Equivalent circuit
i Qs
i Qs
Qp to close at t = 0
(a)
Leakage carries Leakage carries
residual leakage residual leakage
current Qs still forward biased Qs forward biased
current
Ls Qs Ls VQs
Vmpp
18V Lm
Ns Vmpp
Vs 380V Np 380V Vo
Equivalent circuit
Qp
i Qs i Qs
Qp closes at t = 0
(b) Qs becomes
nonlinear capacitor
Leakage current Qs becomes nonlinear as characterized in
capacitor in reverse Leakage current datasheet
goes negative goes negative
biased
Ls Qs Ls VQs
Vmpp
18V Lm
Ns Vmpp
380V Np 380V Vo
Equivalent circuit
Qp
i Qs i Qs
(c)
Qs has to absorb Energy dumped
Leakage starts to Qs experienced peak Vpeak Ns Vmpp
Vo by leakage into
deenergized voltage stress Np
Peak negative current Qs capacitor
in leakage dumped on
Ls Qs Qs capacitance Ls
Vmpp VQs
18V Lm
Ns Vmpp
380V Np 380V Vo
Equivalent circuit
Qp
i Qs i Qs
(d)
Decayed oscillation between
Decaying oscillation until
Qs and Ls until steady state is Ns Vmpp
steady state is reached at VQs Vo
reached Np
Ls Qs Ls VQs
Vmpp
18V Lm
Ns Vmpp
380V Np 380V Vo
Equivalent circuit
Qp
i Qs
(e)
Figure
Figure6.6.The
Theswitching states
switching of snubber-less
states secondary
of snubber-less rectifier.
secondary (a) State
rectifier. (a)aState
(b) State b (c)
a (b) State
State c State c
b (c)
(d) State d (e) State e.
(d) State d (e) State e.
Energies 2022, 15,
Energies 5092
2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1111ofof35
34
Silicon Carbide Schottky Barrier Diode Model [50] Parasitic Capacitance of Power MOSFET [19],[22],[51]
Junction
Anode Cathode Capacitance
Drain
Anode Cathode
Cgd
Rs Crss = Cgd
Diode I-V Gate
I Ij Ciss = Cgs+ Cgd
Cds
Ij and Rs are
In reverse bias the current Cgs Coss = Cds+ Cgd
determined from
source Ij from I-V curve is
I-V curve
zero, the model simplifies to
V only junction capacitance and
Reverse bias Forward bias the series equivalent resistance Source
(a) (b)
Silicon Carbide Schottky Diode Gallium Nitride MOSFET Capacitance Characteristic

Reverse Biased Capacitance Characteristic (C4D02120) [53] (GS-065-011) [52]
160
10 2 Ciss
140
120 Coss
Junction Capacitance (pF)
Junction Capacitance (pF)
100 10 1
Effective drain source capacitance when voltage
across gate source is zero (gate-source shorted
hence MOSFET is OFF)
80
60
10 0
40
Crss
20
0 10 -1
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Reverse Diode Voltage (V) Drain Source Voltage (V)
(c) (d)
Figure 7. The
Figure junction
7. The capacitance
junction of semiconductor
capacitance of semiconductordevice. (a) The
device. (a) SiC
The diode model
SiC diode [50]. (b)
model [50].MOS-
(b)
FETMOSFET
parasitic parasitic
capacitances [19,22,51].
capacitances (c) SiC Diode
[19,22,51]. (c) SiCC4D02120 capacitance
Diode C4D02120 characteristic
capacitance adapted
characteristic
fromadapted from Cree
Cree C4D02120 C4D02120
datasheet [52].datasheet
(d) GaN [52]. (d) GaN capacitance
GS-065-011-L GS-065-011-Lcharacteristic
capacitance adapted
characteristic
from
adapted from GaN System GS-065-011-L
GaN System GS-065-011-L datasheet [53]. datasheet [53].
In which the rectifier’s voltage 𝑑𝑖𝑄𝑠 vQs is 1 given

𝑁𝑠 by Equation (6) (refer to Equation (16)
in [50]): = − [ 𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝 + 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑣𝑄𝑠 ] (5)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑠 𝑁𝑝Z
1
In which the rectifier’s voltage vQsv= Qs is given iby dt
Qs Equation (6) (refer to Equation (16) in (6)
CQs
[50]):
It is important to note that CQs in Equation (6) is a nonlinear capacitor that varies with
1
the reverse voltage vQs as in Figure 7 (in 𝑣GaN 𝑄𝑠 = CQs ∫ = 𝑖C𝑄𝑠oss𝑑𝑡as in Figure 7d, in SiC diode, CQs (6)is
𝐶𝑄𝑠
simply the junction capacitance as in Figure 7c). Due to the nonlinearity introduced by the
semiconductor junction
It is important to capacitance,
note that CQs in it is difficult(6)toisobtain
Equation the solution
a nonlinear capacitor tothat
the varies
differential
with
equation of Equations
the reverse (5)asand
voltage vQs (6) analytically.
in Figure 7 (in GaN CNonetheless, it is possible
Qs = Coss as in Figure 7d, in SiCtodiode,
solveCthem
Qs is
using numerical
simply methods.
the junction capacitance as in Figure 7c). Due to the nonlinearity introduced by the
semiconductor
The model ofjunction capacitance,
the non-linear it is difficult
capacitances and to the
obtain the solution
relevant to theis
references differential
shown in
equation
Figure of Equations
7a,b. This non-linear(5)capacitance
and (6) analytically.
behavior isNonetheless,
demonstrated it isinpossible to solve
[16,17] for them
SiC devices.
Theusing numerical
equivalent methods.
circuit for the SiC diode is shown in [50] and is redrawn in Figure 7a.
It could be noted that the current source in Figure 7a will be zero (hence open circuit)
under reverse-bias conditions; the equivalent circuit could then be reduced to only the
junction capacitance (with some equivalent series resistance ESR). As for GaN, the nonlinear
The model of the non-linear capacitances and the relevant references is shown in Fig-
ure 7a,b. This non-linear capacitance behavior is demonstrated in [16,17] for SiC devices.
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 12 of 34
The equivalent circuit for the SiC diode is shown in [50] and is redrawn in Figure 7a. It
could be noted that the current source in Figure 7a will be zero (hence open circuit) under
reverse-bias conditions; the equivalent circuit could then be reduced to only the junction
capacitance
capacitance behavior is shown
(with some in EPC’s
equivalent (El Segundo,
series resistance CA,ESR).USA)As for application
GaN, the note [18]. Such
nonlinear ca-
non-linear
pacitance capacitance
behavior is of power
shown MOSFET
in EPC’s is also explained
(El Segundo, CA, USA)inapplication
[19,51]. Additionally,
note [18]. Such the
non-linear
non-linear capacitance
capacitance of power
behavior of theMOSFET is also explained
GaN employed in this paperin [19,51]. Additionally,isthe
(GS-065-011-1-L) also
non-linear in
documented capacitance
its datasheet behavior
[53]. As of the
for GaN
the SiC employed
diode usedin this paper (GS-065-011-1-L)
(C4D02120), the datasheet is is
also documented in its datasheet [53]. As for the SiC diode used
in [52]. The capacitances of GaN are redrawn from [18,19,51] as in Figure 7b. Note that in (C4D02120), the datasheet
is in [52]. The
off condition, it iscapacitances
the MOSFET’s of GaN
output are capacitance
redrawn from Coss[18,19,51] as in Figurefor
that is responsible 7b.theNote that
effective
in off condition, it is the MOSFET’s output capacitance C
drain-source voltage capacitance. Cgs is omitted because gate and source are shorted oss that is responsible for the ef-
fective drain-source voltage capacitance. C gs is omitted because gate and source are
together when MOSFET is off. Hence only Cds and Cgd (in parallel) are taken as the effective
shorted together
capacitance. when MOSFET
The physical capacitance is off.location
Hence only Cds andin
is shown CgdFigure
(in parallel) arereference
5 of the taken as the [18].
The nonlinearity arises from the depletion region which interested readers maythe
effective capacitance. The physical capacitance location is shown in Figure 5 of readrefer-
more
fromence
the[18].
S.M.The Szenonlinearity
Semiconductor arises from the
Devices: depletion
Physics region which
and Technology interested
textbook [54]readers
on page may100.
read more from the S.M. Sze Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology textbook [54]
It should be noted that the non-linearity of the junction capacitances is not limited to GaN
on page 100. It should be noted that the non-linearity of the junction capacitances is not
or SiC only. They are a common characteristic of semiconductor devices. The depletion
limited to GaN or SiC only. They are a common characteristic of semiconductor devices.
region is the area where there is an absence of free carriers, and such definition under
The depletion region is the area where there is an absence of free carriers, and such defi-
reverse biased is not exclusive to a normal p–n junction only. It has also been used in [50]
nition under reverse biased is not exclusive to a normal p–n junction only. It has also been
to explain the SiC junction capacitance. The interested reader may also read more on this in
used in [50] to explain the SiC junction capacitance. The interested reader may also read
Mohan’s Power
more on this in Electronics
Mohan’s Converters,
Power ElectronicsApplications
Converters,andApplications
Design textbook [23] textbook
and Design page 516.[23] The
capacitance–voltage relationship is non-linear
page 516. The capacitance–voltage relationship because capacitance
is non-linear because changes with the
capacitance width
changes
of the depletion region, which has a surd relationship to the electric
with the width of the depletion region, which has a surd relationship to the electric field field (voltage over area)
applied [23,50].
(voltage over area) applied [23,50].
TheTherelationship
relationshipbetween the charge
between the charge and voltage is oftenischaracterized
and voltage often characterizedby the SiC/GaN
by the
manufacturer
SiC/GaN manufacturer in their datasheet. If not provided, they can also beby
in their datasheet. If not provided, they can also be obtained performing
obtained by
under the graph
performing areathe
under integration
graph area (using trapezoidal
integration (usingnumerical
trapezoidalintegration) of the junction
numerical integration) of
capacitance
the junction vs. capacitance
the junction vs.voltage (Figure
the junction 7c,d).(Figure
voltage Such 7c,d).
a curve Such forathe SiCfor
curve diode is in
the SiC
Figure
diode 8a,b
is for GaN transistor
in Figure 8a,b for GaN (integration
transistor Coss charge).ofThe
of(integration Coss peak
charge). voltage stressvoltage
The peak can also
be obtained
stress can by alsomeasuring
be obtainedthe by total
measuringchargethe flowing into the
total charge flowingrectifier during
into the the during
rectifier turn-off
the turn-off
transient transient and
and performing performing
a total charge toa voltage
total charge to voltage
mapping (Figure mapping
8). The(Figure 8). The
total charge can
total charge
be measured ascan be measured
in Figure 9b. as in Figure 9b.
Silicon Carbide Schottky Diode Gallium Nitride MOSFET Charge Characteristic
Reverse Biased Charge Characteristic (C4D02120) [53] (GS-065-011-1-L)
Stored charge at peak stress voltage (Leakage 10uH) Leakage 34uH: Stored charge at peak stress voltage
(Leakage 34uH)
Leakage 10uH:
Stored charge at di/dt = 0 Leakage 34uH:
Stored charge at
di/dt = 0
Leakage
34uH:
Stored charge
at di/dt = 0
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 8. Rectifier
8. Rectifier charge
charge relationshiptotovoltage
relationship voltage(from
(from manufacturer
manufacturer datasheet)
datasheet)(a)
(a)Charge
Chargecharacter-
character-
isticistic of SiC
of SiC Schottky
Schottky Diode
Diode C4D02120[52]
C4D02120 [52](b)
(b)Charge
Charge characteristic
characteristic of
ofGaN
GaNMOSFET
MOSFET GS-065-011-1-L.
GS-065-011-1-L.
Energies 2022, 15,
Energies 5092
2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 13
of of
35 34
vpeak
Peak voltage stress on rectifier vpeak
Charge Peak voltage
Charge stored in stress on
stored in junction rectifier
junction Rectifier capacitance
capacitance Voltage vQs at peak stress
Rectifier
at midpoint Voltage
Rectifier Current
Midpoint area is Rectifier
Current charge Current
Δt m
iQs Area ≈
Qm= 0.5Δi Δt m
Zero Δi Current area of
crossing leakage is the total
≈ i peak charge stored in
i peak di/dt =0 rectifier capacitance
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 9. Rectifier
9. Rectifier waveform
waveform duringturn
during turnoff
offtransient
transient (a)
(a) charge
charge at
at midpoint
midpoint(di/dt
(di/dt= =0)0)is is
forfor
peak
peak
current estimation (b) total charge is for peak voltage stress estimation.
current estimation (b) total charge is for peak voltage stress estimation.
Any current flowing into the junction capacitance must also go through the series
Any current flowing into the junction capacitance must also go through the series
leakage, hence the current area (charge) of the leakage current must be equal to the charge
leakage, hence the current area (charge) of the leakage current must be equal to the charge
stored in the junction capacitance. For a linear series LC circuit, the peak of the negative
stored in the junction capacitance. For a linear series LC circuit, the peak of the negative
current coincides in time with the steady state voltage. The steady state voltage vss of the
current coincides in time with the steady state voltage. The steady state voltage vss of the
rectifier is the voltage of the secondary winding plus the output voltage as in Equation (7)
rectifier is the voltage of the secondary winding plus the output voltage as in Equation (7)
(refer to Equation (14) in [10]). It is important to note, that although leakage value or ca-
(refer to Equation
pacitance (14) in [10]).
characteristics It is may
of devices important to note,
differ, the peak that
stressalthough leakagesnubber
voltage without value or
capacitance characteristics of devices may differ, the peak stress voltage without
intervention will be double of Equation (7) (vpeak = 2 vss). This can be mathematically provensnubber
intervention will be
(as in Appendix C). double of Equation (7) (v peak = 2 vss ). This can be mathematically proven
(as in Appendix C).
Ns
vss = = Vmpp ++vo (7)(7)
Np
TheThe charge
charge going
going into
into the
the junctioncapacitance
junction capacitance(at
(at the
the midpoint
midpoint where
wheredi/dt
di/dt= =0)0)
could
could
be estimated using a triangle (Figure 9a) where Q m = 0.5 Δtm Δi. The di/dt could be esti-
be estimated using a triangle (Figure 9a) where Qm = 0.5 ∆tm ∆i. The di/dt could be estimated
mated to be as in Equation (4). Hence through the charge equivalence, the peak negative
to be as in Equation (4). Hence through the charge equivalence, the peak negative current
current could be estimated as in Equation (8) (derivation detail in Appendix D):
could be estimated as in Equation (8) (derivation detail in Appendix D):
s 2
= Δ ≈ 2Qm vss (8)
i peak = ∆i ≈ (8)
Ls
Qm (at vss) in Equation (8) could be obtained from the stored charge characteristic as
inQFigure
m (at v8a.
ss ) in
AsEquation
suggested(8) bycould be obtained
Equations from
(7) and (8), the stored
a lower leakagecharge characteristic
inductance, higheras
output voltage, higher secondary winding voltage, and higher
in Figure 8a. As suggested by Equations (7) and (8), a lower leakage inductance, higher semiconductor junction
charge
output characteristic,
voltage, all result winding
higher secondary in a higher magnitude
voltage, of peak
and higher reverse current.
semiconductor The Δtcharge
junction m or
characteristic, all result in a higher magnitude of peak reverse current. The ∆tm or the junction
the junction capacitance charging time before overshooting occur is estimated as in Δt m =
capacitance charging time before overshooting occur is estimated as in ∆tm = 2 Qm/∆i. In

