CHAPTER ONE

FUNCTIONS
1.0 Introduction
This topic introduces the concept of a real number. We shall solve linear
inequalities and inequalities involving absolute values. Functions and composite
functions with their inverses will also be discussed.
1.1 Objectives
By the end of the topic the learners will be able to:
Define a set.
Represent the elements of a set.
Understand the sets of numbers.
Define and solve linear inequalities.
Define an absolute value.
Solve inequalities involving absolute values.
Define a function.
Determine the range of a domain.
Find composite functions.
Find the inverses of functions and composite functions.

1.2 Concept of a set

A well defined collection of objects is called a set. By the term “well defined”,
we mean that we are given a collection of objects with certain definite property or
properties, given in such a way that we are clearly able to distinguish whether a given
object is in our collection or not. Thus, every collection of objects is not a set.
The objects in a set are called its members or elements and are defined by listing
them or by describing them carefully in words. We usually denote sets by capital
letters and their elements by small letters and enclosed by the curly brackets { }. That
is, the notation A = {a, b, c, d} means that A is a set consisting of the four elements a,
b, c and d.
When listing the members of a set, an individual member is never repeated and
when we wish to indicate that a particular number belongs to a certain set, the symbol
 is used, thus if an object ‘a’ is a member of a set A, we write a  A which means
that “a belongs to A or a is an element of A”. On the other hand if ’a’ does not belong
to A, we write a  A.
The symbol : is often used to mean “ such that”. Thus if we use N to indicate the
set of natural numbers, the mathematical statement
A  x2 : x  N
Means “ A is the set whose members have the form x 2 , where x is such that it belongs
to the set of natural numbers”. Thus A  1, 4,9,16,...

Example 1.1
List the members of the following sets.

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The set of the days in a week.
A = {Mon, Tue, Wed, Thur, Fri,Sat, Sun}
The set of vowels in an English alphabet
B = {a, e, i, o, u}
The set of all digits
C = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
The set of even numbers
D = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10….}
The set of prima numbers
E = {2, 3, 5 7 …}
NB: (i) Each element of the set is listed only once.
(ii) The order in which the objects are listed is immaterial. That is, {3, 2} is
(ii) The order in which the objects are listed is immaterial. That is, {3, 2} itis
the same as {2, 3}.

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Classification of Numbers

a). Natural numbers

The set   1, 2,3, 4,5,... is called a set of all natural numbers. The dots
indicates that the pattern continuous indefinitely. They are also referred to as
counting numbers.
b). Whole numbers
The set obtained by adjoining ‘0’ to the set of natural numbers
is a set of whole numbers. That is,
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4 …}.
c). Integers
The set consisting of, ‘0’ and negatives of natural numbers is a set of integers.
That is,
Z = {… 3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 …}.
The integers allow us to solve problems requiring both positive and negative
counting numbers such as profit/loss, temperature above/below zero, height
above/below sea level and so on. Since integers are not sufficient for all
problems, hence we resort to rational numbers.
d). Rational numbers
a
A rational number is a ratio , b  0 where a and b are integers and b cannot
b
a
be zero. Since  a for any integer a, then it follows that the rational numbers
1
contains the integers.
e). Irrational numbers
Those numbers like 2,  , e, 3 5 and so on are not rational numbers. They
are called irrational numbers.
f). Real numbers
The rational and irrational numbers together form the real numbers.
g).Complex Numbers.
The number given by a  bi, i  1 where a and b are real numbers is called
a complex number.
h). Number system
The real and complex numbers forms the number system.

1.4. Complex numbers

The square root of a negative number, for instance 1, 5 and 9 , is
called a pure imaginary number.
By definition, 5  5  1 and 9  9  1 , then it is convenient to
introduce the symbol i  1 and adopt 5  i 5 and 9  3i as the
standard form of these numbers.
The symbol i has the property that i 2  1 . The use of the standard form
simplifies the operation on pure imaginaries and eliminates the possibility of
certain common errors.
For instance 9  4  6i sin ce 9  4  3i  2  6i , but
9  4  6 sin ce 9  4  3i  2i  6i 2  6. .

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 A number a+bi, where, a and b are real numbers is called a complex number.
The first term a is called the real part and the second term bi is called the
imaginary part of a complex number. Complex numbers may be thought of
including all real numbers and all pure imaginary numbers. For instance 5=5+0i
and 3i=0+3i.

1.4.1. Some common basic terms of complex numbers

(a) Equality: Two numbers a+bi and c+di are said to be equal if and only if a=c and
b=d.
(b) Conjugates: The conjugate of a complex number Z  a  bi is the complex
number Z  a  bi . Thus 2+3 and 2-3i, -3+4i and -3-4i are pairs of complex
number.
(c ) Modulus: The modulus of a complex number Z=a+bi is defined as a positive
real number given by r  a  bi  a 2  b2 .
Example 2.12
Find the modulus of the following complex numbers. (a) 3+4i (b) 2-3i
Solution
a 3  4i  32  42  25  5

b 2  3i  22  (3) 2  13
Note: The product of a number and its conjugate is the square of its modulus. That
is,  a  bi  a  bi   a2  b2  r 2 .
1.4.2 Algebraic Operations of complex numbers.
(a) Addition
To add two or more complex numbers, we add the real parts and add
the imaginary parts. i.e (2+3i )+(4-5i)=(2+4)+(3-5)i=6-2i.
(b) Subtraction
To subtract two or more complex umbers, we also subtract the real parts and
subtract the imaginary parts. i.e (2+3i)-(4-5i) = (2-4) + (3-(-5))I = -2+8i.
(c ) Multiplication
To multiply two or more numbers, we carry out the multiplication as if the
numbers were ordinary binomials and replace i 2 by -1.
i.e  2  3i  4  5i   8 10i  12i 15i 2  23  2i .

(d) Division
To divide two complex numbers, we multiply both the numerator and the
denominator of the fraction by the conjugate of the denominator. That is, if a+bi and
c+di are two complex numbers, then the ratio
a  bi  a  bi  c  di  ac  bd  bc  bd 
   i
c  di  c  di  c  di  c 2  d 2  c 2  d 2 
Example 2.22
2  3i
Write the complex number in the form a+bi.
4  3i
Solution

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 2  3i  2  3i  4  3i  17  6i 17 6i
   
4  3i  4  3i  4  3i  25 25 25
Activity 1
A. Write each of the following expressions in the form a  bi .
1.  2  3i    6  8i  2.  3  2i  4  4i  3.  2  5i   8  6i 
4. 2i  2  3i  5.  3  4i  2  i  6.  6  i  6  i 
 2  i
2
10 i 6i
7. 8. 9. 10.
3  4i 2i 1 i 2i

B. Let Z=3-4i and W= 8+3i. Write each of the following expressions in the form
a  bi .
(a) Z  Z (b) W  W (c) ZZ (d) Z  W (e) ZW

1.5.The algebra of sets

The following terms and operations are commonly used.
a). Universal set
This is a set consisting of all the elements in a particular questions or
of interest, usually denoted by S . For instance
S  a, b, c, d ,..., w, x, y, z
b).Complement of a set
This is a set consisting of all the elements in the universal set which are not in
the set A, defined on the universal set denoted by A or Ac . For instance if
A  a, b, c, d , then Ac  e, f , g , h,..., w, x, y, z
This can be represented in a diagram called a Venn diagram as follows:

c). Subset
If every member of a certain set H is also a member of a set K, then H is subset
of the set K, denoted by H  K and reads “H is a subset of K”. For instance
H  a, b, c, d is a subset of K  a, b, c, d , e, f , g , h This can be represented in
a venn diagram as follows
d). Intersection of two sets
Given two set A and B, then the set consisting of all those elements which
belong to both A and B is called the intersection of A and B, denoted by
A  B . Thus if,
A  a, b, c, d and B  a, b, c, e, f , g , h , then A  B  a, b, c
This is represented as follows.

e). Union of two sets

The set consisting of those elements which belong to the set A or B or both, is
called the union of the sets A and B, denoted by A  B .Thus in the case of A and
B above, then
A  B  a, b, c, d , e, f , g , h
This is represented in the Venn diagram below.

f). Empty set

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 This is a set with no members, denoted by  or   . For instance, if
A  a, b, c, d , D  e, f , g , h, i , then A  B  
The two sets are said to be disjoint and represented as follows.
g). Difference of two sets
The difference of A and B denoted by A-B is a set consisting of elements
which belong to the set A but do not belong to the set B. It’s also denoted
by A  Bc . This can be represented as follows:
h). Power set
This is a set consisting of all the subsets of the set A, denoted by P  A . For
example if A  a, b, c , therefore, the power set of Ais
A  , a , b , c , a, b , a, c , b, c , a, b, c
The power set P  A of any set A of n elements contains exactly 2 n elements.

1.5.1. Laws of set operations

Let S be the universal set and A, B, C ,...,  are subsets of S , then the
following hold.
Identity laws
 i  A    A, A  
 ii  . A  S  S, AS  A
Idempotent laws
A  A  A, A A  A
Complement laws
A  A  S, A  A  

 A  A,   S, S  
Commutative laws
A  B  B  A, A B  B  A

Associative laws
A   B  C    A  B  C
A   B  C    A  B  C
Distributive laws
A   B  C    A  B   A  C 
A   B  C    A  B   A  C 
De-Morgan laws
 A  B   A  B,  A  B   A  B

Note
1. The notation n  A is used to denote the number of elements in the set A
2..A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of the relationship between sets . The
universal set is represented by a rectangle and the sets by circles.

Activity 2

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In a certain university, 60% of the students registered to take Physics, 70%
registered to take Chemistry. If every student had to register for at least one of
the courses, how many students registered to take both courses?
In a certain high school, 600 students purchased tickets to a dance, 300 purchased
tickets to a basketball game and 173 students purchased tickets for both events. How
many students purchased tickets to either of the two events?
In a survey carried out in a school canteen,, the following results were obtained. Out
of 100 boys questioned, 78 liked sweets,, 74 ice-cream, 53 cake, 57 liked both sweets
and ice-cream, 46 liked both sweets and cake while only 31 boys liked all the three. If
the boys interviewed liked at least one item, how many boys liked both ice-cream and
cake?
Given S  a, b, c, d , e, f , g , A  a, b , B  a, d , e, g , C  a . Find :

 i  . A, B,  ii  . A  B, A  B  iii  . A  B, A  B  iv  .  A  B  ,  A  B 

C
Let the universal set S  0,1, 2,3, 4,5,6,7,8 , A  1, 4,7 , B  3, 4,8 . Find:
i  . A, B ii  . A  B, A  B iii  . A  B, B  A iv  . P  B .

1.6 Inequalities
An inequality is a statement that one real number is greater than or less than
another. For instance, if ‘a’ and ‘b’ are real numbers and the difference a – b is
positive, then we say “a is greater than b” written as a > b or “b is less than a” written
as b < a. Thus a < b and b > a are equivalent statements.
Alternatively, if the difference a – b of the two real numbers is positive or zero,
then we say “a is greater than or equal to b” denoted by a > b or “b is less than or
equal to a” denoted by b < a. The symbols >, <, > and < are called the inequality
signs.
1.6.1 Solutions of Inequalities
An inequality of the form
ax + b (< or >) c
where a, b and c are real numbers is called a linear inequality. This inequality is true
for some values and false for others.
To solve any linear inequality one may:
add or subtract the same number to both sides
multiply or divide both sides by a positive number. The inequality sign
remains unchanged
multiply or divide both sides by a negative number. The inequality sign reverses.
Example 1.2
Solve the following inequality
5x + 4 > 2x + 6

Solution
Subtract 4 from both sides to get
5x  2x  2
Subtract 2x from both sides to obtain
3x  2
Dividing both sides by 3 we get,
2
x
3

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Example 1.3
Solve the following inequality
2x – 8 < 7x + 22
Solution
Add 8 to both sides to obtain
2x < 7x + 30
Subtracting 2x from both sides we get
0 < 5x + 30
Subtract 30 from both sides to get
-30 < 5x
Dividing both sides by 5 you obtain -6 < x or x > -6
Example 1.4
Solve the inequality
x3
2
x -1
Solution
Subtract 2 from both sides to get
x3
-20
x -1
Find the common L.C.M and simplify. That is,
x  3 - 2(x - 1)
0
x -1
5 x
0
x 1
 Either 5 – x > 0 or x – 1 > 0
 5 > x or x > 1
 1 < x < 5. NB: The solutions can be represented graphically.

1.6.2 Absolute Value

Let x be any real number, then the absolute value of x denoted by x
is defined by
 x if x  0

x  0 if x  0
-x if x  0

For example, (i) 5 = 5 (ii)  6 = 6 (iii) 9  6 = 3 (iv) 2  8 = 6
 3 6 = 9
1.6.3 Solutions of Inequalities involving Absolute Values
Inequalities involving absolute values can be solved by following a similar
procedure to the ordinary inequalities discussed earlier.
Example 1.5
Solve the inequality
x
 2 + 5 > 12
3
Solution
Add -5 to both sides to get

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 x
 2 >7
3
Remove the absolute sign. To do this, we have two possibilities; either
x x
- 2 > 7 or -2>-7
3 3
Add 2 to both sides to get,
x x
> 9 or > -5
3 3
Multiplying both sides by 3 we get, x > 27 or x > -15
 only x > 27 satisfies the inequality.
Example 1.6
Solve the inequality 5x  4 < 11.
Solution
Either 5x – 4 < 11 or 5x – 4 < -11
Add 4 to both sides to get
5x < 15 or 5 x < -7
Simplifying we obtain,
x < 3 or x < 7 5
The solution region satisfying the inequality is
7
<x<3
5
Activity 3
Solve the following inequalities:
1. 3x + 4 > 5x + 2 2. x – 4 > -2x + 5
3. x – 4x < 5
2
4. 4 + 3x < 2x + 24
5. x2 – 6x > 0 6. 5x2 + 5x – 8 < 3x2 + 4
2 2
7. 3x + 2x + 2 < 2x + x + 4 8. (x + 5) (x – 1) (x – 2) < 0
9. 4  3x < 5 10. 2x  24 < 0
1.7 Functions
A variable is a symbol selected to represent any given set of real numbers, usually
denoted by any capital letters of the alphabet, say, X, Y, Z, etc. Suppose a set of
values is given for one of the variables and a rule is given and applied to the given set
of values to obtain another set of values of a new variable. The variable for which the
values are given is called an independent variable and the set of values of the
independent variable is called the Domain.
The rule that is applied to the independent variable is called a function and the
variable which is produced by the rule is called the dependent variable. The set of
values of the dependent variable is called the Range of the function. The member of
the range which corresponds to a certain member of the domain is usually called the
image of that member.
When each member of the range has exactly one corresponding member of the
domain, the function is said to be a one-to-one function, otherwise it is said to be
many-to-one function.
Example 1.7
The following are examples of functions.
H = 64 - 16t 2 , t = 0, 1, 2, 3
S = 20t – 5t2, t = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

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Y = x2, x 
1.7.1 The Function Notation
Functions are denoted by letters such as f, F, g, G and so on. If f is a function, then
for each number x in its domain, the corresponding image in the range is designated
by f(x) read “f of x”. Thus f(x) is the number that results when x is given and the rule
for f is applied.
NB: f(x) does not mean “f times x”.
Example 1.8
The following examples are functions.
f(x) = x2 , x   .
g(t) = 64 – 16t2, t = 0, 1, 2
f(t) = 20t – 5t2, t = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
g(x) = 2x – 5
f(x) = x
3
g(x) = 2 etc.
x 4

1.7.2 Composite Functions

Let f(x) and g(x) be two functions, then the functions fg(x) and gf(x) are called
composite functions. For instance, consider the functions
f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 5, x ,
then
f(3) = 9 and g(9) = 14, g (3) = 8, f(8) = 64
 gf(3) = 14 and fg(3) = 64
In general
gf(x) = x2 + 5 and fg(x) = (x + 5)2
NB:
(i) The functions can also be denoted f g ( x ) and g f ( x ) .
(ii) The operations must always start from the right.