2 Q m /Δi. In state (d), once the rectifier’s voltage passes through the steady-state voltage
stateline
(d),(midpoint), the rectifier
once the rectifier’s current
voltage will
passes have a the
through positive gradient
steady-state as theline
voltage energy stored inthe
(midpoint),
the leakage is dumped onto the junction capacitance of the rectifier.
rectifier current will have a positive gradient as the energy stored in the leakage is dumped This result in high
onto
overvoltage stress on the secondary rectifier. Finally, in the state (e),
the junction capacitance of the rectifier. This result in high overvoltage stress on the secondary the peak energy
stored
rectifier. in theinjunction
Finally, the statecapacitance
(e), the peakisenergy
recirculated
storedasin an
theLC oscillation,
junction duringiswhich
capacitance the
recirculated
excess energy is lost through heat and radiation until the steady-state voltage
as an LC oscillation, during which the excess energy is lost through heat and radiation until the (or the mid-
point) is reached.
steady-state voltage (or the midpoint) is reached.
3.2. For Large Leakages

It is important to note that the concept presented in Section 2.1 is only applicable
when the series inductance (leakage) is relatively small. Such is the case of the flyback
inverter in Figure 2, where the step-up is at a lower ratio of 37 to 340 V. A lower step-up
ratio allows lower secondary winding no. of turns (1:6 in Figure 2 compared to 1:12 in
Table 2). Hence, secondary leakage could be much lower at 10 uH. It can be noted that
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 14 of 34
when leakage is relatively low, such as in Figure 2, the peak negative current (di/dt = 0)
occurs at the near midpoint (or the steady state Equation (7)). In this case, the characteristic
very much observes a normal LC circuit.
Table 2. Experimental parameters.
Symbol Quantity Value

Vo Output voltage 380 V
Vpv PV Input voltage 18 V
Cs Secondary filter capacitance 330 nF
Cpv PV capacitance 2 mF
Cps Primary clamp capacitor (C0G) 94 nF
Css Secondary clamp capacitor (C0G) 94 nF
Lss Secondary bypass inductor 3.8 uH
Lm Magnetizing inductance 5.43 uH
Np Primary winding (no. of turn) 4
Ns Secondary winding (no. of turn) 48 (ratio 1:12)
fsw Nominal switching frequency 240 kHz
Lp Leakage (primary referred) 0.3 uH
Ls Leakage (secondary referred) 34 uH
Symbol Components Part Number
Qp Primary GaN switch EPC2215
- Flyback transformer core ETD34
Qps Primary active clamp GaN switch EPC2012C
Qs Secondary GAN Rectifier GS-065-011-1-L
Qssb Secondary bypass GaN switch GS-065-004-1-L
Qss Secondary snubber GaN switch GS-065-004-1-L
Ds Bypass SiC diode C3D1P7060Q
Equation (8) will not be accurate for the case of high leakage value because the effect
of junction capacitance non-linearity is more pronounced under high series inductance. It
should be noted in a normal linear LC circuit, the peak negative current (when di/dt = 0)
occurs at the midpoint (or the steady state). This is not the case for condition of large
leakages. For example, in Figure 17a,b (where leakage is 34 uH), the peak negative current
(when di/dt = 0) coincides with rectifier voltage at 200 V (one-third of midpoint), not at the
midpoint (near 600 V) as in a normal LC circuit because the large leakage transforms the
circuit into a very nonlinear LC circuit. The rectifier midpoint shifts to the right relative to
the peak negative current (di/dt = 0) under large leakage conditions. The general relationship
of negative peak current to charge for a given rectifier voltage could generally be estimated
as (derivation detail in Appendix D):
s
2Qv vQs
∆i ≈ (9)
Ls
where Qv is the charge characteristic for a given rectifier voltage vQs described by the
manufacturer as in Figure 8. For example, in Figure 17a, the negative peak current coincides
in time with around 200 V of rectifier voltage, the junction charge is 6 nC at 200 V (from
Figure 8a) and the leakage is 34 uH. Putting these values into Equation (9) gives an
estimation of 0.26 A, which agrees with the experimental measurement of Figure 17a.
Similarly for Figure 17b, at 200 V, the Coss charge (numerical integration of Coss in GS-065-
011-1-L datasheet) is 17.5 nC; Equation (8) estimates the peak negative current to be 0.45 A,
which also concurs with the experiment.
4. Proposed Solution: The Leakage Bypass

Figure 10c illustrates the new technique to mitigate the voltage stress problem. It
is composed of an inductive shunt branch, in such that Lss << Ls . Providing a path of
least impedance ensures that the leakage is bypassed during the rectifier turn-off transient.
larly for Figure 17b, at 200 V, the Coss charge (numerical integration of Coss in GS-065-011-
1-L datasheet) is 17.5 nC; Equation (8) estimates the peak negative current to be 0.45 A,
which also concurs with the experiment.
4. Proposed Solution: The Leakage Bypass

Energies 2022, 15, 5092 Figure 10c illustrates the new technique to mitigate the voltage stress problem. It is15 of 34
composed of an inductive shunt branch, in such that Lss << Ls. Providing a path of least
impedance ensures that the leakage is bypassed during the rectifier turn-off transient.
Hence,
Hence,unlike
unlikethe
theconventional
conventional secondary
secondaryclamp
clampsolution of Figure
solution 10b, the
of Figure 10b,leakage is not is not
the leakage
unintentionally
unintentionallyenergized
energized during
during the rectifier turn-off
the rectifier turn-off transition.
transition. As
Asaaresult,
result,smaller
smallercharge
charge (or reactive
(or reactive power) power) circulation
circulation per switching
per switching cyclecycle is possible.
is possible.
is
i pv ip im Ls
Vmpp
Lm Np
18V
Cs Snubberless
Cpv Ns Vo 380V
Vpv Qps secondary
Qp VQp
(a) VQs
is
i pv ip im Ls
Vmpp
18V Lm Np Css Qs
Cs Secondary
Cpv Ns Vo 380V
Vpv Qps Conventional
Active Clamp
Qp VQp Q ss clamp
(b) Leakage
VQs
bypass
Vmpp i pv ip im Ls Qs
18V Lm Np is C ss Lss
Cs Leakage
C pv Ns Ds Vo 380V
Vpv Qps bypass
Qss Qssb
technique
VQp
Qp Active Dotted line going to MOSFET
clamp
Qps
Digital Signal Controller gate
source Qps
Voltage
Qp gate
sense Duty source Qp
Analog to vpv Qss gate
MPPT cycle PWM source Qss
Digital
vpv Qssb gate
source Qssb
DSPIC33EP128GS806
Qs gate
source Qs
PWM
Gate Drivers
(c) Signals
Figure
Figure10.
10.High
Highstep-up
step-up flyback under
flyback different
under secondary
different snubber
secondary configuration.
snubber (a) snubber
configuration. less less
(a) snubber
secondary
secondary(using
(using1.21.2kVkVSiC Diode)
SiC (b)(b)
Diode) conventional secondary
conventional clamp
secondary (using
clamp 650 V650
(using GaN) (c) the(c) the
V GaN)
proposed leakage bypass (using 650 V GaN).
proposed leakage bypass (using 650 V GaN).
Figure 11 shows the waveform of the technique, and the dotted area is zoomed in
Figure 12a. It is demonstrated that the active clamp branch absorbs the secondary leakage
energy in state 5 (Figure 12a) to prevent overvoltage on Qs . Then, the active clamp transistor,
Qss is turned on for a brief period before the turn on of Qs to return the leakage energy
to the input source (PV capacitor). Similarly, on the primary, the primary active clamp
transistor Qps is turned on for a brief period, before the turn on of Qp to return the primary
leakage energy. Such clamping sequences provide zero voltage turn-on for both Qp and Qs .
sistor, Qss is energy
turned in onstate
for a5 brief
(Figure 12a) before
period to prevent overvoltage
the turn on of Qon
s toQ s. Then,
return theleakage
the active clamp tran-
energy to thesistor,
inputQsource
ss is turned on for a brief
(PV capacitor). periodon
Similarly, before the turn the
the primary, on primary
of Qs to return
active the leakage
energy
clamp transistor Qps to
is the input
turned onsource (PV period,
for a brief capacitor). Similarly,
before the turnononthe
of Q primary, thethe
p to return primary active
primary leakageclamp transistor
energy. SuchQclamping
ps is turned on for a brief
sequences period,
provide zerobefore
voltagethe turn on
turn-on forofboth
Qp to return the
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 Qp and Qs. primary leakage energy. Such clamping sequences provide zero voltage turn-on 16 of 34for both
Qp and Qs.
vQs i Qs
Secondary
rectifier
vQs i Qs
Secondary
voltage and rectifier
current voltage and
current time
im time
Flyback ip is
im
transformer Flyback ip is
currents transformer time
currents time
vQp
Primary
switch
vQp
Primary
voltage switch
voltage time
Qp time
Qps Qp
PWM
Qss Qps
PWM
Qssb Qss
Qs Qssb
Qs dotted line zoom time
dotted line zoom time
Figure 11.Timing
Figure11. Timing waveform ofthe
waveform of thetechnique.
technique.
The key Figure 11. Timing
difference waveform
between of the technique.
the presented technique and the conventional active clamp
is in state 4 (Figures 12a and 13), during whichtechnique
The key difference between the presented the shuntand the conventional
inductive branch is active
activated
in state The
4 key
(Figures difference
12a and between
13), during the presented
to bypass the leakage. Doing so changes the circuit from having thebranch
clamp is which the technique
shunt and
inductive the conventional
current active
is acti-
reverse
characteristic of Equation (5) to a circuit that could be described by Equation (10): branch is acti-
vated to clamp
bypass the is in state
leakage. 4 (Figures
Doing so 12a
changesand 13),
the during
circuit which
from the
having shunt
the inductive
reverse current
characteristicvated to bypass
of Equation (5)the
to aleakage. Doing
circuit that so changes
could be describedthe circuit from having
by Equation (10): the reverse current
characteristic of Equation (5) to a circuit that could be described by Equation (10):
1 1
− = − 1+ +1 −
− = − + + − (10)
bypass current contribution leakage current contribution
(10)
(10)
bypass current contribution leakage current contribution
In which the current charging the rectifier junction capacitance is dominated by the
In which
bypass currentthe current
In which charging
the
contribution the
current
because rectifier
Lsscharging
<< Ls. the junction
rectifiercapacitance is dominated
junction capacitance by the by the
is dominated
bypass current contribution
bypass because Lss because
current contribution << Ls . Lss << Ls.
Note: A device with reverse recovery is undesirable as a flyback’s synchronous rectifier
because the body diode will temporarily conduct secondary leakage current in CCM as in
state 3 (Figure 12a). State 3 is short, typically less than 50 ns. Hence, it is difficult to perform
closed loop synchronous rectification; the GaN transistor does not have a body diode. GaN
can conduct in reverse without requiring an anti-parallel diode through the drain-source
2DEG channel. More explanation on this can be obtained from [20,21]. We use the term
body diode merely for ease of explanation.
Figure 14 demonstrates the prototype and Table 2 lists its parameters. The prototype
at 160 W of PV power was custom-built to be at a size no larger than the palm of a human
hand. The GaN transistors are soldered on a custom-designed, printed circuit board
(PCB) as a separate module. As in Figure 14b, the Qs modules consist of the main power
GaN transistor Qs , isolated gate drivers, active clamp transistor, bypass transistor, bypass
diode, active clamp capacitor, leakage bypass inductor, and the output capacitor Cs (using
Kemet’s 1812 high-voltage ceramic C0G capacitor). We named it a module because all these
components are integrated into a single PCB. The module is designed to be about the same
size as a normal IGBT (of TO-247 package). All the transistors on the secondary Qs module
are heatsink-less. Large heatsinks are not required (at 160 W power) because GaN losses
are low. Nonetheless, we did incorporate some vias on the polygon plane of the PCB to
add more surface area. In this way, the vias are used as a simple low-cost heatsink.
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 17 of 34
1 2 3 4 5 6
Secondary vQs
rectifier voltage
and current
i Qs
time
Flyback is ip
transformer
currents im
time
Primary switch
voltage
vQp
time
Qp
Q ps
PWM
Q ss
Q ssb
Qs
time
Magnetizing
inductance transfers to
1 Leakage energized (a) Magnetizing
inductance transfers to 2
secondary Cs Ls secondary Cs Ls
Qs Qs
ip im is ip im is
Lm Lm C ss Lss
Css Lss
Cs Ds Cs
C pv Ds C pv
Qps turns OFF
Q ss Qssb Q ss Qssb
Cp Qps turns ON Cp
Qp Qp
Snubber capacitor returns Leakage discharges Qp

to leakage the energy Qp Coss discharges together (in
Coss Leakage is bypassed
absorbed during Qp turn parallel) with snubber capacitor
because: L ss<< L s
OFF
Residual positive Gate drive of Qs turns zero,
Build-up the Leakage energized Coss of Qs charges fast as
current stored in body diode conducts the
Build-up the magnetizing in negative leakage is bypassed
secondary referred residual secondary leakage
magnetizing 3 leakage current
inductance 4 direction by
secondary winding
Cs charges Qs
inductance current current Coss
ip im Ls Qs ip im Ls Qs
Lm Lss Lm Lss
Cs Cs
C pv Css Ds C pv Css Ds
Qps OFF Qps OFF
Q ss Qssb
Qss Qssb
Qp Qp ON Qp
C ps is is
Lss also
Qp turns ON at zero voltage Secondary winding discharges Qssq
through leakage Coss Qssb turns ON
discharges Qssq Coss
Residual negative current Once leakage is fully Coss of Qs oscillates with

Build-up the Coss of Qs only slightly leakage until steady state
Build-up the de-energized, leakage
magnetizing
inductance current
5 stored in leakage
transferred to Css snubber
overcharged to VCss + VCs
magnetizing 6 oscillates with Coss of is reached
inductance current Qs
ip im Ls Qs ip im Ls Qs
Lm Lm Lss
Lss
VCss
VCss Cs C ss Cs
C pv Css Ds Vo C pv Ds Vo
Qps OFF Qps OFF
Q ss Qssb Qss Qssb

Qp Qp
Qp ON Qp ON
is is
Body diode forward Residual current
biases once Coss is fully in Lss transferred
discharged at the to Css
condition of: (b)
VQs – Vo > VCss
Figure 12. Sequences of states (a) waveforms of the states (b) circuit states.
Figure 12. Sequences of states (a) waveforms of the states (b) circuit states.
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 18 of 34
i Qs Before After i s i Qs
Ns Vmpp Ls VQs Ns Vmpp Ls i ss VQs