Activity 4
(A) For the given functions f(x) and g(x),
Find (a) fg(x) and g(x), find (a) fg(x) (b) gf(x) (c) ff(x) (d) gg(x)
1. f(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 3x
2. f(x) = -x, g(x) = 2x – 3
3. f(x) = 3x + 1, g(x) = x2
4. f(x) = x2, f(x) = x
5. f(x) = 2x + 4, g(x) = ½ x – 2
(B) For the given functions f(x) and g(x), find (a) f g ( x ) (b) g f (2)
(c) f f (1) (d) g g(0)
1. f(x) = 2x, f(x) = 3x2 + 1
2. f(x) = 3x + 2, g(x) = 2x2 – 1
3. f(x) = 2x2, g(x) = 1 – 3x2
4. f(x) = x , g(x) = 2x
3
5. f(x) = 2 , g(x) = x
x 1
1.7.3 Graphs of Functions

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 When the domain is a set of real numbers  , it is always represented by a
horizontal axis, the x- axis, whereas the corresponding values of the dependent
variable are represented by points on the vertical axis, the y-axis. In general, a graph
of the function y = f(x) is shown below:

y=f(x)

Functions whose graphs are symmetrical about the vertical axis are called even
functions. That is, for any value of a, f  a   f  a  . In general, even functions are
functions of the form f  x   xn , where n is an even integer. This can be shown in the
following graph.
A function with the property f  a    f  a  for every member a of the domain,
is called an odd function. The graph of an odd function will have a rotational
symmetry of 180o . In general, functions of the form f  x   xn , where n is an odd
number will be odd functions. They can be represented in the following graph.

Activity 5
Sketch the graphs of the following functions:
1. y = 2x + 1 2. y = (x + 2)3
2
3. y = x + 5 4. y = 5x2
1
5. y =  x  4
x4
6. f  x   x 4
7. f  x   x 7
1.7.4 Inverse of a Function
Let y = f(x) be a one-to-function. The inverse function denoted by f-1(x) is
the unique function defined on the range of f for which x = f-1(y) and f-1 f(x) = x.

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 Domain of f=Range f-1 Domain of f-1=Range f
f

f -1

Example 1.9
Let f(x) = 2x + 3, find the inverse of f(x).
Solution
Let y = f(x) = 2x + 3
Make x the subject. That is,
2x = y – 3 or x = ½ (y – 3)
Replace x by y and y by x. That is,
1
y   x  3
2
 f (x) = ½ (x – 3)
-1

Example 1.10
Find the inverse of the function:
f(x) = 18 x3 + 1
Solution
Let y = 18 x3 + 1
Make x the subject as follows,
x3 = 8(y – 1) and x = (8(y – 1))1/3
 f-1(x) = (8(x – 1)1/3

1.7.4.1.Steps for finding the inverse

 Determine whether the function is one-to-one.
 If it is, then in the equation y = f(x) that defines f. Solve for x. You will now
 have x = f-1(y).
 Replace x by y and y by x in x = f-1(y) to get y = f-1(x).
 The equation y = f-1(x) defines the inverse function f-1(x) of f(x).
 Check your answer by verifying that f-1 f(x) = x.

Activity 6
1. Given that f(x) = 5x + 1, find the values of: (a) f-1(36) (b) f-1) (-14) (c) f-1 (0)
f-1 (a).

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 1
2. Given that g(t) = , t ≠ 0, find the values of:
t 5
(a) g-1 (½ ) (b) g-1 (2) (c) g-1 (0) (d) g-1 (a)

3. Show that the following functions f(x) and g(x) are inverses of each other.
(a) f(x) = 3x – 4), g(x) = 13 (x + 4)
(b) f(x) = d4x – 8, g(x) = -½ (x – 1)
(c) f(x) = 4x – 8, g(x) = 4x + 2
(d) f(x) = x3 – 8, g(x) = 3 x  8
2x  3 4x  3
(e) f(x) = , g(x) =
x4 2 x
4. Find the inverses of the following functions:
x
(a) f(x) = 12 - (b) f(x) = ½ (x – 3)
2
2 x 1 x
(c) f(x) = (d) f(x) = ,x>1
5 x 1
(e) f(x) = x3 – 1 (f) f(x) = x2 + 4, x > 0
(g) f(x) = (x – 1) , x > 1
2
(h) f(x) = x5 – 1

1.7.5 Inverse of Composite Functions

Let f(x) and g(x) be functions whose domain is defined on the real numbers  ,
then the inverse of the composite function fg(x) is given by (fg)-1(x) = g-1 f-1(x)
Example 1.11
Let f(x) = 10x, g(x) = x + 3, find fg(x) and (fg) -1(x).
Solution
fg(x) = f(x + 3) = 10(x + 3)
y x
  fg   x    3
1
Let y = 10(x + 3), then x = -3
10 10
Alternatively,
x -1 x x x
- 3   fg   x    3
1
f-1(x) = , g (x) = x – 3  g-1f-1(x) = g-1( ) =
10 10 10 10

13
 EGERTON UNIVERSITY
MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
PROBLEM SET 1
1. Write each of the following expressions in the form a  bi .
 i  .  3  2i  4  4i   ii  .  2  5i   8  6i 
 iii  .  3  4i  2  i   iv  .  6  i  6  i 
2  i
2
i 6i
v.  vi  .  vii  .
2i 1 i 2i

2. Let Z=3-4i and W= 8+3i. Write each of the following expressions in the form
a  bi . (a) Z  Z (b) W  W (c) ZZ (d) Z  W (e) ZW
3. In a certain university, 60% of the students registered to take Physics, 70%
registered to take Chemistry. If every student had to register for at least one of
the courses, how many students registered to take both courses?
4. In a certain high school, 600 students purchased tickets to a dance, 300 purchased
tickets to a basketball game and 173 students purchased tickets for both events.
How many students purchased tickets to either of the two events?
5. In a survey carried out in a school canteen,, the following results were obtained.
Out of 100 boys questioned, 78 liked sweets,, 74 ice-cream, 53 cake, 57 liked
both sweets and ice-cream, 46 liked both sweets and cake while only 31 boys
liked all the three. If the boys interviewed liked at least one item, how many boys
liked both ice-cream and cake?
6. Out of 37 men and 33 women, 36 are teetotallers. Nine of the women are non-
smokers and 18 of the men smoke but do not drink.13 of the men and 7 of the
women drink but do not smoke. How many at most both drink and smoke.
7. In a freshman class of 200 students of a certain college, records indicate that 80
students registered to take Biology, 90 registered to take Calculus,55 registered to
take Physics, 32 registered to take both Biology and Calculus, 23 registered to
take both Calculus and Physics and 8 registered to take all the three courses..
Assuming that each student registered for at least one course, is the records from
the registrar;s office accurate?
S  a, b, c, d , e, f , g , A  a, b , B  a, d , e, g , C  a
8.Given . Find :
 i  . A, B, C   ii  . A  B, A  B  iii  . A  B, A  B  iv  .  A  B  ,  A  B 
S  0,1, 2,3, 4,5,6,7,8 , A  1, 4,7 , B  3, 4,8
9. Let the universal set . Find:
i  . A, B ii  . A  B, A  B iii  . A  B, B  A iv  . P  B .
10. Solve the following inequalities:
(i). 3x + 4 > 5x + 2 (ii)2. x – 4 > -2x + 5
(iii). x – 4x < 5
2
(iv). 4 + 3x < 2x + 24
(v). x2 – 6x > 0 (vi). 5x2 + 5x – 8 < 3x2 + 4
(vii). 3x2 + 2x + 2 < 2x2 + x + 4 (viii). (x + 5) (x – 1) (x – 2) < 0
4  3x 2x  24
(ix) <5 (x). <0

11. For the given functions f(x) and g(x),

Find (a) fg(x) and g(x), find (a) fg(x) (b) gf(x) (c) ff(x) (d) gg(x)
(i). f(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 3x

14
 (ii). f(x) = -x, g(x) = 2x – 3
(iii). f(x) = 3x + 1, g(x) = x2
(iv). f(x) = x2, f(x) = x
(v). f(x) = 2x + 4, g(x) = ½ x – 2
12. For the given functions f(x) and g(x), find (a) f g ( x ) (b) g f (2)
(c) f f (1) (d) g g(0)
(i). f(x) = 2x, f(x) = 3x2 + 1
(ii). f(x) = 3x + 2, g(x) = 2x2 – 1
(iii). f(x) = 2x ,2
g(x) = 1 – 3x2
(iv). f(x) = x , g(x) = 2x
3
(v). f(x) = 2 , g(x) = x
x 1
13. Sketch the graphs of the following functions:
(i) y = 2x + 1 (ii). y = (x + 2)3
(iii). y = x2 + 5 (iv). y = 5x2
1
(v). y =  x  4
x4
14.Given that f(x) = 5x + 1, find the values of: (a) f-1(36) (b) f-1) (-14) (c) f-1 (0)
f-1 (a).
1
15.Given that g(t) = , t ≠ 0, find the values of:
t 5
g-1 (½ ) (b) g-1 (2) (c) g-1 (0) (d) g-1 (a)

16.Show that the following functions f(x) and g(x) are inverses of each other.
f(x) = 3x – 4), g(x) = 13 (x + 4)
f(x) = d4x – 8, g(x) = -½ (x – 1)
f(x) = 4x – 8, g(x) = 4x + 2
f(x) = x3 – 8, g(x) = 3 x  8
2x  3 4x  3
f(x) = , g(x) =
x4 2 x
17.Find the inverses of the following functions:
x
f(x) = 12 - (b) f(x) = ½ (x – 3)
2
2 x 1 x
(c) f(x) = (d) f(x) = ,x>1
5 x 1
(e) f(x) = x3 – 1 (f) f(x) = x2 + 4, x > 0
(g) f(x) = (x – 1) , x > 1
2
(h) f(x) = x5 – 1

16.Find the inverses of the composite functions given in activity 1.2.

1
17.Find the inverse g(x) of the function f(x) = 1 + . Then show that fg(x) = fg(x)
x
1
and that g-1f(x) =
f ( x)
x
18.The functions of f(x) and g(x) are defined by f(x) = 3x + 4 and g(x) = .
2

15
 Find fg(x) and show that (fg) -1(x) = g-1 f-1(x). Hence or otherwise, find fg -1(4).
19.If f(x) = x + 3 and g(x) = 2x, find (fg) -1(x) and (fg)-1(x).

16
CHAPTER TWO

POLYNOMIALS
2.0 Introduction
In this topic, we shall define a polynomial function, perform the basic
polynomial operations and discuss the factorization techniques. We shall also solve
quadratic equations, discuss rational expressions and divide polynomials. Radicals,
complex numbers and their basic operations shall be discussed. Finally, we shall
decompose rational expressions into partial fractions.
2.1 Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
Define a polynomial2211`` qq11
Write a polynomial function in its standard form and identify the order, leading
coefficient and the constant term.
Add, subtract and multiply polynomials
Factorize a polynomial of degree n>2
Use completion of squares method and quadratic formula to solve a polynomial of
degree n  2 .
Define and simplify rational expressions
Divide polynomials and apply the remainder theorem.
Define, simplify, add, subtract, multiply and divide radical expressions.
Solve equations involving radicals.
Define and perform algebraic operations on complex numbers.
Decompose rational expressions into partial fractions.
2.2 Polynomials
Any function P(x) that can be expressed in the form
P  x   an xn  an1xn1  ...a1x  a0
where, n is a positive integer or zero and an  an1  ...  a1  a0 are constants is called
a polynomial functions. If an  0 , we say that P(x) has degree n. The constants
an  an1  ...  a1  a0 are called the coefficients of P(x) and the coefficient of x n is
called the leading coefficient of P(x) and a0 is called the constant term.
When P() is written as in he equation above with the highest degree term first and
with successive terms decreasing in degree, we say that the polynomial s in standard
form. If P(x)= a0 , where an  0 , then we call P(x) a constant polynomial with degree
zero.

Example 2.1
For each of the following, determine whether the given functions are
1
polynomials. (i) f (x)  2x  5 (ii) g  x  1  2 x  3x 2 (iii ) h  x  
x  2x
2

Solution
The functions f(x) and g(x) are polynomial functions. The standard form for
g  x   3x2  2x  1 . Function h(x) cannot be written in the standard form and so
h(x) is not a polynomial function.
Example 2.2

17
 For each of the following polynomial functions, determine its degree, leading
coefficient and the constant. In each case write the polynomial in standard form.
Solution
We can summarize the solutions as follows:
Standard form degree leading coefficient constant
3x  2 x  5
4 3
4 3 5
3 x  2 x  1
2
2 -3 1
8 x  4 x  4 x  12
3 2
3 8 -12
x  2x  x
5 4
5 1 0
0x  3
0
0 0 3

Basic polynomial operations

2.3.1 Addition and Subtraction
Polynomials can be added or subtracted by combining their like terms. That
is, group the like terms and then combine them.
Example 2.3
Find the sum and difference of the following polynomials.
f  x   8x3  2 x2  6 x  2 and g  x   3x4  2 x3  x2  x
Solution
f  x   g  x    8 x 3  2 x 2  6 x  2    3x 4  2 x 3  x 2  x 
  0  3 x 4   8  2  x3   2  1 x 2   6  1 x   2  0 
 3x 4  6 x3  x 2  7 x  2
And
g  x   f  x    3x 4  2 x 3  x 2  x    8 x 3  2 x 2  6 x  2 
Change the sign of each term in the second polynomial, i.e
g  x   f  x    3  0  x 4   2  8  x 3  1  2  x 2  1  6  x   0  2 
 3x 4  10 x 3  3x 2  5 x  2
Similarly we can also find f(x)-g(x).
2.3.2 Multiplication
The product of two or more polynomials is found by repeated use of the
distributive law and the laws of exponents.
Example 2.4
Find the product of the following polynomials,
f  x   2 x  5, g  x   x2  x  2
Solution
f  x   g  x    2 x  5   x 2  x  2 
 2x  x2  x  2  5  x2  x  2
 2 x 3  2 x 2  4 x  5 x 2  5 x  10
  2  0  x 3   2  5  x 2   4  5  x   0  10 
 2 x 3  3 x 2  x  10
2.4 Factorization of polynomials
Consider the following multiplication problem

18
  2x  3 x  4  2x2  5x 12
The polynomials on the left side are called factors of the polynomial on the right
side. When we express a given polynomial as a product of other polynomials, the
process is called factorization. That is, finding the factors of a polynomial.
The first thing to look for, in factoring a polynomial is a common monomial factor
present in each term of the polynomial. A monomial is the product of a constant and a
variable raised to a non-negative integer power. Thus a monomial is of the form
M  x   axk where ‘a’ is a constant, x is the variable and k  0 is an integer. Once all
common monomial factors have been removed from a polynomial, the remaining
factor is either a polynomial of degree one or a polynomial of degree two or higher.
When a polynomial cannot be written as a product of two or more polynomials,
then it is said to be prime and is said to be completely factored.
Example 2.5
Find the common monomial factors of the polynomials
Solution
The polynomials have been summarized in the following table
Polynomial monomial factor remaining factor
2x  4 2 x2
3x  6 3 x2
2 x2  4 x  8 2 x2  2x  4
8 x  12 4 2x  3
x2  x x x 1
x  3x
3 2
x 2
x 3
6x  9x
2
3x 2x  3

2.5 Special factors

The following is a list of special factors commonly used.
1.  x  a  x  a   x 2  a 2
2.  x  a   x 2  2ax  a 2
2

3.  x  a   x 2  2ax  a 2
2

4.  x  a  x  b   x 2   a  b  x  ab
5.  ax  b  cx  d   acx 2   ad  bc  x  bd
6.  x  a   x 3  3ax 2  3a 2 x  a 3
3

7.  x  a   x 3  3ax 2  3a 2 x  a 3
3

8.  x  a   x 2  ax  a 2   x 3  a 3
9.  x  a   x 2  ax  a 2   x 3  a 3
2.6. Other factorization techniques.
Sometimes a common factor occurs, not in every term of the polynomial, but
in each of the several groups of terms that together makeup the polynomial. When this
happens, the common factor can be factored out of each group by means of the

19
distributive law. When we use this technique to factor a polynomial, it is called
factorization by grouping.
Example 2.6
Factorize the following polynomials
 a  P  x   x3  4x2  2x  8 b  P  x   3x3  4x2  6x  8 .
Solution
(a). By looking carefully at the polynomial, we can see thatx-4 is a factor
of x 3  4 x 2 and 2 x  8 . So we group the terms as
x3  4 x 2  2 x  8   x3  4 x 2    2 x  8 
 x2  x  4  2  x  4 .
  x  4  x2  2
(b). Here x 2  2 is a common factor of 3x3  6 x and 4 x 2  8 . Hence we group
the terms as
3x3  4 x 2  6 x  8   3x3  6 x    4 x 2  8 
 3x  x 2  2   4  x 2  2 
  x 2  2   3x  4 
Sometimes the addition and subtraction of the appropriate term can be used
to factorize a polynomial.
Example 2.7
Factorize completely the polynomial x 4  7 x 2  16 .
Solution
If the middle term was 8x 2 instead of 7 x 2 , then the polynomial would be a perfect
square. That is  x 2  4   x 4  8 x 2  16 . By adding and subtracting x 2 , we have
2

x 4  7 x 2  16  x 4  8 x 2  16  x 2
  x2  4  x2 .
  x 2  4  x  x 2  4  x 
This is by using the difference of two squares property.
2.7. Factorizing second- Degree polynomials
To factorize a second degree polynomial of the form Ax 2  Bx  C where A, B
and C are integers is just a matter of skill, experience and some trial and error
techniques. The idea behind factoring Ax 2  Bx  C is to see whether it can be
written as a equal first degree polynomials. Thus, we want to see whether
Ax2  Bx  C   ax  b  cx  d  .
Example 2.8
Factorize completely the polynomial P  x   x2  7 x  12
Solution
This is a second degree polynomial with leading coefficient of one. If it must be
factored,, then it must follow the form of the special product
 x  a  x  b   x2   a  b  x  ab .
We take note of the following clues:

20
(i). The first term in P(x) is x 2 , so we start with x2  7 x  12   x  x 
(ii). The third term in P(x) is 12, so the only possibilities of a and b are; a=1 and
b=12 or a=2 and b= 6 or a=3 and b=4.
 x 1 x 12 

 x 2  7 x  12   x 2  x 6 

 x 3 x 4 
(iii) Of all this, only  x  3 x  4 gives the correct middle term of
7x, thus x2  7 x  12   x  3 x  4
Example 2.9
Factorize the following polynomial completely. P  x   x2  6 x  8 .
Solution
(i) The first x 2 requires x2  6 x  8   x  x 
(ii) The third term 8, requires the possibilities of 1 and 8 or 2 and 4
 x 1 x 8 

i.e x 2  6 x  8  
 x 2  x 4 

(iii) The sign of the third term is positive and the middle term is negative. Thus
the only possible signs are  x 1 x  8 or  x  2 x  4
(iv) The middle term is 6x , so the factors are x2  6x  8   x  2 x  4 .
Example2.10
Factorize completely the polynomial 2 x 2  5 x  2 .
Solution
(i) The first term 2x 2 requires 2 x2  5x  2   2 x  x  .
(ii) The third term requires the possibilities of 1 and 2 or 2 and 1.
 2 x 1 x 2 

ie 2 x 2  5 x  2  
 2 x 2  x 1


(iii) The second ad third term are both positive, thus we have the
 2 x  1 x  2 

possibilities 2 x2  5x  2  
 2 x  2  x  1

(iv) The factors are 2 x2  5x  2   2 x  1 x  2 .
2.8. The Quadratic equation.
A second degree polynomial expressed in the form ax 2  bx  c  0 where a  0
is called a quadratic equation. To solve a quadratic equation, we proceed as follows:
Subtract c from both sides to get x 2  bx  c
b c
Divide through by a to get x 2  x  
a a
2
 b  b b2 c b2
Add   to both sides to obtain x 2  x  2    2
 2a  a 4a a 4a

21
 b  b 2  4ac
2

Factorizing the left hand side, we have  x    .
 2a  4a 2
b b2  4ac
Take the square root of both sides to get x   .
2a 4a 2
b b  b2  4ac
Now subtracting from both sides, we get x 
2a 2a
This technique o solving quadratic equations is called Completion of Squares Method.
This is the most convenient way of solving quadratic equations which cannot be
readily solved by factorization.
Example 2.11
Solve the following equation by completion of squares method: 2 x 2  6 x  3  0 .
Solution
Add 3 to both sides to get x 2  6 x  3 .
3
Divide through by 2 to get x 2  3 x 
2
2
 3
Complete the squares by adding    to both sides and simplify to get
 2
2 2
 3 3  3
x  3x         
2

 2 2  2
2
 3  15
 x   
 2 4
 3 15
Take the square root of both sides to obtain  x     .
 2 2
3 3 15
Adding to both sides, we get x   .
2 2 4
2.8.1. The Quadratic formula
b  b2  4ac
The above formula given by x  is called the quadratic
2a
formula. The roots of the equation is obtained directly by substituting the values of a,
b and c in the equation.
Example 2.12
By using the formula method, solve the quadratic equation 1  x  x 2  0 .
Solution
Here a=-1, b=-1 and c=1, then applying the formula, we get
b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
1  1  4  11
 .
2
1  5

2
From the quadratic formula, there are three possibilities of the results namely;
If b 2  4ac  0 , the equation has two real distinct roots

22
If b 2  4ac  0 , then there are no real roots.
If b 2  4ac  0 , then the equation has two identical roots.
The term b 2  4ac is called the discriminant of the equation. It plays the important
role of determining the nature of the roots.
Activity 2.1
A. Factorize the following polynomials completely.
1. p  x   4 x 2  1 2. p  x   x 2  7 x  10
3. p  x   x 2  10 x  21 4. p  x   x 2  6 x  5
5. p  x   x 2  2 x  1 6. p  x   3x 2  12 x  36
7. p  x   3 y 3  18 y 2  48 y 8. p  x   3x 2  4 x  1
9. p  x   16 x 2  16 x  5 10. p  x   x 4  7 x  9
2

B Solve the following expressions by factorization

1. 2 x 2  5 x  3  0 2. 4 x 2  25  0
3. x 2  4 x  21  0 4. 7 x 2  5 x  0
C. Solve the following expressions by completing the squares.
1. 2 x 2  6 x  1  0 2. 5 x 2  12 x  6  0
3. x 2  7 x  3  0 4. 10  3x  2 x 2  0
5. 5 x 2  6 x  2  0 6. 2 x 2  x  5  0
D. Solve by using the quadratic formula.
1. 4  13 y  y 2  0 2. 3 p 2  7 p  2
3. 6 x 2  x  8 4. 3 x 2  8 x  7  0
5. 3x 2  4 x  0 6. 10  3 x  2 x 2  0
7. 16 x 2  25  0
2.9. Rational Expressions
x3  1 3x 2  x  2 x
Consider the following expressions: (a) (b) (c) 2
x x 5
2
x 1
Such ratios of two polynomials are called rational expressions. The rational
expressions are described in a similar manner as the rational numbers. When the
numerator and the denominator have common factors, then the expression is reduced
to its lowest terms or simplified. This is done by completely factorizing the numerator
and denominator and cancelling any common factors.
Example 2.13
Simplify the following rational expressions.
x 2  4 x  4  x  2  x  2  x  2
(a) 2   .
x  3x  2  x  2  x  1 x  1

(b)
x 3

x

 x  3 x  2   x  x  4   2 x 2  x  6 .
x4 x2  x  4  x  2   x  4  x  2 
x2  2x  1 4x2  4  x  1
2
4  x 2  1 4  x  1
(c )    
x3  x x 2  x  2 x  x 2  1  x  4  x  1 x  x  2 

23
Activity 2.2
Simplify the following rational expressions.
5 x  10 x2  2 x x2  4
1. 2 2. 3.
x 4 3x  6 x2  5x  6
 x  4  9
2
2 x3  x 2  10 x
4. 3 5.
x  2 x2  8x  x  3  16
2

2.10. Dividing Polynomials

If f(x) and g(x) denotes polynomial functions and if g(x) is not the zero
polynomial, then there are unique polynomial functions q(x) and r(x) such that
f  x r  x
 q  x 
g  x g  x
or f  x   q  x   g  x   r  x 
where r(x) is either the zero polynomial or a polynomial of degree less than that of
g(x). In the above equation, f(x) is called the dividend, g(x) is the divisor, q(x) is the
quotient and r(x) is the remainder.
Example 2.14
Divide x 4  3x3  2 x  5 by x2  x  1.
Solution
By using the long division, we have
x2  2x  3
x 2  x  1 x 4  3x3  2 x  5
x 4  x3  x 2
 2 x3  x 2  2 x  5
 2 x3  2 x 2  2 x
 3x 2  4 x  5
 3x 2  3x  3
x2
Thus the quotient is q  x   x2  2x  3 and the remainder is r  x   x  2 .
2.10.1. The Remainder Theorem
If the divisor g(x) is a first degree polynomial of the form g(x)=x-c where c is a
real number, then the remainder r(x) is f(c ). The equation given above can now be
written as f  x    x  c  q  x   f  c  .
Example 2.15
Find the remainder if f  x   x3  4 x2  2 x  5 is divided  a  x  3 b x  2 .
Solution
Using the remainder theorem, r(x) = f(c )
(a) r(x) = f(3) = 2
(b) x+2 can be expressed as x-(-2), then r(x)=f(-2)=-33.
Note: The long division can also be used.

24
Activity 2.3
A. Find the quotient q(x) and the remainder r(x) when f(x) is divided by g(x) in each
of the following polynomials.
1. f  x   4 x 3  2 x 2  x  1, g  x   x2  x  1
2. f  x   2 x 4  x 3  3x 2  2, g  x  x  3
3. f  x   4 x 3  3 x 2  2, g  x  x  3
4. f  x   5 x 3  3x  3, g  x   2x2 1
5. f  x   4 x 4  5 x  6, g  x   4x  3
B. Find the in each of the following polynomials.
1. f  x   3x4  2 x2  1, c  2 2. f  x   4 x5  3x3  2 x 1, c  1
C. The expression px 4  qx3  3x 2  2 x  3 has remainder x+1 when divided by
x3  3x  2. . Find the values of p and q.
D. The expression ax 2  bx  c is divisible by x-1, has remainder 2 when divided
by x+1, and has remainder 8 when divided by x-2. Find the values of a, b and c.

2.11. Radicals
The symbol n x which denotes the principal nth root of x is called the radical.
The integer n is called the index and x is called the radicand. For instance,
1 1
64  8, 3 8  2, 4  , and 3 27  3.
16 2
In general, if n  2 is a positive integer and x is a real number, then
 a  n x n  x if n is even
.
 b  n x n  x if n is odd
For instance
23  4,  3  3, 24  2,  3  3  3
3 5 5 4 4 4

2.11. Properties of Radicals

For any positive values of a and b, then the following properties will hold.
1 n ab  n a n b
a na
 2 n 
b nb

 3  a
m
n
am  n

 4 m n
a  mn a

Example 2.16
Simplify the following expressions.
8 x5
a 32 b 3
8x4 c 3
x8 d  3 .
27 y 2

25
Solution

a 32  16  2  16 2  (4) 2

b 3
8 x 4  3 8 3 x 4  2 3 x3 .x  2 3 x 3 3 x  (2 x) 3 x .

c 3
x8  23 x8  6 x 6 .x 2  ( x) 6 x 2
8 x5 3
8 x5 3
8 3 x 3 .x 2 (2 x) 3 x 2  2 x  x 2
d  3     3 2
27 y 2 3 27 y 2 3
27 3 y 2 (3) 3 y 2  3  y
2.11.2. Addition and subtraction of radicals
Two or more radicals can be combined (added or subtracted) provided they
have the same radicand.
Example 2.17
Simplify the following expressions.
a 4 27  8 12  3 b 3
8x4  3  x  4 3 27 x
Solution
 a  4 27  8 12  3  4 9  3  8 4  3  3
 12 3  16 3  3
 12  16  1 3
 3 3

b 8 x 4  3  x  4 3 27 x  3 8 3 x 3 .x  3  1 x  4 3 27 3 x
3 3 3

 (2 x) 3 x  3 x  (12) 3 x
  2 x  11 3 x
2.11.3. Multiplication of Radicals.
To multiply radicals, we use the property n ab  n a n b . thus radicals must be
of the same index to be multiplied under the radical sign.
Example 2.18
Simplify the following expressions.  a  6 xy 2 x b   x 3  x 3 
 x 3  x 2 
Solution
a 6 xy 2 x  12 x 2 y  4 x 2 3 y  (2 x) 3 y

b     x 3
2
x 3 x 3  2
 x9

c  x 3  x  2   x   2 3  x   6

2.11.4. Division of Radicals

When the radicals occur in ratios, then the ratio is written in a way that the
denominator contains no radicals.