Np Np
Vo Vo
L ss

Figure
Figure13.
13.Without
Withoutand
andwith
with leakage
leakage bypass.
Note: A device with reverse recovery is undesirable as a flyback’s synchronous rec-

tifier because the body diode will temporarily conduct secondary leakage current in CCM
as in state 3 (Figure 12a). State 3 is short, typically less than 50 ns. Hence, it is difficult to
perform closed loop synchronous rectification; the GaN transistor does not have a body
diode. GaN can conduct in reverse without requiring an anti-parallel diode through the
drain-source 2DEG channel. More explanation on this can be obtained from [20,21]. We
Lss use the term body diode merely for ease of explanation.
Figure 14 demonstrates the prototype and Table 2 lists its parameters. The prototype
at 160 W of PV power was custom-built to be at a size no larger than the palm of a human
Qs hand. The GaN transistors are soldered on a custom-designed, printed circuit board (PCB)
as a separate module. As in Figure 14b, the Qs modules consist of the main power GaN
Qss transistor Qs, isolated gate drivers, active clamp transistor, bypass transistor, bypass di-
ode, active clamp capacitor, leakage bypass inductor, and the output capacitor Cs (using
Kemet’s 1812 high-voltage ceramic C0G capacitor). We named it a module because all
these components are integrated into a single PCB. The module is designed to be about
the same size
Css as aTransformer
Flyback normal IGBT (ofQps
TO-247 Qpackage).
p Cpv AllDSPiC
the transistors
Controller on the secondary
Qs module are heatsink-less. Large (a) heatsinks are not required (at 160 W power) because
GaN losses are low. Nonetheless, we did incorporate some vias on the polygon plane of
the PCB to add more surface area. In this way, the vias are used as a simple low-cost
heatsink. Top PCB PCBforvia Bottom PCB
The input to the high step-up flyback heatsinkis a PV array simulator, the Keysight E4350B.
This is a dated solar array simulator without Lss any USB port, we had to use a USB to GPIB
Qs
device to perform communication between ER11 the solar array simulator and a personal com-
Ferrite
puter (PC). At full PV power, the parameters are as shown in Figure 15. The PV voltage is
regulated to be at the maximum power point Ds as illustrated in Figure Cs 16a. A digital signal
controller (DSPIC33EP128GS806) is used to maintain the PV voltage C0G at 18 V using a con-
stant voltage MPPT. At startup, the controller Q ssb measures the open Ceramic
circuit voltage (Voc) of
Capacitor
the PV. The peak power voltage is thenIsolatedcalculated as 0.8 Voc; this is based on the calculation
stipulated in EN50530. Once the maximum Gate power voltage has been
Isolateddetermined,
Gate and the
Driver Driver
switching process starts, the controller would actively measure(UCC21225A) the PV voltage and per-
form the required adjustment of the duty C ss cycle to maintain the PV voltage at the maxi-
mum power point. No interrupt is used; Qssthe program simply runs in a loop. The flowchart
for this process is illustrated in Figure 16b. MPPT algorithm is not the focus of this paper;
as such, it is sufficient to use a very simple MPPT algorithm. The DSPIC33EP128GS806
TO-247
mainly(Size
outputs a PWM signal that controls the duty cycle of the main primary transistor
Comparison)
Qp. All the other supporting PWM signals (Qps, Qs, Qss, and Qssb) are triggered based on the
main Qp signal (as illustrated in Figure
Pulse Transformer Test11).
(For Isolated Power of Qs High Side Gate Driver) points
(b)
Figure
Figure 14. 14. Developed prototype
Developed prototype of of
high step-up
high flyback
step-up converter
flyback (a) the whole
converter (a) board (b) the board
the whole sec- (b) the
ondary module.
secondary module.
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 19 of 34
The input to the high step-up flyback is a PV array simulator, the Keysight E4350B.
This is a dated solar array simulator without any USB port, we had to use a USB to
GPIB device to perform communication between the solar array simulator and a personal
computer (PC). At full PV power, the parameters are as shown in Figure 15. The PV voltage
is regulated to be at the maximum power point as illustrated in Figure 16a. A digital
signal controller (DSPIC33EP128GS806) is used to maintain the PV voltage at 18 V using a
constant voltage MPPT. At startup, the controller measures the open circuit voltage (Voc ) of
the PV. The peak power voltage is then calculated as 0.8 Voc ; this is based on the calculation
stipulated in EN50530. Once the maximum power voltage has been determined, and the
switching process starts, the controller would actively measure the PV voltage and perform
the required adjustment of the duty cycle to maintain the PV voltage at the maximum
power point. No interrupt is used; the program simply runs in a loop. The flowchart for
this process is illustrated in Figure 16b. MPPT algorithm is not the focus of this paper; as
such, it is sufficient to use a very simple MPPT algorithm. The DSPIC33EP128GS806 mainly
outputs a PWM signal that controls the duty cycle of the main primary transistor Qp . All
Energies 2022, 15,the other
x FOR supporting PWM signals (Qps , Qs , Qss, and Qssb ) are triggered based on
PEER REVIEW 20 the
of 35main
Qp signal (as illustrated in Figure 11).

Measurement on Keysight
Measurement E4350B
on Keysight E4350B
(through the GPIB communication)
(through the GPIB communication)
Figure 15. PV parameters at full power (Keysight E4350B Solar Array Simulator).
15. PV
FigureFigure 15.parameters at at
PV parameters full
fullpower
power (Keysight E4350B
(Keysight E4350B Solar
Solar Array
Array Simulator).
Simulator).
Constant Voltage MPPT
Constant Voltage MPPT
START
Closed Loop MPPT START Measure PV Voltage
Closed Loop MPPT
Digital Signal Controller
vpv
Measure PV Voltage
DSPIC33EP128GS806 Measure open vpv
Digital Signal Controller circuit voltage
DSPIC33EP128GS806
Desired PV Constant voltage MPPT Measure open Voc Calculate
voltage Duty circuit voltage
Desired PV (Vmpp = 18V) Constant voltage MPPT Cycle PV voltage Error = Vmpp − Vpv
Error Voc
voltage
Error
+_
Vmpp−Vpv
Duty of Qp High Step-up
Flyback
Calculate
Error = Vmpp − Vpv
(Vmpp = 18V) Duty Cycle
Cycle
D Step-up PV voltage Calculate
Error
+ = 0.8 V −
V _
mpp
Error
oc Vpv
Vmpp
Vpv of Qp
Error to D algorithm
High
Flyback Vmpp = 0.8 Voc
Duty Cycle D Calculate
Vpv PV voltage feedback Error < 0?
Measured
Error to D PV voltage
algorithm Vmpp = 0.8 Voc
Vmpp = 0.8 Voc
(Analog to Digital)
PV voltage feedback Start switching Error < 0?
Measured PV voltage
operation of Qp
(Analog to Digital)
(a) Start switching
D = D + ΔD D = D − ΔD
operation of Qp
(a) D = D + ΔD D = D − ΔD
Error to Duty Cycle algorithm
(b)
Error to Duty Cycle algorithm
(b)
Figure 16. Controller software (a) Closed-loop MPPT (b) Constant voltage MPPT algorithm.
Figure 16.5.Controller
Experimental Results
software (a) Closed-loop MPPT (b) Constant voltage MPPT algorithm.
Figure 16. Controller software (a) Closed-loop MPPT (b) Constant voltage MPPT algorithm.
Figure 17 demonstrated the experimental result of the leakage bypass in comparison
5. Experimental
with theResults
conventional secondary active clamp and snubber-less secondary. Figure 17
shows
Figure that the leakagethe
17 demonstrated bypass provides aresult
experimental lowerof
clamping voltage
the leakage (630 in
bypass V) comparison
compared to the
with theconventional
conventional (695 V). As suggested
secondary in Figure
active clamp and17b, the GaN used
snubber-less (GS-065-011-1-L)
secondary. could
Figure 17
in fact operate above its rated voltage of 650 V, which is known as overrated operation of
shows that the leakage bypass provides a lower clamping voltage (630 V) compared to the
semiconductors.
conventional (695 V). As suggested in Figure 17b, the GaN used (GS-065-011-1-L) could
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 20 of 34
5. Experimental Results
Figure 17 demonstrated the experimental result of the leakage bypass in comparison
with the conventional secondary active clamp and snubber-less secondary. Figure 17
shows that the leakage bypass provides a lower clamping voltage (630 V) compared to the
conventional (695 V). As suggested in Figure 17b, the GaN used (GS-065-011-1-L) could
semiconductors.
Secondary SiC Diode Voltage (200V/div)

Superimposed Secondary Rectifier Voltage
Waveform during Turn Off Transient
1.133kV
200V Snubberless Secondary SiC Diode Snubberless Secondary SiC Diode
Turn Off Transient (1.2kV rated)
18nC
0.25A 695V
Voltage (V)
Secondary diode current (0.5A/div)
630V
(a)
Secondary GaN (650V Rated)
with Conventional Clamp
Secondary GaN (650V Rated) with

Secondary GaN Voltage (200V/div) Leakage Bypass
200V Time (s)

Secondary GaN Turn Off Transient
with Conventional Clamp Superimposed Secondary Rectifier Current
Waveform during Turn Off Transient
28nC
0.5A Secondary GaN Current (0.5A/div)
(b) Conventional Secondary Clamp

Current (A)
Snubberless Secondary SiC Diode
Secondary GaN Voltage (200V/div)

Qp turns ON here
Zero crossing
Secondary GaN Turn Off Transient Leakage Bypass

with Leakage Bypass
26nC
Secondary GaN Current (0.5A/div) Time (s)
(c)
Figure 17. Experimental result of current and voltage of secondary rectifier (a) with snubber-less 1.2
Figure 17. Experimental result of current and voltage of secondary rectifier (a) with snubber-less
kV SiC Diode C4D02120 (b) with conventional active clamp 650 V GaN GS-065-011-1-L (c) with
1.2 kV SiC Diode
leakage bypassC4D02120
650 V GaN (b) with conventional active clamp 650 V GaN GS-065-011-1-L (c) with
GS-065-011-1-L.
leakage bypass 650 V GaN GS-065-011-1-L.
However, continuous and repetitive peaks above the absolute maximum rating are
However,
not continuous
recommended becauseandit repetitive peaksbyabove
is unwarranted the absolute Although
the manufacturer. maximumoverrated
rating are not
recommended
peak operation because it is unwarranted
is possible, by the below
keeping the operation manufacturer. Although
650 V as specified by overrated
the manu- peak
facturerisispossible,
operation always more desirable
keeping the because derating
operation below will
650 prolong the lifespan
V as specified byand
thereliability
manufacturer
of the semiconductor
is always more desirable device.
because derating will prolong the lifespan and reliability of the
Anotherdevice.
semiconductor thing to note, the peak negative current of the leakage bypass is much higher
than that of the conventional. This is because Lss is much lower than Ls, which results in
higher (but still manageable) di/dt, and dv/dt compared to the conventional. The di/dt and
dv/dt (or the turn-off time) could be adjusted by manipulating the value of Lss. It is also
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 21 of 34
Another thing to note, the peak negative current of the leakage bypass is much higher
than that of the conventional. This is because Lss is much lower than Ls , which results in
higher (but still manageable) di/dt, and dv/dt compared to the conventional. The di/dt and
dv/dt (or the turn-off time) could be adjusted by manipulating the value of Lss . It is also
demonstrated from Figure 17 that the turn-off transient of the leakage bypass is much faster
at 50 ns compared to the conventional which has a relatively slow turn-off period of around
120 ns. Figure 17 also highlights the total charge. Table 3 shows the experimental peak
voltage stress to measured experimental charge (and its relation to datasheet charge). It
could also be observed from Table 3 that although the turn-off time is different, the area
under the graph or junction capacitance charge remains almost similar for both cases.
Table 3. Experimental measurement of rectifier peak stress and charges.
Series Measured Peak Stress Measured Datasheet’s