26
Example 2.19
1 3 x 2 x
a b c d 
Simplify the following expressions. 3 3
2 x 2 x y
Solution
1 1 3 3
a   
3 3 3 3
3 3 34 3 3 4 3 3 4
b 3
   
2 32 34 3
4 2

x  2  x  2  
2 2
x 2 x 2 x 2
c    
x 2 x 2 x 2  x 2 x4
2
2

x x x  y x  xy
d    
x y x y x y x y

2.11.5. Equations involving Radicals.

The equations involving radicals can be solved depending on the type of radical
given.
Example 2.20
Solve the equation. 2 x  4  x  1 .
Solution
Add x to both sides to get 2 x  4  x  1
Square both sides to remove the radical sign, i.e 4  x  4    x  1 .
2

Simplify both sides to obtain 4 x  16  x 2  2 x  1 .

Combine the like terms; i.e x 2  2 x  15  0 .
Factorize the left hand side to get  x  5 x  3  0 .
Solving for x, we get x=5 or x=-3 but x=-3 does not satisfy the radical, thus the only
real solution is x=5.
Activity 2.4
A. Simplify the following expressions.
3 4 3 6 32 x 3
1. 16 x 2. x 3.
9x
4. 4
x12 y 8 5. 5
x10 y 5 6. 3x 2 12 x
3 xy 3 2 x 2 y
  3
2
7. 8. 53 9 9.
6 x3 y 4 5 2

x2  y 2 x2 y 2 3 1
10. 11. 12.
xy x4  y 4 7 2 2 3 3

 x  1
2
3 2 5 3 x 1 3
13. 14. 15.
 x  1
3
3 2 5 3
2
x 1

27
B. Solve the following equations.
1. 5 x  1  x  1 2. 6 x  7  3x  3  1
3. 4 x  1  5  3x  2 4. 2x  3  2  4  x
x 1  x 1
5. 3
x 1  x 1
2.12. Partial Fractions.
3 2
Consider the problem of adding two fractions, say and . The
x4 x3
3 2 5x 1
result is   2 . The reverse procedure of starting with the rational
x  4 x  3 x  x  12
5x 1
expression 2 and writing it as sum or difference of two simpler fractions
x  x  12
3 2
and is referred to as partial fraction decomposition and the two simpler
x4 x3
fractions are called partial fractions. The following are some of the methods used to
determine the partial fractions.
2.12.1. Denominator having non-repeated linear factors
x
Consider the rational expression 2 , say. To write the expression
x  5x  6
into partial fraction, we proceed as follows
Factorize the denominator x2  5x  6   x  2 x  3 . Thus the denominator contains
x A B
only non-repeated linear factors and can be written as   ,
x  5x  6 x  2 x  3
2

where A and B are to be determined. Multiplying each side by (x-2)(x-3), we get

x  A  x  3  B  x  2 or x   A  B  x   3A  2B  . The equation is an identity
in x, thus we may equate the coefficients of like powers of x to get A+B=1 and -3A-
2B=0. The system of two equations containing two variables A and B can be solved
simultaneously to get A=-2 and B=3. Thus
x 2 3
 
x  5x  6 x  2 x  3
2

2.12.2. Denominator containing repeated linear factors.

x2
Consider the expression 3 . Factorizing the denominator we get
x  2x2  x
x3  2 x2  x  x  x2  2 x  1  x  x  1 . It is noted that the denominator has the non-
2

repeated linear factor x and twice repeated linear factor x-1. In this case, we write the
x2 A B C
   . Multiply each side by x  x  1 to
2
expression as 3
x  2 x  x x x  1  x  1
2 2

get the identity result x  2   A  B  x2   2 A  B  C  x  A . Equating the

coefficients with the like powers of x, we get A+B=0, -2A-B+C=1, A=2.Solving the
equations, we get A=2, B=-2 and C=3.

28
 x2 2 2 3
Thus    .
x  2 x  x x x  1  x  12
3 2

2.12.3. Denominator containing non-repeated irreducible quadratic factor

3x  5
Consider the rational expression 3 . The factors of the denominator
x 1
are x3  1   x  1  x 2  x  1 . It has a non-repeated linear factor x-1 and a non-
irreducible quadratic factor x 2  x  1 . The expression in this case, can be written as
3x  5 Bx  C
. Multiply each side by  x  1  x 2  x  1 to get
A
  2
x 1 x 1 x  x 1
3

3x  5  A  x 2  x  1   Bx  C  x  1 . Collecting like powers of x, we get A+B=0,

A-B+C=3 and A-C=-5.
Solving the systems of simultaneous equations, we have
2 2 13
A , B  , C  . Thus
3 3 3
3x  5 2 2 x  13
 
x  1 3  x  1 3  x 2  x  1
3

Activity 2.6
Write the following rational expressions into partial fractions.
x 3x 2  21x  24 4x2  x  1
1. 2. 3.
25  x 2  x  1 x  2  x  3 x  x 2  1
5 x 2  10 x  11 2x2  x  3 11x
4. 5. 6.
 x  3  x 2  4   x  1  x 2  2   2 x  3  2 x 2  1
20 x  84 5x  4 3  4x
7. 8. 9.
 x  5  x2  9   x  1 x  2 
2
2  3x  2 x 2
6 x 4 5x  2
10. 11. 12.
1  x   4  x 2   x  1  2 x 2  x  3  x  1  x 2  4 
3 2x 1 68  11x
13. 14. 15.
x  x  2
2
x3  1  3  x  16  x 2 

EGERTON UNIVERSITY
MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
PROBLEM SET 2
1.. Factorize the following polynomials completely.

29
i . p  x   4x2 1  ii  . p  x   x 2  7 x  10
 iii  . p  x   x 2  10 x  21  iv  . p  x   x 2  6 x  5
 v . p  x   x2  2x 1  vi  . p  x   3x 2  12 x  36
 vii  . p  x   3 y 3  18 y 2  48 y  viii  . p  x   3x 2  4 x  1
 ix  . p  x   16 x 2  16 x  5  x  . p  x   x 4  7 x  9
2

2. Solve the following expressions by factorization

i  . 2 x2  5x  3  0  ii  . 4 x 2  25  0
 iii  .
x 2  4 x  21  0  iv  . 7 x 2  5 x  0
3. Solve the following expressions by completing the squares.
i  . 2x2  6x 1  0  ii  . 5 x 2  12 x  6  0
 iii  . x 2  7 x  3  0  iv  . 10  3x  2 x 2  0
 v  . 5x2  6 x  2  0  vi  . 2x2  x  5  0
4. Solve by using the quadratic formula.
 i  . 4  13 y  y 2  0  ii  . 3 p 2  7 p  2
 iii  . 6 x 2  x  8  iv  . 3x 2  8 x  7  0
 v  . 3x 2  4 x  0  vi  . 10  3x  2 x 2  0
 vii  . 16 x 2  25  0
5. Solve the following quadratic inequalities.
4
i . x 2  3x  4  ii  . x 2  6 x  4  iii  . 4 x 2  7 x  15  iv  . x   4.
x

6. Simplify the following rational expressions.

5 x  10 x2  2x x2  4
i . 2  ii  .  iii  .
x 4 3x  6 x2  5x  6
 x  4  9
2
2 x3  x 2  10 x
 iv  . 3 v.
x  2 x2  8x  x  3  16
2

7.. Find the quotient q(x) and the remainder r(x) when f(x) is divided by g(x) in each
of the following polynomials.
 i  . f  x   4 x3  2 x 2  x  1, g  x   x2  x  1
 ii  . f  x   2 x 4  x 3  3x 2  2, g  x  x  3
 iii  . f  x   4 x 3  3x 2  2, g  x  x  3
 iv  . f  x   5 x 3  3x  3, g  x   2x2  1
v. f  x   4 x 4  5 x  6, g  x   4x  3

8. Find the remainder in each of the following polynomials.

i  . f  x   3x4  2x2  1, c2 ii . f  x   4 x5  3x3  2 x 1, c  1

30
9. The expression px 4  qx3  3x 2  2 x  3 has remainder x+1 when divided by
x3  3x  2. . Find the values of p and q.
10. The expression ax 2  bx  c is divisible by x-1, has remainder 2 when divided
by x+1, and has remainder 8 when divided by x-2. Find the values of a, b and c.
11. Write the following rational expressions into partial fractions.
x 3x 2  21x  24 4x2  x  1

i .  
ii .  
iii .
25  x 2  x  1 x  2  x  3 x  x 2  1
5 x 2  10 x  11 2x2  x  3 11x
 iv  . v.  vi  .
 x  3  x 2  4   x  1  x 2  2   2 x  3  2 x 2  1
20 x  84 5x  4 3  4x
 vii  .  viii  .  ix  .
 x  5  x 2  9   x  1 x  2 
2
2  3x  2 x 2
6 x 4 5x  2
 x.  xi  .  xii  .
1  x   4  x 2   x  1  2 x 2  x  3  x  1  x 2  4 
3 2x 1 68  11x
 xiii  .  xiv  .  xv  .
x  x  2
2
x3  1  3  x  16  x 2 
12.Solve the following simultaneous equations.
i . 2x  y  2  0
4x  y  5  0
 ii  . y  2x
y  x2  1
 iii  . x  3z  2
3x  y  z  5
2x  2 y  z  4
 iv  . x  2 y  3 z  1
2x  y  z  6
x  3 y  2 z  13

31
CHAPTER THREE

SEQUENCE AND SERIES

3.0 Introduction
In this topic, we shall use the laws of indices to solve exponential and logarithmic
functions. The permutation and combination principles will be applied to expand a
Binomial expression and determine its coefficient. Lastly, we shall describe the
Arithmetic and Geometric progression and determine the first term, nth term and the
sum of the first in terms of the series.
3.1 Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
Explain a base and an Index.
Define an exponential function.
State the properties of an exponential function.
Solve an exponential equation.
Define a logarithmic function.
State the properties of a logarithmic function.
Solve logarithmic equations.
Change one base to another base.
Define permutation and combinations.
Find the number of ways of selecting n distinct objects taking r at a time.
Define the Binomial theorem.
Expand a Binomial expression and determine the coefficients.
Obtain approximate values of a Binomial expression.
Define the Arithmetic and Geometric series or progressions.
Determine the first term, the nth term and the sum of the first n terms of the
progressions.
3.2 Indices
We can write 3 3 3 3 in a short form as 34. We call 4 the index (plural indices)
and 3 the base. In general b n  b  b  ... , where the factor b occurs n times.

3.3.1 Laws of Indices

3.3.1.1 Multiplication
We can write
3×3×3×3×3×3×3×3×3×3×3×3 =35×37 =312
This implies that a5  a7 = a5 + a 7 = a12
In general, am  an = amn
3.2.1.2 Division
Suppose we have the division
6 6 6 6 6 6 66
 6  6  6  63 or  66 - 3  63
6 6 6 6 3

This implies that

am ÷ an = am – n
If m = n, then am ÷ am = a m  n = a0 = 1
If m < n, then am ÷ an = a m  n
1
will have a negative index. For instance 33 ÷ 36 = 33 – 6 = 3-3 =
33
3.3.1.3 Rational Indices

32
 a
A rational number is a number which can be written in the form where a and b
b
are integers, b ≠ 0. The integers a and b should not have common factors other than
one. For instance, if a3 = b, then a is called the cube root of b written as a  3 b or a
1 1
= b 3 . In general, if an = b, a is called the nth root of b written as a  n b or a = b n .
 a
m
We also have  a n   a n 
1 m m
n
 
Activity 3.1
Simplify the following:
4
1  20y3  4y6
1. 5  5 3 2 2 4
2. (3x ) 3.  x 2  4.
2  8y5
ya 1 4
5. 6. 10-4  10-3 7. 10-5 ÷ 10-4 8. 2 3
 2 3
yb
3
9. y 5
 y

3.3 Exponential functions

If a is a positive real number (a > 0) and a ≠ 1, then the function defined by
f(x) = ax is called an exponential function with base a.
Example 3.1
Check if the following functions are exponential functions.
f(x) = 3
7
x
 
is an exponential function with base 3 .
7
f(x) = 1x is not an exponential function since base = 1.
f(x) = x3 is not an exponential function because it has a constant exponent.
g(x) = xx is not an exponential function because it has a variable base.
3.3.1 Properties of Exponential functions
For real exponents x and y and bases a > 0 and b > 0, then the following properties
hold.
For a ≠ 1, ax = ay if and only if x = y.
For x ≠ 0, ax = bx if and only if a = b.
Example 3.2
Solve the following exponential equations:
1
2 y1  25 (ii) 8x = (iii) (b – 1)3 = 43
16
(i) Solution
The expression can be written such that it has a common base. That is
2  3 x
 24 . Equating the exponents and finding the unknown, we get
y+1=5  y=4
1
8x =
16
(ii) Solution
We also look for a common base. That is
2 3 x
 24 This implies, 23x = 2-4
Equating the exponents, we have

33
 4
3x = -4  x =
3
(iii) Solution
Here we have the same exponent. Thus, we equate the bases to get,
b–1=4 b=5

Activity 3.2
Solve the following equations without a calculator:
1 2  2x
3. 4 x  2 x
2
22x + 1 = 4 2. 51 – 2x = 4. 8x  1
2
5
1 x
1
2x.8-x = 4x 6.    4 7. 32x + 3x – 2 = 0 8. 32x + 3x + 1 – 4 = 0
2
3 1
9. 3 x = 9 x 10. 9  x  11. 4x – 2x = 0 12. 162x + 1 = 324x
3
13. 5 x 1  1
2
14. (b + 3)2 = 25 15. 22x – 2x – 12 = 0
16. (2b – 1)3 = 1000

3.4 Logarithmic functions

Consider the exponential equation ax = m where a and m are positive real
numbers and a ≠ 1, then the solution x of this equation is called the logarithm to the
base a of m and is symbolized as log a m . Thus log a m is the exponent to which
the base must be raised to obtain m. To evaluate a logarithm, we use the equivalent
exponential equation. The logarithms of negative numbers are not defined.
Example 3.3
Evaluate the following logarithmic values.
log 2 8
Solution
Here m = 8 and a = 2.
The equivalent exponential equation is
2x = 8
then 2x = 23 thus x = 3. That is, log 2 8 = 3
log5 5
Solution
Again here m = 5 and a = 5
Thus 5x = 5 or 5x = 51
then x = 1
That is log5 5 = 1
log 7 1
Solution
In this case, m = 1 and a = 7. Therefore 7x = 1 or 7x = 70
then log 7 1 = 0.
Example 3.4
Change the following logarithmic expressions into an equivalent exponential
expressions.
a) loga 5 = 4
In this case, m = 5, x = 4 and base = a

34
Then a4 = 5
b) log3 5 = x
Solution
Here m = 5, base = 3 and x = x. Thus 3x = 5
a) logex = -3
Solution
Again m = x, base = e and x = -3 then e-3 = x
Example 3.5
Change the following exponential expressions to an equivalent logarithmic
expression.
a) 1.23 = m implies 3 = log1.2 m
b) ex = a implies x = loge a
c) a4 = 24 implies 4 = log a 24