Experimental Figure Device
Leakage Voltage vpeak Charge at vpeak charge at vpeak
Figure 2d C4D02120A (SiC) 10 uH 1120 V 18 nC 14 nC
Figure 17a C4D02120A (SiC) 34 uH 1133 V 18 nC 14 nC
Figure 17b GS-065-011-1-L (GaN) 34 uH 695 V 28 nC 29 nC
Figure 17c GS-065-011-1-L (GaN) 34 uH 630 V 26 nC 27 nC
Figure 18 shows the experimental result of the transformer primary and secondary
currents. As suggested in Figure 18 and Table 4, the leakage bypass provides a lower charge
circulation per cycle. This is possible because the leakage is not intentionally energized
during the turn-off transient of the rectifier. This is important because the key to low
voltage stress on the rectifier is not to have the leakage energized in the first place. It is
demonstrated that the leakage bypass technique allows the circulating leakage charge to be
reduced to a quarter of the conventional secondary clamp. Lower circulating current (or
reactive power) will also result in lower conduction losses per cycle.
Figure 19 shows the power measurement of the experimental setup. The measurement
is made by using Hioki 3194, a precision power/motor analyzer. The input to the converter
(Keysight E4350B Solar Array Simulator), is programmed to produce a varying PV power
of Pmpp = 16 W (10% power) to 160 W (100% power). The maximum power point voltage
is fixed at Vmpp = 18 V. As illustrated in Figure 16a, the maximum power point tracking
is performed using a simple closed-loop constant voltage algorithm, in which the duty
cycle is adjusted to track the PV maximum power point. The output voltage is consistently
maintained at 380 V, utilizing an adjustable load resistor, such that the resistance is manually
adjusted to produce 380 V at the output.
Figure 20 demonstrates the experimental performance comparison of the leakage
bypass to the conventional clamp and snubber-less secondary. It is indicated that the
leakage bypass technique reduces the voltage overshoot percentage by an average of 57%
(or 2.3 times lower) compared to the conventional secondary active clamp and 92% (or
12.66 times lower) compared to snubber-less secondary. The lower overshoot voltage
advantage of the leakage bypass, however, does come at a price. The obvious one is it
requires extra components (and therefore cost). A more uncomfortable fact is that the
experimental data appear to suggest that leakage bypass will result in lower efficiency
compared to the conventional secondary clamp. At 240 kHz of switching frequency,
the experimental data demonstrate that the leakage bypass has an average 0.22% lower
efficiency compared to the conventional (peak reduction at full PV power is 0.43%). The
reason for this is due to switching loss of the bypass MOSFET Qssb (we observed during the
experiment that the bypass transistor has a higher temperature compared to other switches).
The leakage bypass GaN transistor Qssb is turned on with hard switching (for simplicity
reasons). Its drain-source capacitance (Coss ) could not be discharged due to the existence of
the diode Ds , which limits the current flow in only one direction (the diode is necessary to
prevent current flow in a negative direction once the steady state has been reached). As a
result, Qssb switches on with a relatively high voltage of 380 V (the output voltage) stored
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 22 of 34
in its Coss junction capacitance. A 0.22% (or peak 0.43%) reduction in efficiency may not
seem significant, however, it must be pointed out that GaN is not meant to be switched
attoonly
be switched
240 kHz; at itonly 240fact,
is, in kHz; it is, inoffact,
capable thecapable
multi-MHzof theswitching
multi-MHz switching Because
frequency. fre-
quency. Because switching power loss for Qssb will be higher at a higher switching fre-
switching power loss for Qssb will be higher at a higher switching frequency, it is deduced
quency, it is deduced that efficiency will drop proportionally higher with an increase in
that efficiency will drop proportionally higher with an increase in switching frequency.
switching frequency. As a result, a practical approach would be to limit the leakage bypass
As a result, a practical approach would be to limit the leakage bypass technique to only
technique to only around 200 kHz–300 kHz operation. It may be possible to fix the switch-
around 200 kHz–300 kHz operation. It may be possible to fix the switching loss dilemma.
ing loss dilemma. Such implementation will require a zero-voltage switching at the turn-
Such implementation will require a zero-voltage switching at the turn-on instant of Qssb .
on instant of Qssb. We are actively performing such research to discharge the Coss before
We are actively
turning on Qssb.performing such research
Such implementation willtoallow
discharge the Coss
the leakage work atona Q
beforetoturning
bypass ssb . Such
much
implementation will allow the leakage bypass to work at a much higher
higher frequency without any reduction in efficiency. In fact, improvement in efficiency frequency without
any reduction
compared in efficiency.active
to conventional In fact, improvement
clamp in efficiency
could be expected due tocompared to conventional
lower conduction loss
active clamp could
with leakage bypassbe expected
(lower due toloss
conduction lowerdueconduction losscirculation
to lower charge with leakageper bypass (lower
cycle with
conduction loss due
leakage bypass). Thistowill
lower charge circulation
be contingent per cyclethat
on the condition with leakage
Qssb bypass).
switches This
with the will be
zero-
contingent technique. that Qssb switches with the zero-voltage switching technique.
on the condition
voltage switching
With Snubberless Secondary SiC Diode

Primary Flyback Current (10A/div)
Superimposed Primary Flyback Current
Leakage bypass
Conventional
secondary clamp
Current (A)
Secondary Flyback Current (1A/div)
Charge circulation
Active clamp
with Conventional Secondary Active Clamp − Vertical: 5A/div

Leakage bypass
Primary Flyback Current (10A/div) Horizontal: 0.5us/div
−
Superimposed Secondary Flyback Current

Vertical: 0.5A/div
Horizontal: 0.5us/div
Leakage bypass
Secondary Flyback Current (1A/div) Conventional
Current (A)
secondary clamp
Charge circulation
Active
clamp
Leakage
bypass
with Proposed Leakage Bypass −

Primary Flyback Current (10A/div)
−
Secondary Flyback Current (1A/div)
Figure18.
Figure 18. Experimental
Experimental result
resultofofflyback
flybacktransformer current.
transformer current.
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 23 of 34
Table 4. Experimental result for charge circulation.

Table 4. Experimental result for charge circulation.
Primary Charge Secondary Charge
Conventional Clamp Primary Charge
2071.7 nC Secondary Charge
126.95 nC
Conventional Clamp
Leakage Bypass 2071.7
443.68nC
nC 126.95
31.24nC
nC
Reduction
Leakage Bypass 4.67443.68
times nC
smaller 4.06 times
31.24 nCsmaller
Reduction 4.67 times smaller 4.06 times smaller
10% PV Power 20% PV Power

Vpv = 17.673V Vpv = 17.893V
Ipv = 0.9045A Ipv = 1.7893A
Ppv = 15. 984W Ppv = 32.012W
Vo = 380.92V Vo = 380.13V
Io = 37.28mA Io = 78.31mA
Po = 14.19W Po = 20.77W
ⴄ = 88.78% ⴄ = 93.00%

Vpv = 17.960V Vpv = 18.058V
Ipv = 2.6752A Ipv = 3.5433A
Ppv = 48.06W Ppv = 63.99W
Vo = 379.95V Vo = 379.61V
Io = 119.02mA Io = 159.88mA
Po = 45.22W Po = 60.68W
ⴄ = 94.09% ⴄ = 94.83%

Vpv = 18.012V Vpv = 18.056V
Ipv = 4.4304A Ipv = 5.3015A
Ppv = 79.80W Ppv = 95.72W
Vo = 379.62V Vo = 379.42V
Io = 200.32mA Io = 241.27mA
Po = 76.02W Po = 91.58W
ⴄ = 95.26% ⴄ = 95.67%

Vpv = 18.073V Vpv = 18.090V
Ipv = 6.181A Ipv = 7.050A
Ppv = 111.73W Ppv = 127.55W
Vo = 380.07V Vo = 380.29V
Io = 281.48mA Io = 321.07mA
Po = 107.01W Po = 122.13W
ⴄ = 95.78% ⴄ = 95.75%

Vpv = 18.070V Vpv = 18.066V
Ipv = 7.937A Ipv = 8.818A
Ppv = 143.40W Ppv = 159.31W
Vo = 380.18V Vo = 380.66V
Io = 360.35mA Io = 398.75mA
Po = 137.00W Po = 151.77W
ⴄ = 95.54% ⴄ = 95.54%
Figure
19. 19. Experimentalpower
Experimental powermeasurements.
measurements. VV1: PV Voltage; I1: PV Current; P1: PV Power; V2:
Figure 1 : PV Voltage; I1 : PV Current; P1 : PV Power;
Output Voltage; I2: Output Current; P2: Output Power; ⴄ1: Efficiency.
V2 : Output Voltage; I2 : Output Current; P2 : Output Power; η 1 : Efficiency.
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 24 of 34
Comparison of Efficiency Comparison of Overshoot Voltage

100 1200
1.133kV
95.60% 95.84% 95.86% 95.89% 95.84% 95.70%
95.19% 1.1133kV
94.23% 1.0898kV 1.0976kV 1.0976kV 1.0859kV
95 93.97%
95.26% 95.67% 95.78% 95.75% 95.54% 95.27% 1100 1.0976kV 1.1113kV
94.83%
1.0859kV 1.0858kV
Overshoot Voltage (V)

94.04% 93.78%
93.12% 93.45%
93.00% 92.78% 93.01%
92.03%
Efficiency (%)
90 90.86% 1000
88.8%
88.59%
88.02%
Snubberless SiC Secondary Diode
85 84.90%
900 Leakage Bypass Method
Conventional Active Clamp on Secondary
80 800
650V GaN Stress Voltage Limit Line
Snubberless SiC Secondary Diode 667.26V 699.21V 697.26V 693.35V 693.35V 691.40V 693.35V 689.40V
75 Leakage Bypass Method
700 667.96V
666.01V
Conventional Active Clamp on Secondary
626.95V 646.48V
70.47% 634.77V 636.71V 644.52V 636.71V 638.66V 634.77V 636.71V 630.85V
70 600
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Power Percentage (%) Power Percentage (%)
Comparison of Overshoot Percentage

100
90.10%
90 84.16%
86.46%
86.16% 86.16% 86.80%
84.85% 82.20% 82.20%
80
Overshoot Percentage (%)
82.85%
70
60
50 Snubberless SiC Secondary Diode
Leakage Bypass Method
40 Conventional Active Clamp on Secondary
30
17.00% 17.32% 17.00%
20 16.33% 16.33% 16.01% 16.33%
15.67%
12.07%
11.75%
10
5.193% 8.141% 8.470% 7.157%
6.505% 6.831% 6.831% 6.505% 6.831% 5.847%
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Power Percentage (%)
Figure 20. Experimental performance comparison with different techniques.
Figure 20. Experimental performance comparison with different techniques.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
UtilizingGaN
Utilizing GaNfor
forhigh
highstep-up
step-up (or
(or high
high gain)
gain)flyback
flybackapplications
applicationsrequires a unique
requires a unique
kind of technique to limit the voltage stress to below 650 V. It is experimentally
kind of technique to limit the voltage stress to below 650 V. It is experimentally shown
shown
that the proposed leakage bypass could reduce the overshoot voltage, thereby achieving
that the proposed leakage bypass could reduce the overshoot voltage, thereby achieving
the required lower than 650 V voltage stress. However, the experimental result suggests
the required lower than 650 V voltage stress. However, the experimental result suggests
this comes at the price of lower efficiency due to increased switching loss on the bypass
this comes at the price of lower efficiency due to increased switching loss on the bypass
shunt branch. Future work needs to implement a zero-voltage switching technique on the
shunt branch. Future work needs to implement a zero-voltage switching technique on the
bypass transistor.
bypass transistor.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.Z.; methodology, R.Z.; validation, R.Z.; formal analy-
Author investigation,Conceptualization,
Contributions:
sis, R.Z.; R.Z.; resources, R.Z.;R.Z.;
data methodology, R.Z.; validation, R.Z.;
curation, R.Z.; writing—original draftformal analysis,
preparation,
R.Z.; investigation,
R.Z.; writing—reviewR.Z.;and
resources,
editing,R.Z.;
R.Z.,data curation,
J.J., Y.Y. R.Z.; writing—original
and N.A.R.; visualization, R.Z.;draft preparation,
supervision, N.A.R.R.Z.;
writing—review and have
and J.J. All authors editing,
readR.Z., J.J., Y.Y.toand
and agreed the N.A.R.; visualization,
published version of theR.Z.; supervision, N.A.R. and
manuscript.
J.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: UMPEDAC-2020 (MOHE HICOE-UMPEDAC), Ministry of Education Malaysia, IF006-
2021, RU002-2021.
Funding: UMPEDAC-2020 (MOHE HICOE-UMPEDAC), Ministry of Education Malaysia, IF006-2021,
RU002-2021.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Institutional ReviewStatement:
Informed Consent Board Statement: Not applicable.
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 25 of 34
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the technical and financial assistance of UM Power Energy
Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC) and the Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE)
Program Research Grant, UMPEDAC-2020 (MOHE HICOE-UMPEDAC), Ministry of Education
Malaysia, IF006-2021, RU002-2021, University of Malaya.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
Symbol Description Symbol Description

2DEG Two-dimensional Electron Gas MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
BCM Boundary Conduction Mode MPPT Maximum power point tracker
C Capacitor Np Primary winding number of turns
CCM Continuous Conduction Mode Ns Secondary winding number of turns
Cds MOSFET drain source capacitance PC Personal computer
Cgd MOSFET gate drain capacitance PCB Printed circuit board
Cgs MOSFET gate source capacitance Pmpp Peak power point
Ciss MOSFET input capacitance PV Photovoltaic
Coss MOSFET output capacitance Q General charge
Cpv Capacitor placed in parallel to PV input Q1 Unfolding H-Bridge MOSFET
CQs Capacitance of rectifier (in GaN CQs = Coss ) Q2 Unfolding H-Bridge MOSFET
Crss MOSFET effective gate drain capacitance Q3 Unfolding H-Bridge MOSFET
Cs Output capacitor of flyback Q4 Unfolding H-Bridge MOSFET
Css Secondary clamp capacitor Qm Charge voltage at vss (when di/dt = 0)
D Duty cycle of primary switch Qp Qp Primary flyback switch
DCM Discontinous conduction mode Qpeak Peak charge stored in capacitor
Ds Bypass diode Qps Primary flyback clamp switch
E General energy stored in capacitor Qs Secondary flyback rectifier switch
Ec Energy of capacitor in LC circuit (when di/dt = 0) Qss Secondary flyback clamp switch
EL Energy of inductor in LC circuit (when di/dt = 0) Qssb Secondary flyback bypass switch
EMI Electromagnetic inteference Qv General charge stored in rectifier
Epeak Peak energy stored in capacitor in LC circuit R Resistance in LC circuit
fc Resonance frequency of series LC circuit Rds Drain-source resistance of MOSFET
GaN Gallium nitride RF Radio frequency
GPIB General Purpose Interface Bus RHP Right half plane
HEMT High Electron Mobility Transistor RLC Resistor-inductor-capacitor circuit
Ij Current source in SiC diode model Rm Core resistance (to represent core loss)
IL Current in LC circuit in function of time Rp Transformer primary winding resistance
im Magnetizing current Rs Transformer secondary winding resistance
ip Primary current SiC Silicon Carbide
ipeak Peak current in secondary rectifier T Period
ipv PV current USB Universal Serial Bus
iQs Current of secondary rectifier Vdss MOSFET drain source max. voltage rating
is Secondary current vg Grid voltage
KVL Kirchoff voltage loop Vmpp Maximum power point voltage
L Inductor in LC circuit vo Output voltage
LC Inductor-capacitor Voc Open circuit voltage of PV
Lm Magnetizing inductance vp Primary winding voltage
Lp Primary referred leakage vpeak Peak voltage stress of rectifier
Ls Secondary referred leakage Vpeak General peak voltage
Lss Bypass inductor vss Voltage at steady state
vpv PV voltage ∆D Increment of duty cycle in MPPT
vQp Voltage across Qp ∆i Peak rectifier current
vQs Voltage across Qs ∆tm Time to reach peak current from zero crossing
Vrms Root mean squared voltage ω Frequency in radian
vs Secondary winding voltage
Lss Bypass inductor vss Voltage at steady state
vpv PV voltage ΔD Increment of duty cycle in MPPT
vQp Voltage across Qp Δi Peak rectifier current
vQs Voltage across Qs Δtm Time to reach peak current from zero crossing
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 26 of 34
Vrms Root mean squared voltage ω Frequency in radian
vs Secondary winding voltage
Appendix A. Derivation
Appendix A.ofDerivation
Equation of
(1)Equation (1)
Figure A1 illustrates theillustrates
Figure A1 flyback under on-state
the flyback and
under off-states.
on-state The figures
and off-states. are
The usefulare useful
figures
for the
for the derivation of derivation of Equation (1).
Equation (1).
Qp ON STATE Qp OFF STATE

Qs OFF Qs ON
(Reversed biased) (Forward biased)
Np : Ns Np : Ns
Qs Qs
v p Lm v p Lm
L L
O O
v pv vs vo A v pv vs vo A
D D
Qp Qp
ON OFF
Note: Load can be the utility grid connected

through an unfolding H-Bridge 50Hz
(b)
(a)
vp
DT (1-D)T
vpv
Primary
Winding
Voltage DT T time
At steady state
area is similar
vo Np
Ns Qp
Q p ON
OFF
(c)
Figureflyback
Figure A1. General A1. General
ON andflyback
OFFON and OFF
state. state.State
(a) ON (a) ON
(b)State
OFF(b) OFF(c)
State State (c) Primary
Primary winding volt-
winding
age during both ON and OFF state.
voltage during both ON and OFF state.
During the state when the primary switch Qp is ON (Figure A1a), the primary wind-
During the state when the primary switch Qp is ON (Figure A1a), the primary winding
ing experience a voltage equivalent to the PV voltage, Qs rectifier is OFF as it is reversed
experience a voltage equivalent to the PV voltage, Qs rectifier is OFF as it is reversed
biased. The secondary winding experiences the primary winding voltage multiplied by
biased. The secondary winding experiences the primary winding voltage multiplied by the
the turn ratio.
turn ratio.
v p = v pv = (A1) (A1)
vs = −v p Ns /Np= − / (A2) (A2)
When primaryWhen primary

switch switch
Qp is OFF Qp is OFF
(Figure (Figure
A1b), A1b), Qbiases,
Qs forward s forward biases,
hence thehence the secondary
secondary
winding experiences voltage equivalent to the output voltage (v s = vo). This voltage is
winding experiences voltage equivalent to the output voltage (vs = vo ). This voltage is
transferred to transferred
the primarytoas
theEquation
primary as Equation (A3).
(A3).
=− / (A3)
v p = −vo Np /Ns (A3)
At the steady state, the primary winding volt-second product (area under the graph)
during the ON state must be equivalent to the volt-second product during the OFF state.
At steady state the primary winding volt-second product (area under the graph) during
the ON state must be equivalent to the volt-second product during the OFF state.
v pv DT = (1 − D ) Tvo Np /Ns (A4)
Hence the input-to-output mathematical relationship Equation (1) is obtained by

re-arrangement of Equation (A4):
vo Ns D
= (A5)
v pv Np (1 − D )
the ON state must be equivalent to the volt-second product during the OFF state.
= (1 − ) / (A4)
Hence the input-to-output mathematical relationship Equation (1) is obtained by re-
arrangement of Equation (A4):
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 27 of 34
= (A5)
(1 − )
Appendix B. The Leakage of the Transformer