3.4.1 Properties of Logarithms

The following properties of logarithms hold.
loga1 = 0 since a0 = 1
logaa = 1 since a1 = a
loga   = -1 since a-1 =
1 1
a a
r
logaa = r
Proof:
Let x = ar, then log x =r loga a = r (since loga a = 1)
Replacing x by ar , then we have logaar =r
Power rule logamr = r logam
Proof:
Let A = logaM, thus aA = M and (aA)r = Mr = aAr
Then logaMr = loga (aAr) = Arlogaa = Ar = rlogaM
Example 3.6
Simplify logax3
Solution
Here r = 3, M = x and base = a.  logax3 = 3 logax
Product rule
logaMN = logaM + logaN
Proof:
Let A = logaM and B = lopgaN
These are equivalent to the exponential functions a A = M and aB = N
then, MN = aA.aB = aA + B
Thus LogaMN = logaaA + B
= (A + B)logaa
=A+B
= logaM + logaN
Example 3.7
Write loga(x x 2  1 ) as a sum of two logarithms.
Solution
Let M = x and N = x 2  1 = (x2 + 1)1/2
Then

35
logaMN = logaM + logaN
= logax + loga(x2 + 1)1/2
= logax + ½ loga(x2 + 1)
Quotient rule
Loga   = log a a A B – logaN
M
N 
Proof:
Using the above expression:
M aA
 B  a A B Then
N a .
loga   = log a a A B = (A – B)logaa
M
= A – B = logaM – logaN
N 

Example 3.8
 x2 
Write loga  3
as a difference of two logarithms.
  x  1 
Solution:
Let M = x2 and N = (x – 1)3
Then
Loga   = logaM – logaN
M
N 
= logax2 – loga(x – 1)3
= 2logax – 3loga(x – 1)
Example 3.9
 x3 x 2  1 
Write loga  4 
as a sum and difference of logarithms.
  x  1 
Solution:
 x3 x 2  1 
Loga  4 
= 3logax + ½ loga(x2+1) – 4loga(x + 1)
  x  1 
Example 3.10
Write the following as single logarithm.
2
Loga7 + 4loga3 b) loga8 – loga(34 – 8)
3
Solution
loga7 + 4loga3 =loga7 + loga34 =loga7 + loga81
= loga(7  81) = loga567
2
loga 8 – loga(34 – 8) = loga82/3 – loga (81 – 8)
3
= loga 4 – loga73
= loga  
4
 73 
3.4.2 Additional Properties of Logarithms
Let M, N and a be positive real numbers and a ≠ 1, then
If M = N, then logaM = logaN

36
If logaM = logaN, then M = N
Example 3.11
Solve the following logarithmic equations:
2log5x = log5 9 b) log3(4x – 7) = 2
Solution
log5 x2 = log59, then since they have the same base we equate x2 = 9 and x = 3 or x = -
3 but -3 is not defined, thus x = 3.
log3(4x – 7) = 2. the equivalent exponential form is 32 = 4x – 7, thus
16 = 4x and 4 = x
3.4.3 Common Logarithms
The most commonly used logarithms are the logarithms to the base 10, denoted by
log10x or just log and the natural logarithms – logarithms to base e denoted by ln.
Example 3.12
Given that log102 = 0.3010 and log103 = 0.4771, compute the following without using
a calculator:
log104 (b) log106 c) log1015
Solution
log104 = log1022 = 2 log102
= 2  0.3010
= 0.6020
log106 = log10(2 x 3) = log102 + log103
= 0.3010 + 0.4771
= 0.7781
 30 
log1015 = log10 (   = log1030 – log102
 2 
= log103 + log1010 – log102
= 0.4771 + 1 – 0.3010
= 1.1761
3.4.4 Change of Bases
Let a ≠ 1, b≠ 1 and logax = y, then we can change the logarithms to base a to
logarithms to base b as follows: The exponential expression of the above logarithm is
x = ay then taking logarithms to base b on both sides. weg et,
log b x log b x
logbx = ylogba then y = or logax =
log b a log b a
Example 3.13
Solve for x in the equation 2x = 5.
Solution
Take logarithms of both sides.
ln2x = ln5, then xln2 = ln5
ln 5
x= = 2.31219
ln 2

Activity 3.3
Given log2 = 0.3010 and log3 = 0.4771, evaluate the following to base 10 without
using a calculator.
log60 (ii) log 1.5 (iii) log12 (iv) log 7.5
Given log5 = 0.6990 and ldog7 = 0.8451, find the following using logarithms.
log35 (ii) log 1.4 (iii) log 175 (iv) log 1225
Find y if log2 y – 2 = log292

37
Solve the equation
Logx4 – log4x = 3 2
Solve for x if log10(x2 – 6) = 1 + log10(x – 3)
Express in its simplest form
log 2 64  log 2 16
Solve the equation
log5 x = 16logx5
Solve for x in the following equation
Log10(1 – 2x) – 2log10x = 1 – log10(2 – 5x)
Solve for y in the following
Log103y = log1042
Log10y + log106 = log1042
If log (4x – 9) = 3log3, find x.

3.5 Permutation and combination

3.5.1 The Factorial Symbol
If n ≥ 0 is an integer, then the factorial symbol denoted by n! is defined as
O! = 1, 1! = 1 and
n! = n(n-1) (n-2) … 3 x 2 x 1 if n ≥ 2.
Note: n! is read as “n factorial”.
Example 3.14
Find the factorials of the following
2! = 2  1 = 2
3! = 3  2  1 = 6
4! = 4  3  2  1 = 24 and so on.
3.5.2 Permutation
A permutation is an ordered arrangement of n distinct objects.
Example 3.15
A mail carrier has 6 letters in his hand and has 6 mailboxes in front of him. In
how many ways can he distribute the six letters, so that just one letter goes into each
box?
Solution
He can put any one of the six letters in the first box and any one of the remaining
five letters in the second box. By multiplication principle, he has 6 x 5 ways of
placing letters in the first two boxes. By a repetition of the argument, it follows that
he can distribute the six letters in 6  5  4  3  2  1 = 720 ways.
Example 3.16
In how many ways can 4 different letters A, B, C, D be arranged?
Solution
The possible arrangements are:
ABCD BACD CABD DAB C
ABDC BADC CADB DACB
ACBD BCAD CBAD DBAC
ACDB BCDA CBDA DBCA
ADBC BDAC CDAB DCAB
ADCB BDCA CDBA DCBA
There are 4  3  2  1 = 24 possible ways
The four letters can be also arranged by taking 2 letters at a time. These are:

38
AB AC AD BC BD CD
BA CA DA CB DB DC
There are 12 such arrangements.
In general, the total number of arrangements of n different objects is
n! = n(n – 1) (n – 2) … 3  2  1
Theorem 3.1
The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time such that the
order is taken into consideration and without repetition is given by the formula.
n!
n
Pr 
(n  r)!
If n = r,
n! n!
n
Pr    n!
(n  r)! 0!
Example 3.17
Given the word NUMBERS, how many different arrangements can be made by
taking (i).Five letters of this word (ii) all of the letters of this word
Solution
There are seven letters of the word.
We require the number of permutations of 7 letters taken 5 at a time. This is
7! 7!
7
P5   = 7  6  5  4  3 = 2520
(7  5)! 2!
In this case, we require the number of permutations of 7 letters taken 7 at a time.That
7! 7!
is
7
P7    5040
(7-7)! 0!
3.5.2.1 Permutation of objects which are not all different
If out of n objects, x1 are of type one, x2 are of type two… etc, then the number of
n!
permutations of n objects taken all together is
x1! x 2 ! x3 !...
Example 3.18
How many possible ways can the letters of the word STATISTICS can be formed
taken all together?
Solution
S appears 3 times (x1), T appears 3 times (x2), A appears once (x3)
I appears twice (x4), C appears once x5)
10!
 No. of ways =
3! 3!1! 2!1!
= 25,200
3.5.3 Combinations
When a selection of objects is made with no regard being paid to order, then it
is referred to as combinations. Thus the arrangements ABC, ACB, BAC are different
permutations but they are the same combination of letters.
Example 3.19
How many different committees of 3 men can be selected from a group of 5 men?
Solution
Suppose we label the group members as A, B, C, D, E. The possible committees are
ABC ACD ADE BCD BDE CDE
ABD ACE BCE

39
ABE
There are 10 different committees. The important point here is that, we are only
concerned with who forms the committee and not with the order in which they are
chosen.
Theorem 3.2
The number of different combinations of n distinct object without repetition and
order is immaterial is given by the formula
n!
n
Cr 
(n  r)!r!
n
This is also represented by   .
r
Example 3.20
How many ways of selecting
(i) 6 books (ii) 4 books from 10 books on a shelf?
Solution
The order of selection of the books is immaterial. The number of ways is given by
n!
n
Cr 
(n  r)!r!
10! 10!
10
C6    210
(10  6)!6! 4!6!
10! 10!
10
C4    210
(10  4)!4! 6!4!
Example 3.21
A hockey team containing 5 men and 6 women is to be chosen from 7 men and 9
women. In how many ways can this be done?
Solution
Five men can be selected from 7 men in 7 C5 ways and 6 women can be selected
from 9 women in 9 C6 ways. For each of the 7 C5 ways of selecting the men, there are
9
C6 ways of selecting the women, thus there are 7 C5  9 C6 ways of selecting the
team. That is
7! 9!
7
C5  9 C6 = 
(7  5)!5! (9  6)!6!
7! 9!
= 
2!5! 3! 6!
= 21  84
= 1764 ways
Activity 3.4
Evaluate the following:
13! 13! 14! 2  14! 14!
 (ii)  
95! 104! 86! 95! 104!
Find the number of ways in which letters of the following words can be arranged:
MATRICES (b) COURSE (c) LINEAR
UJAMAA (e) ISOSCELES (f) TANZANIA
n n
(i) If r! = 6 and P r = 210, find Cr .

40
If n C r = 56, and n Pr = 6720, find r.
A committee of 4 is to be selected from 5 members of party A and 5 of party B.
How many possible committees are there?
In how many of these will party A have the majority?
A car registration number is KJA 898. How many different registrations are possible
using these letters and digits if the first letter must be K?
There are four roads going from town A to town B. In how many ways can a person
go by one road and return by a different road?
In how many ways can 3 letters be selected from the word POLICE?

3.6 Binomial Coefficients and Theorem

Any expressions containing two terms is called a Binomial. By actual
multiplications, we have:
(a + b)0 = 1
(a + b)r = a + b
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)2 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4
and so on.

The coefficients can be written as

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
This is called the Pascal’s Triangle, and is used to expand a Binomial expression.
Example 3.22
Expand (2x + 3y)3 in descending powers of x.
Solution
Here a = 2x and b = 3y, thus
(2x + 3y)3 = (2x)3 + 3(2x)2 (3y) + (2x) (3y)2 + (3y)3
= 8x3 + 36x2y + 54xy2 + 27y3
3.6.1 Binomial Theorem and Coefficients
Let x and a be real numbers, then for any positive integer n, we have
n n n n
(x + a)n =   x n    x n 1 a  ...   x n  j a j  ...    a n
0 1  j n
n n!
Where   
 j  (n  j)! j!
n
This is called the Binomial theorem. The symbol   are the numerical coefficients
 j
n
that appear in the expansion of (a + a) and are called the Binomial coefficients.
If only one term of an expansion is needed, then the exponent on ‘x’ is always one
n
less than the number of the term. That is, (r + 1) th term =   xn – r ar
r

41
Example 3.23
Use the Binomial theorem to expand (x + 2) 5, and determine the 4th term.
Here a = x and n = 5, then
5 5 5 5 5 5
(x + 2)5 =   x5 +   x4(2) +   x3(22) +   x2 (23) +   x (24) +   25
0 1  2  3  4 5
= x5 + 10x4 + 40x3 + 80x2 + 80x + 32
To determine the 4th term, we let r + 1 = 4, then r = 3.
Thus:
5 5! 2 3
4th term =   x5 – 3 a3 = x , 2 = 80x2
 
3 2!3!
Example 3.24
Find the sixth term in the expansion of S n
Solution
Here a = 2, n = 9 and r + 1 = 6,  r = 5.
Then
n 9
(r + 1)th term =   nn – r ar 6th term =   x9 – 5 25 = 4032x4
r 5
Activity 3.5
5
 x
Obtain the first four terms in the expansion of 1   . Hence use these terms to find
 2
the value of (0.99)5
Use Pascal’s triangle to expand (1 + x)6 upto and including the term in x4. Hence
evaluate (1.15)6 to four decimal places.
4
 1
Use Pascal’s triangle to expand 1   upto and including the term in x4. Use the
 x
expansion to calculate the value of (1.25) 4.
9
 x
Find the Binomial expansion of 1   upto the term in x3. Hence estimate (0.98)9
 2
to 3 decimal places.
Write down the expansion of (1 – 2x)8 in ascending powers of x upto the term x3. Use
the expansion to evaluate (0.98)8 to 4 decimal places.
Using Binomial expansion, expand (2 – x)10 upto the term including x3. Hence find
(0.99) correct to 3 decimal places.
8
 x
Expand  1   upto the term in x3. Hence find the value of (0.95)8
 2
Find the 5th term of questions 4 to 7.

3.7 Arithmetic and Geometric progressions

A sequence is a set of terms in a well defined order with a rule for obtaining each
term, and a series is formed when the terms of the sequence are added.
If a1, a2, a3, …, an is a sequence of n terms, then the series is a1 + a2 + … + an
3.7.1 Arithmetic progressions (A.P.)
This is a sequence in which consecutive terms differ by a constant amount. This
constant amount is called the common difference and is denoted by d. The common

42
difference of the terms of an A.P. is found by subtracting any term of the sequence
from the term following it.
If a1, a2, a3, …, an is an arithmetic sequence with common difference d, then
d = a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = … an – an – 1.