Appendix B. The Leakage of the Transformer
Figure A2 illustrates the leakage of the flyback transformer. The primary referred
Figure A2 illustrates the leakage of the flyback transformer. The primary referred
leakage is the combination of both primary and secondary leakage represented by a single
leakage is the combination of both primary and secondary leakage represented by a single
lumped
lumpedinductance
inductance seen
seen atat the
the primary.
primary.Similarly,
Similarly,the
thesecondary
secondary referred
referred leakage
leakage is the
is the
combination
combination ofof both
both the
the secondary
secondary andandthe
theprimary
primaryleakage.
leakage. In In primary
primary measurement
measurement
(Figure A2d), shorting of the secondary terminals allows the magnetizing
(Figure A2d), shorting of the secondary terminals allows the magnetizing component component
to
tobebeseparated
separated because L m >> L p (hence only L
from the measurement because Lm >> Lp (hence only Lp is effectivelyeffectively
from the measurement p is meas-
measured). Similarly,
ured). Similarly, in the secondary
in the secondary referred measurement
referred measurement (Figure A2e), (Figure
only LsA2e), only Ls is
is effectively
effectively
measured because the secondary referred magnetizing inductance is much larger thanisthe
measured because the secondary referred magnetizing inductance much
larger than the leakage (L (N /N )2 >> L ).
leakage (Lm (Ns/Np) >> Ls).m
2 s p s
Primary Primary Secondary

winding Primary Secondary referred Ideal referred
Ideal Ideal
resistance leakage R leakage leakage leakage
Transformer s Transformer Transformer
Rp Lp Ls
Rm Lm Lm Lm
Magnetizing Np : Ns Magnetizing Np : Ns Magnetizing Np : Ns

Core loss inductance
inductance inductance
(a) (b) (c)
Primary Secondary
referred Primary referred
Ideal Ideal
leakage shorted leakage
Transformer Transformer
Lp Secondary Ls
Precision LCR Meter Precision LCR Meter
GW-INSTEK Lm shorted Lm GW-INSTEK
LCR-6300 LCR-6300
Magnetizing Np : Ns Magnetizing Np : Ns
inductance inductance
(d) (e)
FigureA2.
Figure A2. Leakage
Leakage model
modelofofhigh-frequency
high-frequency transformer (a) model
transformer of a transformer
(a) model (page 56
of a transformer in 56
(page
[23]) (b) primary referred leakage omitting resistance losses (c) secondary referred leakage omitting
in [23]) (b) primary referred leakage omitting resistance losses (c) secondary referred leakage omitting
resistance losses (d) measurement of primary referred leakage (short circuit test) (e) measurement
resistance losses
of secondary (d) measurement
referred of circuit
leakage (short primary referred leakage (short circuit test) (e) measurement of
test).
secondary referred leakage (short circuit test).
Appendix C. Correlation of the Problem to Series Lossless LC Resonant Circuit
Appendix C. Correlation of the Problem to Series Lossless LC Resonant Circuit
The objective of this appendix is to explain the reason the rectifier experienced volt-
ageThe objective
stress of this that
almost double appendix
of the is to explain
steady the reason
state (without the rectifier
snubber experienced
intervention). voltage
Clarifica-
stress almost
tion is madedouble
using athat of the steady
fundamental theory state
of(without
fixed valuesnubber intervention).
LC circuit. Note thatClarification
in the real is
made
world,using
the asemiconductor
fundamental junction
theory ofcapacitance
fixed valueisLC notcircuit. Note
fixed (it that in the real
is non-linear). world,
There will the
semiconductor
also be a seriesjunction capacitance
AC resistance is not fixed
R component (it is non-linear).
without a fixed valueThere will also
(winding be a series
resistance).
ACTheresistance R component
AC resistance without
is a function a fixedcomponents
of multiple value (winding resistance).
of frequencies The AC
because resistance
a non-lin-
isear
a function
capacitorofresults
multiple
in ancomponents
inconsistent of frequencies
frequency because aAC
of oscillation. non-linear
resistancecapacitor
is composedresults
in an inconsistent frequency of oscillation. AC resistance is composed of skin and proximity
effects. Their resistances are a function of frequency. In the real world, the AC resistance
will result in a decaying oscillation (as shown in Figure 2c).
However, for ease of interpretation, fixed values of inductance, capacitance, and zero
resistance (lossless) are used in the mathematical derivations. This will not result in a
perfectly accurate theory; however, the presented equations should be good enough to
assist in better comprehension of the issue. It should also be noted that power semicon-
ductor manufacturers often document a fixed capacitance value (energy-related effective
capacitance [53]) in their datasheet to facilitate analysis for power electronics engineers.
of skin and proximity effects. Their resistances are a function of frequency. In the real
of skin and proximity effects. Their resistances are a function of frequency. In the real
world, the AC resistance will result in a decaying oscillation (as shown in Figure 2c).
world, the AC resistance will result in a decaying oscillation (as shown in Figure 2c).
However,
However, forfor ease
ease of interpretation,
of interpretation, fixedfixed
valuesvalues of inductance,
of inductance, capacitance,
capacitance, and zero and zero
resistance
resistance (lossless)
(lossless) areare
usedused in the
in the mathematical
mathematical derivations.
derivations. This willThisnotwill not in
result result
a per-in a per-
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 fectly
fectly accurate
accurate theory;
theory; however,
however, the the presented
presented equations
equations should should
be good be enough
good enoughto assistto28
assist
of 34
ininbetter
better comprehension
comprehension of theof the issue.
issue. It should
It should also also be noted
be noted that power
that power semiconductor
semiconductor
manufacturers
manufacturers often
often document
document a fixed
a fixed capacitance
capacitance valuevalue (energy-related
(energy-related effective
effective capaci-capaci-
tance
tance [53])
[53]) in in their
their datasheet
datasheet to facilitate
to facilitate analysis
analysis for power
for power electronics
electronics engineers.
engineers.
Figure A3 illustrates the fundamental operation of a series LC circuit under step
Figure
FigureA3A3illustrates thethe
illustrates fundamental
fundamental operation
operationof a series LC circuit
of a series under under
LC circuit step volt-
step volt-
voltage
age with with
an an amplitude
amplitude of v of vss (Equation
(Equation (7)). The (7)).
step The step
input is input
v × u(t), ss × u(t),
is vwhere u(t) the u(t)
where
is u(t) is
age with an amplitude of vss (Equation (7)). The step input is vss × u(t), where
ss ss is the
the
unit unit
step step
input input
defineddefined
as in as in Equation (A6) (note that Equation (A6) is well known).
unit step input defined asEquation
in Equation(A6)(A6)
(note(note
that Equation
that Equation(A6) is(A6)
wellisknown).
well known).
1,  1,1, >t 0>
𝑡>0 0

( )𝑢u≔(𝑡t) ≔ (A6) (A6)
0,  0, ≤ 0𝑡 ≤ 0
0, t ≤ 0
L R
Vss u(t) L R Manufacturer define
Vss u(t) Manufacturer
GaN fixed effective define
Step input C Vc GaN infixed
capacitance their effective
Step input C Vdatasheet
c capacitance
as Cossin their
datasheet
energy related [53] as Coss
iL
iL energy related [53]
(a) Decaying
Vc (V)
Two times step (a)
oscillation with
Decaying
(V)
Step Vc
Peak voltage stress = 2Vss series resistance
amplitude Lossless LC oscillation with
response Peak voltage stress = 2Vss Two times step series resistance
ofStep Lossless LC
amplitudeLossy
response
capacitor RLC
of Mid point =
voltage Lossy
capacitor Vss RLC
voltage
Vss Mid point = Steady state line
Vss
Vss Step
Steady state line
Input =
Step
Vss u(t)
Input =
0 Vss u(t)
t
i L(A)0 Area Area = = Qm
under
quarter 𝒊 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 Lossy
t
i L(A) Area
sine is the
Area = 𝝎 = Qm
RLC
Step chargeunder
in
response quarter
capacitor Lossy
of sine is the RLC
Step charge in
inductor
response
t
current capacitor Lossless
of LC
i
inductor
peak
current
t
Energy in Peak inductor Lossless
π/2 inductor current LC
ipeak π dumped to
capacitor
Energy in Peak inductor
t =0 2π (b)
π/2 inductor current
π dumped to
Figure
Figure A3.A3. Fundamental
Fundamental of series
of series LC circuit
LC circuit operation
operation (a) the(a) the series
series LC resonance
LC resonance circuitin(RLC in
circuit (RLC
dotted lines) [53]. tThe
= 0The
(b) (b) 2π responsecapacitor
step of LC (b)
dotted lines) [53]. step response ofcircuit (RLC
LC circuit in dotted
(RLC lines).lines).
in dotted
Figure
The A3.
The Fundamental
step input
step input of series
represents
represents thetheLC circuitchange
sudden
sudden operation
change (a)secondary
the series
of secondary
of LC
winding resonance
winding voltage circuit
to(RLC
duedue
voltage in
to the
dotted
the lines) [53].
switching(the (b)
(theturn The
turnON step
ON of response
of Qpp).). InIntheof LC circuit (RLC in dotted lines).
switching thecase
caseofof
thethe
secondary
secondary rectifier, a sudden
rectifier, change
a sudden change of
ofswitching
switchingstate
stateimplies
impliesthat
thatthethe secondary rectifier must now block
secondary rectifier must now block both the outputboth the output
voltage vo
The step input represents the sudden change of secondary winding voltage due to
and the secondary winding voltage (Equation (A2)). During the transient blocking voltage
the switchingof
development (the
theturn ON the
rectifier, of Qblocking
p). In the case of the secondary rectifier, a sudden change
voltage is developed through the series inductance
of
(leakage), energizing it in the process.secondary
switching state implies that the Ideally, werectifier
want tomust now
develop theblock bothvoltage
capacitor the output
only
up to the value of vss without any overshoot. This is not possible due to the series inductance.
Under the lossless condition, the charge stored in the capacitor at the midpoint (vss ) must
be equal to the current area (area under the graph) of the inductor current at its peak point
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 29 of 34
(negative). Note that Equation (A7), the quarter area of sine with amplitude ipeak is also a
well-known equation.
Rπ
Qm = i peak 02 sin ωt dt
i peak π
= [− cos ωt] 2 (A7)
ω 0
i peak
= ω
The energy stored in the capacitor, Ec , at the midpoint (vss ), which occurs at ωt = π/2,
can be written using the fundamental equation of capacitor energy as in Equation (A8).
1 2
EC = Cv (A8)
2 ss
During this time as well (ωt = π/2), the peak energy is stored in the series inductance
and the peak energy of the inductor can be written using the fundamental energy equation
of Equation (A9).
1
EL = Li2peak (A9)
2
To show that the peak stress voltage of the capacitor is double the steady state (or double
the step amplitude), it must first be mathematically proven that Ec = EL at ωt = π/2. By
substituting (A7) into (A9), the energy stored in the inductor at ωt = π/2 could be re-written as
in Equation (A10).
1
EL = L Q2m ω2 (A10)
2
Qm or charge in the capacitor at voltage vss (when ωt = π/2) could also be written
using the fundamental charge equation of Equation (A11).
Qm = Cvss (A11)
Substituting Equation (A11) into Equation (A10), the energy stored in the inductor at
ωt = π/2 could be re-written as in Equation (A12).
1 2
EL = LC vss 2 ω2 (A12)
2
The resonance frequency of an LC circuit is well-known, and is written as:
1
fc = √ (A13)
2π LC
Note that ω = 2πfc . This is also a well-known equation. Hence Equation (A13) is
re-written as:
1
ω= √ (A14)
LC
Substituting Equation (A14) into Equation (A12), it can be proven that at ωt = π/2 (at
di/dt = 0):
EC = EL (A15)
At the time of the half cycle (at ωt = π) all the energy in the inductor is transferred onto
the capacitor (energy is dumped into the capacitance until its inductor current becomes
zero). Due to symmetrical energy storing and dumping in the inductor, the area under the
graph or charge at half cycle (ωt = π) is double the charge area at quarter cycle (ωt = π/2).
Q peak = 2Qm (A16)

Energies 2022, 15, 5092 30 of 34
It is also well known that energy E to charge Q has the mathematical relationship of
Equation (A17).
1 Q2
E= (A17)
2 C
Hence the peak energy stored in the capacitor at half cycle (ωt = π) can be written by
substituting Equation (A16) into (A17).
2
1 Q peak 2Q2m
E peak = = (A18)
2 C C
Rearranging Equation (A10) and substituting Equation (A14) into Equation (A18):
2EL
Q2m = L ω2
= 2CEL (A19)
= 2CEC
Plugging in Equation (A19) into Equation (A18), it is then obtained that the peak
energy stored in the capacitor at half cycle (ωt = π) is quadruple that of the quarter cycle
stored energy.
E peak = 4EC (A20)
Plugging Equation (A8) into Equation (A20), the peak energy of the capacitor at half
cycle (ωt = π) can be written as:
E peak = 2Cv2ss (A21)
Alternatively, energy stored in the capacitor at the peak voltage stress (ωt = π) can
also be written using the well-known energy equation of Equation (A22).
1 2
E peak = Cv (A22)
2 peak
Finally, by substituting Equation (A21) into Equation (A22), it could be mathematically
proven that regardless of the value of L (leakage) or C (rectifier junction capacitance) the
peak voltage stress across the capacitor in a series LC resonance circuit is always twice the
steady state.
v peak = 2vss (A23)
It should be noted that Equation (A23), is only true in the lossless case, as in practice,
the flyback transformer winding will incur some losses; hence, the peak stress will be
slightly lower than twice the steady state due to some AC resistance losses.
Appendix D. Derivation of Equations (4), (5) and (8)

The objective of this appendix is to provide an extension on how Equations (4), (5), (8)
and (9) are derived. Equation (4) is derived based on the equivalent circuit in Figure 6b (its
corresponding current waveform is shown in the Figure A4, such that the residual current
drops to zero (with negative di/dt gradient) as it is being driven by the series voltage source
of the sum of vs + vo . By taking the KVL of Figure 6b,c it could be derived that:
Ns diQs
− Vmpp + Ls + vQs − vo = 0 (A24)
Np dt
current drops to zero (with negative di/dt gradient) as it is being driven by the series vo
age source of the sum of vs + vo. By taking the KVL of Figure 6b,c it could be derived th
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 − + + − =0 31 of 34

(A2
Equivalent Equivalent
circuit in circuit in
Fig. 6b Fig. 6c ≈ Δt m
Width and length can
Gradient di /dt be calculated using
Charge Qm at
Qm triangle formula
midpoint
(steady state) ≈ Δi ≈ i peak
Rectifier
can be obtained
current
from datasheet
Gradient (di/dt)
Zero crossing is calculated
≈ Δi ≈ i peak from Eq. 4
di /dt = 0
≈ Δt m
Figure A4.The
Figure A4. Theestimation
estimation of negative
of negative peakpeak current.
current.
Noting
Notingthat
thatthethe
rectifier voltage
rectifier couldcould
voltage be simplified to zero to
be simplified in zero
forward-bias condition conditi
in forward-bias
(vQs = 0), Equation (A24) could be rearranged to be similar to Equation (4). Note the di/dt
(vQs = 0), Equation (A24) could be rearranged to be similar to Equation (4). Note the di
corresponds to the gradient of the current waveform.
corresponds to the gradient of the current waveform.
diQs

1 Ns
− = 1Vmpp + vo (A25)
dt− Ls =Np + (A2
As for Equation (5), it is also derived from Equation (A24); however, the rectifier
Ascan
voltage fornoEquation
longer be (5), it is because
ignored also derived from Equation
it is non-zero (A24);
due to blocking however,
voltage the rectifier vo
development
age
(vQs can
6= 0) no longerbias.
in reverse be ignored because it is non-zero due to blocking voltage developme
(vQs ≠ 0) in reverse bias.
diQs

1 Ns
− = Vmpp − vQs + vo (A26)
dt− Ls =Np1 − + (A2
The charge Qm at the midpoint or steady state (Equation (7)) is useful for the estimation
of theThe
peakcharge Qmvoltage
negative at the (when
midpointdi/dtor steady
= 0). It canstate (Equation
be calculated (7))the
from is triangle
useful for
withthe estim
tion of∆tthe
width m and length
peak ∆i, such
negative that:
voltage (when di/dt = 0). It can be calculated from the triang
with width Δtm and length Δi, such that:∆i ∆t
m
Qm = (A27)
2 Δ Δ
= (A2
2
The gradient of the current waveform could be estimated by Equation (4). By noting
that ∆i/∆t also represents
The mgradient of the the gradient.
current Then, it iscould
waveform possible
be to write the gradient
estimated estimation
by Equation (4). By noti
of Equation (A28).
that Δi/Δtm also represents the gradient. Then, it is possible to write the gradient estim
diQs ∆i
tion of Equation (A28). ≈ (A28)
dt ∆tm
Plugging Equation (A25) into Equation (A28), itΔcould be written that (delta implies
≈ (A2
that negative sign is omitted): Δ
Plugging Equation (A25)∆iinto Equation (A28), it could be written that (delta impl

1 Ns
≈ Vmpp + vo (A29)
that negative sign is omitted): ∆tm L s Np
Δ as in
Equation (A27) can also be re-written 1 Equation (A30):
≈ + (A2
Δ
2Qm
∆tm = (A30)
Equation (A27) can also be re-written∆ias in Equation (A30):
By substituting Equation (A30) into Equation (A29),
2 it could be written that:
Δ = (A3
s Δ
2Qm Ns
∆i ≈
By substituting Equation (A30)Linto Vmpp + vo(A29), it could be written
(A31)
s NEquation
p
that:
Energies 2022, 15, 5092 32 of 34
Finally, by substituting Equation (7) into Equation (A31), it could be derived as in

Equation (8) that: s
2Qm
∆i ≈ vss (A32)
Ls
As mentioned in the main text of the article, unlike a linear series LC circuit, where
di/dt = 0 will always coincide with the midpoint or steady-state voltage Equation (7), the
existence of non-linear capacitance causes the midpoint to shift to the right (relative to
when di/dt = 0). As a result, it is not always possible to estimate Qm based on the voltage
at the steady state in the charge–voltage curve (Figure 8). This is especially true when
leakage is relatively high. In this case, Equation (8) could be re-written in the general form
of Equation (9). It is worth noting that Equations (8) and (9) are very much similar, the only
difference is that Equation (9) is the general form of peak current estimation.
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High Step Up Flyback With Low Overshoot

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High Step-Up Flyback with Low-Overshoot Voltage Stress on

Energies 2022, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/energ

2. The Secondary Leakage—Rectifier Problem

Secondary Snubberless SiC diode

Channel 2: Steady state

(a) Further ZOOM

1200V SiC diode absolute maximum voltage rating Steady State

Storing energy in diode This charge causes the overdeveloped

(b) ZOOM (d)

Drain Source Datasheet

Drain Source Datasheet

2.2. Research Motivation

2.3. Previous Solution in the Literature

Energies 2022, 15, 5092 8 of 34

Correctly Timed Quasi Incorrectly Timed Quasi Resonant

Qp PWM Qp PWM Qp OFF Qp ON

VQp VQp Qp ON is timed to

Qp OFF is timed to Qp OFF is timed to

Minimal voltage stress on secondary time time

2.4. Scope of Study

Negative current charges the rectifier’s junction capacitance. Peak negative

Rectifier Voltage vQs

Silicon Carbide Schottky Diode Gallium Nitride MOSFET Capacitance Characteristic

In which the rectifier’s voltage 𝑑𝑖𝑄𝑠 vQs is 1 given

capacitance charging time before overshooting occur is estimated as in ∆tm = 2 Qm/∆i. In

3.2. For Large Leakages

Table 2. Experimental parameters.

Symbol Quantity Value

4. Proposed Solution: The Leakage Bypass

4. Proposed Solution: The Leakage Bypass

Snubber capacitor returns Leakage discharges Qp

Residual negative current Once leakage is fully Coss of Qs oscillates with

Q ss Qssb Qss Qssb

Ns Vmpp Ls VQs Ns Vmpp Ls i ss VQs

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 35

Note: A device with reverse recovery is undesirable as a flyback’s synchronous rec-

Qp signal (as illustrated in Figure 11).

Error to Duty Cycle algorithm

Secondary SiC Diode Voltage (200V/div)

Secondary GaN (650V Rated) with

200V Time (s)

0.5A Secondary GaN Current (0.5A/div)

(b) Conventional Secondary Clamp

Snubberless Secondary SiC Diode

Secondary GaN Voltage (200V/div)

Secondary GaN Turn Off Transient Leakage Bypass

Secondary GaN Current (0.5A/div) Time (s)

Table 3. Experimental measurement of rectifier peak stress and charges.

Series Measured Peak Stress Measured Datasheet’s

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 35

With Snubberless Secondary SiC Diode

Secondary Flyback Current (1A/div)

with Conventional Secondary Active Clamp − Vertical: 5A/div

Superimposed Secondary Flyback Current

with Proposed Leakage Bypass −

Secondary Flyback Current (1A/div)

Table 4. Experimental result for charge circulation.

10% PV Power 20% PV Power

30% PV Power 40% PV Power

50% PV Power 60% PV Power

70% PV Power 80% PV Power

90% PV Power 100% PV Power