Example 3.25
Determine whether the following sequences are arithmetic or not and give the
common difference.
7, 11, 15, 19, 23, …
The common difference is d = 11 – 7 = 15 – 11 = 9 – 15 = 23 – 19 = 4
Thus an Arithmetic sequence.
19, 12, 5, -2, -9, …
The common difference is d = 12 – 19 = 5 – 12 = -2 = -9 – (-5) = -7
Thus an Arithmetic sequence.
8, 13, 20, 25, 30, …
Here d = 13 – 8 = 5 ≠ 20 – 13 = 7
Thus the sequence is not Arithmetic
3.7.1.1 Finding the nth term of an A.P.
If a is the first term and d, the common difference of a sequence of numbers in an
A.P., then we have,
a1 = a + od = a
a2 = a1 + d = a + d
a3 = a2 + d = a + 2d
a4 = a3 + d = a + 3d
an = an – 1 + d = (a + (n – 2)d + d = a + (n – 1)d
Thus, if an – an – 1 = d for n > 1, then the sequence is arithmetic and the nth term is
given by an = a + (n – 1)d.
Example 3.26
Find the 13th term of the sequence: 2, 6, 10, 11, 14, 18, …
Solution
The first term of the sequence is a = 2 and the common difference d = 6 – 2 = 4.
The nth term is
an = a + (n – 1)d
 a13 = 2 + 12 x 4 = 50
Example 3.27
Find the common difference of an A.P. sequence if a = 12 and a 7 9 = 207.
Solution
The nth term is given by an = a + (n – 1)d
 a 7 9 = 12 + (79 – 1)d = 207
195
78d = 195 and d = 2.5
78
Example 3.28
How many terms are in the A.P. sequence; -8, 9, 26, …, 1437?
Solution
The common difference d = 0 – (-8) = 17 and the nth term of the sequence is
an = a + (n – 1)d
Thus
1437 = -8 + (n – 1)  17  17(n – 1) = 1445

43
 1445
n–1= = 85  n = 86 terms
17

Example 3.29
The 8th term of an A.P. is 75 and the 20th term is 39. Find the first term and the
common difference.
Solution
We are given that
a8 = a + 7d = 75 and a20 = a + 19d = 39
Solving the two equations simultaneously, we get -72d = 36,  d = -3. Substituting
in the first equation, we have
a + (7x – 3) = 75  a = 96.
3.7.1.2: Sum of the first n terms of an A.P.
Let a be the first term and d, the common difference of an A.P., then the sum of the
first n terms denoted by Sn is given by
S n =a+(a+d)+(a+2d)+…+(a+(n-1)d) and by rewriting the series in a reverse
order, we have
Sn = a + (n – 1)d + … + (a + 2d) + (a + d) + a
Adding the two series, we get
2S n = 2a + (n – 1)d + … 2a + (n – 1)d
There are n terms in the right hand side, thus
n
2S n = n(2a + (n – 1)d) and hence S n = (2a + (n – 1)d)
2
Example 3.30
Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the sequence;
8, 11, 14, …
Solution
The sequence is an A.P. with a = 8 and d = 11 – 8 = 3.
Then
n 20
Sn = (2a + (n – 1)d) S20 = (2  8 + 19  3) = 10(16 + 57) = 730
2 2

Activity 3.6
Find the sum of the following A.P: x + 3x + 5x + … + 21x
The first term of an A.P. is -12 and the last term is 40. If the sum of the progression
is 196, find the number of terms and the common difference.
Three consecutive terms of an A.P. have sum 21 and product 315. Find the numbers.
The second term of an A.P. is 15 and the fifth is 21. Find the common difference, the
first term and the sum of the first ten terms.
The twenty-first term of an A.P. is 37 and the sum of the first 20 terms is 320. What
is the sum of the first ten terms?
The sum of a number of consecutive terms of an A.P. is -19.5, the first term is 16.5
and the common difference is -3. Find the number of terms.
The sum of the first eight terms of an A.P. is 236 and the sum of the first six terms of
the series is 147. Find the sum of the first 12 terms of the series.
The sum of the first 12 terms of an A.P. is 450. The sum of the first seven terms of
the same A.P. is 175. Determine the first term and the common difference.

44
The 7th and the 8th terms of an A.P. are 42 and 45 respectively. Find the third and the
5th terms of the A.P.
An A.P. of 41 terms is such that the sum of the first five terms is 560 and the sum of
the last five terms is -250. Find
The first term
The common difference
The last term
The sum of the progression

3.7.2. Geometric Progression (G.P.)

When the ratio of successive terms of a sequence is always the same non-zero
number, then the sequence is called a Geometric progression. The constant term is
called the common ratio denoted by r.
The common ratio is obtained by dividing any term by that which immediately
precedes it.
3.7.2.1 Finding the nth term of a G.P.
a
Suppose a is the first term of a G.P. with common ratio r ≠ 0 given by r = n ,
a n 1
then the general term is given by
an = an-1r, for n > 1
That is,
a1 = a
a2 = ra1 = r1a
a3 = ra2 = r2a
a4 = ra3 = r3a .
.
Thus, for a G.P. whose first term is a and common ratio r (r ≠ 0) then the n th term is
given by the formula,
an = arn – 1
Example 3.31
Find the 6th term of the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, …
Solution
Here a = 2, and r = 3
 a6 = arn – 1 = 2  35 = 486
Example 3.32
1 1 1
How many terms are in the G.P.: , , , …, 4096?
16 8 4
Solution
1 1
The common ratio r = ÷ =2
8 16
1
The nth term of the series is an = arn – 1  4096  2n1 , thus
16
2n – 1 = 4096  16 = 65,536 So (n – 1)ln2 = ln65,536 and
ln 65,536
n–1= = 16  n = 17
ln 2
Example 3.33
Find the G.P. whose 5th term is 81 and the 8th term is 2187.

45
Solution
Let a be the first term and r the common ratio. The nth term of the sequence is
an = arn – 1 then a5 = ar4 = 81 and a8 = ar7 = 2187.
Dividing the two equations, we have
2187
r3 = = 27. Thus r = 3
81
To determine a, use substitute for r in the equation
81 81
ar4 = 81  a = 4  = 1.
3 81
Thus the sequence is 1, 3, 9, 27, …
3.7.2.2: Sum of the first n terms of a G.P.
Let a be the first term, r the common ratio, n the number of terms and S n the sum of
the first n terms, then
Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + … + arn – 1 and
rsn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + … + arn – 1 + arn
By subtracting the two, we get
Sn – rSn = a - arn  Sn (1 – r) = a(1 – rn)
a(1  r n )
Sn = , when r < 1
1 r
or
a(r n  1)
Sn = , when r > 1
r 1
If r = 1, then the formula cannot be used, however, the sequence of terms in the series
is a constant sequence whose sum is na.

Example 3.34
1
Find S8 if the Geometric series has a = 1 and r = .
3
Solution

Since r < 1, then Sn 


a 1 rn 
1 r
8
1
1(1    )
S8 = 3 = 1.5
2
3
Activity 3.7
Three consecutive terms of a G.P. are c, c – 4 and c – 6 in that order. Determine the
value of c and the value of the common ratio of the progression.
Find the number of terms in the following G.P.s:
2, 4, 8, … 512 (ii) 5, 10, 20, … 5  22x + 1
The third term of a G.P. is 2 and fifth term is 8. Find two possible values of common
ratio and the second term in each case.
The third term of a G.P. is 10 and sixth term is 80. Find the common ratio, the first
term and the sum of the first six terms.
The first term of a G.P. is 16 and 5th term is 9. What is the value of the 7th term?
In a G.P., the sum of the 2nd and 3rd terms is 10 and the sum of the third and fourth
terms is 20. Find the common ratio and the first term.

46
 459
If 13.5 and are the fourth and seventh terms of a G.P, find the common ratio and
16
the first term.
Given that 2n, 3n and 4n + 2 are consecutive terms of a G.P, find the common ratio
and the value of n.
The third and fourth terms of a G.P. are 12 and 6 respectively, write down the first
five terms of the series.
The fifth term of a G.P. is ½ and the seventh term is 1/32. Find the common ratio, the
first term and the sum of the first six terms.

EGERTON UNIVERSITY
MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
PROBLEM SET 3
1.Simplify the following:
4
1  20y3  4y6
(i). 53  52 (ii). (3x2)4 (iii).  x 2  (iv).
2  8y5
ya 1 4
(v). b
(vi). 10-4  10-3 (vii)
. 10-5 ÷ 10-4 (viii) 2 3
 2 3
y
2.Solve the following equations without a calculator:
1 2  2x
(iii). 4 x  2 x
2
(i). 22x + 1 = 4 (ii) 51 – 2x = (iv). 8x  1
2
5
1 x
1
(v). 2x.8-x = 4x (vi).    4 (vii). 32x + 3x – 2 = 0
2
3 1
(viii). 32x + 3x + 1 – 4 = 0 (ix). 3 x = 9 x (x). 9  x  (xi). 4x – 2x = 0
3
2x + 1 4x
(xii). 16 = 32

3. Given log2 = 0.3010 and log3 = 0.4771, evaluate the following to base 10 without
using a calculator.
log60 (ii) log 1.5 (iii) log12 (iv) log 7.5
4.Given log5 = 0.6990 and ldog7 = 0.8451, find the following using logarithms.
log35 (ii) log 1.4 (iii) log 175 (iv) log 1225
5. Find y if log2 y – 2 = log292
6. Solve the equation
Logx4 – log4x = 3 2
7. Solve for x if log10(x2 – 6) = 1 + log10(x – 3)
8. .Express in its simplest form
log 2 64  log 2 16
9. Solve the equation
log5 x = 16logx5
10. Solve for x in the following equation
Log10(1 – 2x) – 2log10x = 1 – log10(2 – 5x)
Solve for y in the following
Log103y = log1042
Log10y + log106 = log1042
If log (4x – 9) = 3log3, find x.
13.Evaluate the following:

47
 13! 13! 14! 2  14! 14!
 (ii)  
(i) . 95! 104! 86! 95! 104!
14. Find the number of ways in which letters of the following words can be arranged:
MATRICES (b) COURSE (c) LINEAR
UJAMAA (e) ISOSCELES (f) TANZANIA
n n
15.(i) If r! = 6 and P r = 210, find Cr .
If n C r = 56, and n Pr = 6720, find r.
16. A committee of 4 is to be selected from 5 members of party A and 5 of party B.
How many possible committees are there?
In how many of these will party A have the majority?
17. A car registration number is KJA 898. How many different registrations are
possible using these letters and digits if the first letter must be K?
18. There are four roads going from town A to town B. In how many ways can a
person go by one road and return by a different road?
19. In how many ways can 3 letters be selected from the word POLICE?
5
 x
20. Obtain the first four terms in the expansion of 1   . Hence use these terms to
 2
5
find the value of (0.99)
21.Use Pascal’s triangle to expand (1 + x)6 upto and including the term in x4. Hence
evaluate (1.15)6 to four decimal places.
4
 1
22. Use Pascal’s triangle to expand 1   upto and including the term in x4. Use
 x
the expansion to calculate the value of (1.25) 4.
9
 x
23. Find the Binomial expansion of 1   upto the term in x3. Hence estimate
 2
9
(0.98) to 3 decimal places.
24. Write down the expansion of (1 – 2x)8 in ascending powers of x upto the term x3.
Use the expansion to evaluate (0.98)8 to 4 decimal places.
25. Using Binomial expansion, expand (2 – x)10 upto the term including x3. Hence
find (0.99) correct to 3 decimal places.
8
 x
26. Expand  1   upto the term in x3. Hence find the value of (0.95)8
 2
27. Find the 5th term of questions 4 to 7.
28. Find the sum of the following A.P: x + 3x + 5x + … + 21x
29. The first term of an A.P. is -12 and the last term is 40. If the sum of the
progression is 196, find the number of terms and the common difference.
30. Three consecutive terms of an A.P. have sum 21 and product 315. Find the
numbers.
31. The second term of an A.P. is 15 and the fifth is 21. Find the common difference,
the first term and the sum of the first ten terms.
32. The twenty-first term of an A.P. is 37 and the sum of the first 20 terms is 320.
What is the sum of the first ten terms?
33. The sum of a number of consecutive terms of an A.P. is -19.5, the first term is
16.5 and the common difference is -3. Find the number of terms.
34. The sum of the first eight terms of an A.P. is 236 and the sum of the first six terms
of the series is 147. Find the sum of the first 12 terms of the series.

48
35. The sum of the first 12 terms of an A.P. is 450. The sum of the first seven terms
of the same A.P. is 175. Determine the first term and the common difference.
36. The 7th and the 8th terms of an A.P. are 42 and 45 respectively. Find the third and
the 5th terms of the A.P.
37. An A.P. of 41 terms is such that the sum of the first five terms is 560 and the sum
of the last five terms is -250. Find
(i).The first term
(ii).The common difference
(iii).The last term
(iv).The sum of the progression
38. Three consecutive terms of a G.P. are c, c – 4 and c – 6 in that order. Determine
the value of c and the value of the common ratio of the progression.
39. Find the number of terms in the following G.P.s:
2, 4, 8, … 512 (ii) 5, 10, 20, … 5  22x + 1
40.The third term of a G.P. is 2 and fifth term is 8. Find two possible values of
common ratio and the second term in each case.
41.The third term of a G.P. is 10 and sixth term is 80. Find the common ratio, the
first term and the sum of the first six terms.
42. The first term of a G.P. is 16 and 5th term is 9. What is the value of the 7th term?
43. In a G.P., the sum of the 2nd and 3rd terms is 10 and the sum of the third and fourth
terms is 20. Find the common ratio and the first term.
459
44. If 13.5 and are the fourth and seventh terms of a G.P, find the common ratio
16
and the first term.
45. Given that 2n, 3n and 4n + 2 are consecutive terms of a G.P, find the common
ratio and the value of n.
46. The third and fourth terms of a G.P. are 12 and 6 respectively, write down the first
five terms of the series.
47. The fifth term of a G.P. is ½ and the seventh term is 1/32. Find the common
ratio, the first term and the sum of the first six terms.

49
 CHAPTER FOUR
DIFFERENTIATION
Introduction
In this topic, we shall see how derivatives can be interpreted as slopes (or
gradient) of curves. We shall develop formal rules for calculating the derivatives of
functions or polynomials of higher order.
The use of the formal rules to derivatives is called differentiation. When we find
the derivative of a function, we say that we have differentiated the function.
4.1 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to:
Describe the derivative of a function.
Differentiate functions from first principles.
Apply the rules of differentiation to various functions.
Determine the turning points of functions and sketch their curves.
The gradient function of a curve
The gradient of a straight line is the ratio of change of y with respect to x and is
equal to the ratio of the increase in values of y to the corresponding increase in that
values of x. That is:-
Change in y  y
Gradient  
Change in x x
For the general equation of a straight line y  mx  c , m is the numerical value
of the gradient. Thus the gradient of a straight line is a constant.
The gradient of a curve or function varies for different pairs of points. Thus the
gradient of a curve at a particular point is the gradient of the tangent to the curve at
that point.
Suppose we want to find the gradient of the curve y = x2 at the general point
(x,y). The general point on the curve will have coordinates of the form (x, x2). If we
take a small change in x, say h, the new point on the curve will have coordinates
((x+h),(x+h)2). This is depicted in the following diagram.

50
 Q((x+h),(x+h)2)

y=x2

P(x,x2)

y (x  h)2  x 2
 Gradient of PQ =   2x  h
x (x  h) - x
By moving Q as close to P as possible, h can be made sufficiently small and can
be ignored. Therefore 2x + h becomes 2x.
The gradient of the curve y = x2 at the point (x, x2) is 2x and 2x is called the
gradient function. The gradient function is also called the derivative and the process
of obtaining it is called differentiation.
The Delta Notation
So far we have used h to represent a small increase in x. The Greek letter 
(delta) is commonly used to represent a small change. The symbol x, read as “delta
x” is used to denote a small change in x and y, the corresponding change in y.
Let P(x, y) and Q be two points on the curve y = f(x), then the coordinates of Q
are (x + x, y + y). This is shown in the figure below.

Q(x + x, y + y)

P(x,y)

51
 y
Gradient of PQ =
x
As Q approaches P along the curve, x tends to zero. When x becomes zero, PQ
coincides with the tangent PT. Hence the gradient of the curve at P is the limiting
y
value of .
x
dy
This value is denoted by and is given by
dx
dy f(x   x) - f(x)
 Lim
dx dx  0 x
This is the derivative of y with respect to x and also denoted by f '(x). This
method is called differentiation from first principles.
Example 4.1
dy
Find for y = x3 + 2x.
dx
Solution
Y + y = (x + y)3 + 2 (x + x)
= x3 + 3x2x + 3x(x) 2 + (x)3
+ 2x + 2x
(y + y) – y = 3x2x + 3x (x)2 + (x)3 + 2x.

(y   y)
= 3x2 + 3xx + 3x(x)2 + (x)3 + 2x
x
dy (y   y)
 = Lim = 3x2 + 2
dx x  0 x

Example 4.2

dy 1
Find , in y = .
dx x

Solution

1
y + y =
x   x

dy (y   y)-y  1 1  x 1 1
  Lim  Lim      x  Lim   2
x x  0 x  x x  0 x  x   x  x
dx  x  0  x x

Rules of differentiation

Rule 1: Derivative of a constant

Suppose y = f(x) = c where c is a constant. Let x be an increment in x and y, the

corresponding increment of y. This is depicted in the following diagram.

52
 (x,c) (x+x,c)
y=c

x
x x+x

y+y=c
(y +  y) – y = c – c = 0
(y   y) - y 0
 0
x x

Rule 2: Derivative of Positive Integer Powers of X

Suppose y = xn, where n is a positive integer, then y +  y = (x +  x)n.
Applying the Binomial theorem,
n n
 x   x   x n    x n-1  x     x n-2  x   ...  x 
n 2 n

 1  2
n n
  y   y  - y    x n-1  x     x n-2  x   ...  x 
2 n

1  2
Dividing all through by  x 
y   y - y n n
   x n-1    x n-2  x   ...  x 
n-1

 x 1  2
dy
 lim
 y   y    n  x n-1 But  n   n!
 n
   
dx  x 0  x 1  1  1! (n - 1)!
dy
  nx n-1
dx
This rule applies when n is negative or a ratio number.
Examples 4.3
dy
Find in the following:
dx
dy
y = x, =1
dx
dy
y = x2, = 2x
dx
dy
y = x3, = 3x2
dx
dy
y = x4, = 4x3
dx
dy
y = x5, = 5x4
dx

53
 dy
y = x-2, = -2x-3
dx
dy
y = x1/2 , = ½ x-1/2
dx

Rule 3: Derivative of a constant multiples

Let y = cf(x) = cxn, where c is a constant, then using a similar approach of rule 2,
we get,
dy
= cnxn-1
dx
Example 4.4
dy
Find in y =7x3
dx
Solution:
dy
= 7(3) x2 = 21x2
dx

Rule 4: Derivative of a sum or difference

Suppose y = u v, where u = f(x) and v = g(x) are functions of x, then
y + y = (u + x)  (v + x)  (v + x)
y + y – y = [(u + x)  (v + x)] – (u + )
= [(u + x) - u]  [(v + x) -]

dy   y   y - y 
 lim  
dx x  0
 x 

u   x  - u  v   x  
 lim   
x  0
  x   x 
dy du dv
  
dx dx dx

Example 4.5
dy
Find of the following:
dx
y = x4 + 4
y = 4x3 – 3x + 2

Solution:
du
Let u = x4, then  4x 3
dx
dv
 0
V = 5, then
dx
dy du dv
    4x 3
dx dx dx

54
 du
Let u = 4x3, then = 12x2
dx
dv
V = 3x – 2, then =3
dx
dy du dv
  -  12x 2 - 3
dx dx dx

Note: Since rule is true for the sum or difference of two terms, we conclude that it is
true for the sum or difference of any finite number of terms.

Rule 5: Derivative of a product

Let Y = uv where u = f(x) and v = g(x) are functions of x.. Let x be an increment
in x and the corresponding increments of y, u,  be denoted by .y, u, v. These
latter increments may be either positive, negative or zero, but x  0. Then
y + y = (u + u)(v + v)
= uv + uv + vu + uv
The terms on the right hand side of the equation can be interpreted by the following
diagram.
Note: The area of the shaded rectangle is uv. When u and v change by increment u
and v, their product changes by the amount
uv + vu + uv.

 y   y  - y  u  v  v  u  δuδv   u v
x x x δx x
Thus
dy   y   y - y 
 lim  
dx  x0
 x 

dv du
 u  v
dx dx

Example 4.6
Find the derivative of y = (x2 + 1) (x3 + 3).
Solution
du
Let u = x2 + 1. = 2x
dx

dv
V = x3 + 3, = 3x2
dx

  x 2  1 3x 2   x 2  3 2x
dy

dx

 3x 4  3x 2  2x 4  6x

 5x 4  3x 2  6x

55
Note: This particular example can be done as well by multiplying out the original
expression for y and differentiating the result. That is
Y = (x2 + 1)(x3 + 3) = x5 + x3 + 3x2 + 3
dy
= 5x4 + 3x2 + 6x
dx

There are, however times when the product rule must be used.

Rule 6: Derivative of a quotient

u
Let y  where u = f(x) and v = g(x) are functions of x, then by cross
v
product multiplication we get
u = yv.
Applying the product rule, we get
du dy dv u
v  y and by substituting y = , then
dx dx dx v
du dy u dv
v  . Multiplying through by v, then
dx dx v dx
dy dv
v2 -u
du dx dx
v  2
dx v
Example 4.7
Find the derivative of
x2  1
y 2
x -1
Solution:
dy
Let u = x2 + 1, = 2x
dx
dv
v= x3 – 1, = 2x
dx
dy  x -1 2x -  x  1 2x
2 2

 
 x 2 -1
2
dx
- 4x
=
x - 1
2 2

Rule 7: Derivative of a function:

Consider a function like y = (x + 2)2. Therefore y is a function of (x + 2) and
(x + 2) is a function of x. Suppose we let t = x + 2, then t is a function of x and
dt
= 2t.The required derivative is now given by
dx
dy dy dt
 .
dx dt dx
This is referred to as the chain rule.
Example 4.8
Let t = x2 – 3x + 1,

56
 dt
= 2x – 3
dx
dy
and y = t5, = 5t4,
dt
dy
= 5(x2 – 3x + 1)4 (2x – 3)
dx

Activity 4.1
dy
Find in each of the following:
dx
y = 7x3
y = 6x1/3
y = 4x3 + 3x + 1
1
y= x
3x
Find the derivative of the following:
y = (x3 + 1) (x2 – 3)
y = x(x3 – 2x + 1)
x2  3
y=
x4
y=x x
y = x2  4x  3
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.
y = 12x7
y = 7x1/14
1
y= x
x
y = (x – 2) (x + 100)
x3  4
y=
2x  3
y= x
y = (2X + 3)100
y = (x – 2)4 (x + 1)7
2
y = x-2 + 2
x
x + y2 = 2

Application of derivatives
Curve Sketching:
The derivative of a function y = f(x) defines the slope of a function at x and
allows us to estimate how much y changes when we change x by a small amount.
If a function has a derivative over an interval, then it is continuous over the
interval and its graph over the interval is unbroken. The graphs of all polynomials
remain continuous over the domain of the function.

57
 We can sketch the graph of a differentiable function easily if we know where its
derivative is positive, negative or zero. That is, f(x) increases if f ' (x) > 0 and
decreases if f ' (x) < 0 for all values of x in the interval.
Example 4.9
Sketch the curve
y = x3 – 3x2 + 4
Solution:
We first find the intercepts.
The y-intercept is
y = (0)3 – 3(0)2 + 4 = 4
The x-intercepts are obtained by factorization the function
y = (x + 1) (x – 2)2
and equate to zero. That is (x + 1) (x – 2)2 = 0
We get x = -1 and x = 2.
Next we find where the derivative of the function is positive, negative and zero.
The derivative is
f '(x) = 3x2 – 6x = 3x (x – 2)
which is zero at x = 0 and x = 2. The curve has horizontal tangents at these values.
The derivative is positive on the intervals (-, 0) and (2,) and negative on the
interval (0, 2). We now construct a small table of function values and slopes which
includes the intercepts, as follows:
x -1 0 1 2 3

y 0 4 2 0 4

y' 9 0 -3 0 9
Plot the points to complete the sketch. This is depicted below:
Y

4 y = x3 – 3x2 + 4

1
X
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Maxima and Minima
Consider the graph below whose equation is y = f(x).

A C

B
At the points A, B and C, the gradient of the curve is zero. These are called the
turning points of the curve. A and C are called the maximum points while B is a
minimum point.

58
For maximum point, we have:
dy
=0
dx

dy dy
>0 <0
dx dx
f(x)
A B

dy
Between A and P is positive and decreasing. At P, = 0 and between P and B,
dx
dy
is negative and decreasing.
dx
For minimum point, we have;
C D
f(x)

dy dy
<0 >0
dx dx
Q

dy
=0
dx

dy dy
Between C and Q, is negative and increasing. At Q, = 0 and between Q
dx dx
dy
and D is positive and increasing.
dx
Hence in passing along a curve in the direction in which x increases, the gradient
dy
(i.e. the value of ) changes as follows:
dx
From positive to negative at a maximum point.
From negative to positive at a minimum point.

Consider the following curve”:

f(x)

dy dy
<0 =0
dx dx
R

59
 dy
<0
dx

dy dy
At point R, = 0 but the sign of remains the same on the left and right of R.
dx dx
This point is called a point of inflexion.
Example 4.10
Find all the turning points of y = 2x3 + 9x2 – 24x – 1 and classify them.
Solution:
dy
= 6x2 + 18x – 24.
dx
dy
At the turning points = 0.
dx
 6x2 + 18x – 24 = 0 or x2 + 3x – 4 = 0  (x – 1) (x + 4) = 0
 x = 1 or x = -4.
The turning points are (1, -14) and (-4, 11).
To classify the points, we consider the following tables:

x 0 1 2

dy
-24 0 36
dx

The point (1, -14) is a minimum point and

x -5 -4 -3

dy
36 0 -24
dx

 The point (-4, 11) is a maximum point.

Example 4.11
Find the turning points of y = 4x3 – 3x4 and classify them.
Solution:
dy
=12x2 – 12x3
dx
dy
At the turning points, =0
dx
 12x2 – 12x3 = 0
or
x2 – x3 = 0
x2 (1 – x) = 0
 x = 0 or x = 1
Hence the turning points are (0, 0) and (1, 1).
To classify the points, consider the tables below:

60
 x 1 0 ½
2

dy 9 3
2 0 2
dx
Point (0, 0) is an inflexion point.
x ½ 1 3
2

dy 3 27
2 0 2
dz

Point (0, 0) is a maximum point.

Second Derivative Test

As discussed earlier, y = f(x) has a maximum value at some point (say x = a) if
dy
is itself a function of x that equals zero at x = a and changes sign from +ve to –ve
dx
at x = a.
dy
Hence decreases at x = a and therefore its derivative i.e.
dx
d  dy  d 2 y
  is negative at the maximum point (x = a).
dt  dx  dx 2
d2y
Similarly if x = b is a minimum point, then is positive.
dx 2
d2y
If = 0, the type of turning point is determined by finding the sign of the
dx 2
gradient on each side of the point.
Example 4.12
Determine the turning points of the function
Y = 2x3 – 15x2 + 36x + 20.
Solution:
dy
= 6x2 – 30x + 36
dx
dy
At the turning points, =0
dx
 6x2 – 30x + 36 = 0
or
x2 – 5x + 6 = 0
(x – 1) (x – 3) = 0
 x = 2 or x = 3
The turning points are (3, 47) and (2, 48).
To classify the points, we have
d2y
= 12x – 30
dx 2
d2y
At x = 2, = -6 < 0
dx 2

61
 d2y
At x = 2, = -6 < 0
dx 2
d2y
Hence (2, 48) is a maximum point. At x = 3, =6>0
dx 2
Thus (3, 47) is a minimum point.
Activity 4.2
Find and classify all the turning points of y = 2x3 + 9x2 – 24x – 1.
Divide 15 into two parts such that the square of one multiplied by the eighth of the
other is maximum. Find the two parts.
A farmer has 10,000m of fencing wire with much to fence three sides of his
rectangular farm, the fourth side being existing fence of his neighbour. Find in metres
the dimension of the field of the largest possible area that can be enclosed.
Sketch the curve represented by y = 2x3 – 6x.
Sketch and determine the turning points of each of the following curves:
1
y = x3 – 2x2 + 3x + 2
3
y = x2 – x + 1
y = 12 – 12x + 12x2
y = x4 – 8x2 + 16
1
y=
( x  1) 2
y = x3 – 27x + 36
y = 3x2 – 2x3
1
y= 3
x
PROBLEM SET 4
dy
1. Find in each of the following:
dx
(i). y = 7x3
(ii). y = 6x1/3
(iii). y = 4x3 + 3x + 1
1
(iv) y = x 
3x
2. Find the derivative of the following:
(i). y = (x3 + 1) (x2 – 3)
(ii). y = x(x3 – 2x + 1)
x2  3
(iii). y =
x4
(iv). y=x x
(v). y = x  4x  3
2

3. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

(i). y = 12x7
(ii). y = 7x1/14
1
(iii). y = x 
x
(iv). y = (x – 2) (x + 100)

62
 x3  4
(v). y=
2x  3
(vi). y= x
(vii). y = (2X + 3)100
(viii). y = (x – 2)4 (x + 1)7
2
(ix). y = x-2 + 2
x
(x). x + y2 = 2
4. Find and classify all the turning points of y = 2x3 + 9x2 – 24x – 1.
5. Divide 15 into two parts such that the square of one multiplied by the eighth of the
other is maximum. Find the two parts.
6. A farmer has 10,000m of fencing wire with much to fence three sides of his
rectangular farm, the fourth side being existing fence of his neighbour. Find in
metres the dimension of the field of the largest possible area that can be enclosed.
7. Sketch the curve represented by y = 2x3 – 6x.
8. Sketch and determine the turning points of each of the following curves:
1
(i). y = x3 – 2x2 + 3x + 2
3
(ii). y = x2 – x + 1
(iii). y = 12 – 12x + 12x2
(iv). y = x4 – 8x2 + 16
CHAPTER FIVE
INTEGRATION
Introduction:
In the preceding topic, we pursued one of the main branches of calculus; namely
differentiation. We shall now turn our attention to the other branch called integration.
The aspect of integration that we shall discuss is to find a function whose
derivative is given.
5.1 Objectives:
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
Describe integration.
Apply the inverse rule of differentiation to find the integral of function.
Determine the area under a curve.
Integration as the inverse of differentiation (Anti-derivative)
dy
Suppose y = x3, then we have = 3x-2
dx
The natural question we ask ourselves is how to get back to x3 from 3x2.
dy
In other words, given = 3x2, what was the original function y, that was
dx
dy
differentiated? If we say that y = x3  = 3x2
dx
dy dy
Also y = x3 + 8  = 3x2 or y = x3 + 20  = 3x2
dx dx
To clear ourselves from this dilemma, we say that the most correct answer is

63
y = x3 + C where C is a constant called the arbitrary constant of integration. The
dy
process of finding the expression for y in terms of x where is given is called the
dx
inverse of differentiation or anti-derivative or integration.
In the above example, the correct way of writing is
 3x2dx = x3 + C
It is read as, “the integral of 3x2, with respect to x is x3 + C”.
In general, if y = x n , n  -1, then
1
 xndx = n  1 x + C, n  -1
n 1

That is, increase the power of x by 1 and divide by the new power. The constant C
can be determined for any pair of points (x, y) lying on the curve.
Examples 5.1
1 3
 x2dx = 3 x + C
 4x3dx = 4.¼ x4 + C = x4 + C
1 0+1
 2dx =  2x0dx = 2
0 1
x = 2x + C

 dx =  x0dx = x + C
3 3 -2 - 3 -2
 x3
dx =  3x-3dx =
-2
x +C=
2
x +C

x3 x2
 (x + 1) (x + 2)dx =  (x2 + x + 2)dx =
3
+
2
+ 2x + C

Area under a curve

Suppose we want to calculate the area under the curve y = f(x) from ordinate x
= a to ordinate x = b. Consider the sketch below

y = f(x)

a b
In integral notation, we actually want to solve the integral given by
b
A= 
a
f(x)dx

64
 Such an integral where the limits are given is called definite integral. In this case,
the answer does not have the constant of integration. When the limits are not given,
the integral is called indefinite integral and the answer must contain a constant.
Examples 5.2
Solve the following definite integrals.
2
x3 2 1 7
1 x2
dx =
3 1
=
3
(8 – 1) =
3
4
x3 4 2 130

1
2x2dx = 2.
3 1
=
3
(64 + 1) =
3
-1 2 1
x

3
x dx =
2 3
= ½ (1 – 9) = -4

Positive and Negative areas

Consider the following diagram:

y=f(x)

a b c
B

Suppose we want to get the area beneath the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = c.
The governing integral will be:
c b
  
c
f(x)dx = f(x)dx + f(x)dx =A+B
a a b
We note that area B is below the x-axis. When the region required is below the x-
axis, the value of the integral governing the area is negative. We can say that we have
a negative area. Since negative areas don’t make sense, we usually ignore the
negative signs i.e by taking the absolute value of the relevant integral.
Examples 5.3
1
1  x3 x 2  1 1 1
0 (x – x)dx =  3 - 2   3  2   6
2

0
The negative value shows that the required area is below the x-axis.
Calculate the area between the curve y = 3x – x2 and the x-axis between the points x =
0 and x = 5.
Solution:

65
 We note that there is a point x = 3 between 0 and 5 such that f(3) = 0. This is
shown in the diagram below:
hi

0 3 5

The required area is then given by calculating the sum of the areas below and above
the x-axis separately. Hence

0 3x  x dx + 3  3x  x dx

3 2 5 2
A=

 3x 2 x 3  3  3x 2 x 3  5
=      
 2 3 0  2 3  3

 27   75 129   27 
=   9       9 
 2   5 3   2 
9  25 9 
=    
2  6 2
9 -52
= 
2 6
9 52 79
=  
2 6 6

Activity 5.1
Evaluate the following integrals.
 (2x + 3)dx
 (x2 - x dx

 (2 – 7x)2/3dx

 1- x dx
1
 1- x
dx

66
  1 
  2  x  dx
x 
 (3x – 2x + 5)dx
2

 (1 + x3)2x dx
Evaluate the following definite integrals.
2


0
3xdx


0
x2dx


0
(x2 – 5x)dx


1
(2x + 5)dx
0


-2
(x + 1)2dx
1


0
5x  4 dx
0


-2
(4 – x)2dx
1
dx
 (2x  1)
0
3

Find the area between the curve y = 4 – x2 and the x-axis.

Find the area between the curve whose equation is y = x2(x – 3), the x-axis and the
lines (i) x = 0 and x = 3 (ii) x = 3 and x = 4.

PROBLEM SET 5

1…Evaluate the following integrals.

(i).  (2x + 3)dx
(ii).  (x2 - x dx
(iii).  (2 – 7x)2/3dx
(iv).  1- x dx
1
(v).  1- x
dx

 1 
(vi).   2 
x
x  dx

(vii).  (3x – 2x + 5)dx
2

(viii).  (1 + x3)2x dx

67
2. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
2
(i). 
0
3xdx

2
(ii). 
0
x2dx

2
(iii).  0
(x2 – 5x)dx

2
(iv. 
1
(2x + 5)dx
0
(v). 
-2
(x + 1)2dx
1
(vi). 
0
5x  4 dx
0
(vii). 
-2
(4 – x)2dx
1
dx
(viii).  (2x  1)
0
3

4. Find the area between the curve y = 4 – x2 and the x-axis.

5. Find the area between the curve whose equation is y = x2(x – 3), the x-axis and
the lines (i) x = 0 and x = 3 (ii) x = 3 and x = 4.

CHAPTER SIX
STATISTICS
6.0: Introduction
This topic will equip the learner with the basic tools of collecting and presenting
data (or information). It will also enable the learner to compute various measures of
central tendency and dispersion e.g. Mean, Mode, Median and Standard Deviation.
The Normal Probability distribution and how to compute probabilities will be
discussed as well.
Objectives:
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
Define the term statistics.
Describe the basic concepts commonly used in statistics.
Describe methods of collecting and presenting data.
Explain and compute measures of central tendency and dispersion.
Define and compute probabilities of a normal distribution.
Definition
Statistics is a scientific field of study dealing with collecting, organizing,
summarizing, presenting and analysing of data, as well as drawing valid conclusions
and making reasonable decisions based on such analysis.
Basic concepts of statistics.
Population
This is the totality or entire group of individuals, objects or cases (items) under
investigation.

68
(b) Sample
This is a portion or part of the population.
(c) Variable
This is the particular characteristic of interest. Examples are marks, weight or heights
of individuals , number of children in a family, number of births, marriages, divorces,
deaths e.t.c There are two types of variables
(i).. Qualitative variable
(ii). Quantitative variable
Qualitative variable is a variable that can be identified by noting its presence or a
variable that has no numerical values. For instance, the colour of an object, sex of
individuals, outcomes of tossing a coin e.t.c. Although a qualitative variable has no
numerical values, it is possible to assign numerical values to qualitative variable by
giving values to each quantity.
Quantitative variable is a variable consisting of numerical values. For instance, height
and weight of individuals, temperatures at a station, waiting time at a bus stop, annual
income of a family e.t.c. They can further be classified as discrete or continuous
variables.
Discrete variables are those variables which cannot take values between two given
points, e.g number of children in a family, number of accidents, number of births,
marriages, divorces, deaths e.t.c while continuous variables takes values between two
given points, e.g age, height or weight of individuals, amount of rainfall at a weather
station e.t.c. Variables are usually denoted by any capital letters of the alphabet, e.g
X,Y,Z e.t.c
Data collection techniques
Before an investigator or a researcher embarks on the collection of data for a
given survey, it is imperative to examine carefully the following points, which is
termed as the basic steps in data collection.
Objective of the survey
The first and most essential thing an investigator or a researcher must do, is to
state in clear terms the objective of the data to be collected. This is important in
determining the nature of the data to be collected and the techniques to be employed
for the analysis of the data. It also eliminates the collection of irrelevant data. The
objectives may be set for either/and or:
To know the existing state of affairs.
To discover new theory.
To supplement, disapprove or test some existing theory.
These objectives must be precise to the point.
Sources of data
Having stated the objective of the data, the next step is to decide the sources
from which data can be obtained or collected. For any statistical survey, the
investigator may collect data from two sources namely the primary and the secondary
sources. The primary source involves conducting a field survey and the secondary
source involves getting data from some existing records of some institutions who
publish data as a routine, e.g. data from central bureau of statistics. Each source has
its advantages and disadvantages. The selection of a particular source depends on a
variety of factors such as:-
The purpose of the survey.
Time required.
Accuracy desired.
Availability of funds.

69
Availability of facilities.
Nature of the investigator.
Methods of collecting data
The methods of collecting data do not arise if secondary data is required.
However, if primary data is to be used a decision has to be made on whether a
complete enumeration or sampling is to be used.
The technique of collecting data from the field consists of direct personal
observations of experiments or direct communication with the respondents. The
former is primarily scientific while for the latter, the investigator may adopt either the
personal interviews or the mailed questionnaire.
Personal interviews
This is a face to face contact with persons from whom the information is to be
obtained. The interviewer asks questions pertaining to the survey and collects the
desired information. It has the following advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
The information is accurate.
Supplementary information may be obtained.
Sensitive questions can be sandwiched.
Disadvantages
It is costly and time consuming especially when the respondents are widely spread.
Well trained and qualified interviewers will be required.
Mailed questionnaire
A list of questions pertaining to the survey known as a questionnaire is prepared
and sent to the various informants by post. A request is made to the informants
through a covering letter to fill up the questionnaire and send it back within a
specified time. It is also important to inform them that their response will be
confidential. The major advantage is that the cost is relatively low while it’s
disadvantages include:
The informants could be literate.
There is uncertainty about the response.
It is difficult to verify the accuracy of the information.
Based on any of the methods, the investigator can now collect the data by either
adopting the census or the sampling methods.
Census method
In this case, every single member of the population is examined and the value of
the particular variable that we are interested in his noted for each member. The major
advantage is that it gives accurate results and the disadvantages are that it is tedious,
time consuming and expensive.
Sampling method
This is an alternative method of obtaining useful information by examining only a
portion of the population. After analysing the results of the sample data, we draw
conclusions about the characteristic of the population. The advantage includes:
It saves time and money.
Useful where the population is very large.
Useful if enumeration involves destruction of items.
The major disadvantage is that the results may not be very accurate. The most
common and popular technique of sampling is called simple random sampling. Here,
each and every unit of the population has an equal opportunity of being selected in the
sample. To ensure randomness of selection one may use the lottery method. Under
this method all the items of the population are numbered on separate ships of paper of

70
identical size, shape and colour. These slips are folded and mixed up in a container.
A blindfold selection is made of the number of slips required to constitute the sample.
Data presentation
Collected data can be presented in two major forms: tabular and graphical
forms.
Tabular form
Raw data
Statistical data collected by means of sample survey, census or experimental
procedures usually consist of data which raw data have not been organized
numerically in any form. This is called the and will not impart much information.
Example 6.4.1
The marks obtained by 30 students in a statistics class are recorded as follows:
60 30 50 45 50 50 45 40 60 30 35 40 50 55 60
35 30 50 65 42 50 45 40 35 50 30 38 55 60 40
Such a data is troublesome to represent in a bar or a pie chart. Bar and pie charts
are used to represent small number of quantities, so as to give a quick comparison, but
data such as the above may be too numerous to deal with and some of the
measurements may occur more than once.
A more useful method is to arrange the information (data) in what is called a
frequency table or frequency distribution.
Construction of an ungrouped frequency table
Procedure
Note the smallest and largest observation in the data.
Tally the observations of each quantity.
Count the no. of strokes (tallies) of each quantity.
The number of times a certain quantity occurs is called the frequency.
The table so formed is called the frequency table or frequency distribution.
Example 6.4.2
The frequency distribution of the above data is as follows:-

Marks Tallies Frequency

30 //// 4
35 /// 3
38 / 1
40 //// 4
42 / 1
45 /// 3
50 //// // 7
55 // 2
60 //// 4
65 / 1

Grouped frequency distribution

If the number of observations is too large, it is cumbersome to consider the
repetitions of each observation. A quick and more convenient way is to divide the
over-all range of values into a number of classes and then count the number of
observations that fall into each of these classes called the class frequency. The
resulting frequency table is called a grouped freq. Distribution.
The procedure of construction is as follows:

71
Find the range of the observations i.e.R = largest – smallest observation
Decide on a convenient no. of classes, say k such that, 5  K  20.
Find the width by dividing the range by the number of classes and round it up i.e
R
c
K
Select a starting point such that it contains the lowest value
Add the width to get the lower limits of all the classes.
Find the upper limits of all the classes
Tally the observations falling in each class
Count the number of tallies called the frequencies.
NB: 1. The class-intervals are not always equal
2.The accuracy of the data is lost.
Example 6.4.3
The scores of 50 students of a test are as follows:
35 50 30 40 42 30 60 65 60 55
50 40 45 35 38 30 30 50 45 50
50 60 48 38 92 59 35 55 45 50
43 56 45 40 61 72 49 24 10 95
82 70 69 8 47 64 43 36 58 90
Solution
R = largest observation – smallest observation = 95 – 8 = 87
Let K = no. of classes =10.
 Class interval = 1087
= 8.7 ~ 9.
The grouped frequency distribution is as follows:

Class Tallies Frequency

0–9 / 1
10 – 19 / 1
20 – 29 / 1
30 – 39 //// //// / 11
40 – 49 //// //// // 12
50 – 59 //// //// / 11
60 – 69 //// // 7
70 – 79 // 2
80 – 89 / 1
90 – 99 /// 3

Graphical form
Graphical representations of data are sometimes easier to visualize than the
numbers in a frequency table. Consider the grouped frequency distribution given
below:

Class Midpoints c.f Frequency Class-bds

8 – 16 12 2 2 7.5 – 16.5
17 – 25 21 3 1 16.5 – 25.5
26 – 34 30 7 4 25.5 – 34.5
35 – 43 39 20 13 34.5 – 43.5

72
44 – 52 48 32 12 43.5 – 52.5
53 – 61 57 41 9 52.5 – 61.5
62 – 70 66 45 4 61.5 – 70.5
71 – 79 75 46 1 70.5 – 79.5
80 – 88 84 47 1 79.5 – 88.5
89 – 97 93 50 3 88.5 – 97.5

The following terms are commonly used in the graphic forms:-

Class-interval and class limits
A symbol defining a class such as 8 – 16 is called a class-interval. The end
numbers 8 and 16 are called the lower and upper class-limits.
Class boundaries
Most of the data are recorded to the nearest integer (or whole no.), so the class-
interval 8 – 16 includes all measurements from 7.5 to 16.5.The numbers 7.5 and 16.5
are called class-boundaries.
These boundaries are obtained by adding the upper limit of one class-interval to the
lower class limit of the next higher class interval and divide by two.The various class-
boundaries are as shown above:
Size or width of a class- interval
The size of a class-interval is the difference between the lower and upper class
boundaries and is usually denoted by c.
Class mark or midpoint
The class-mark is the middle point of a class-interval and is obtained by adding the
lower and upper class limits or boundaries) and dividing by two.
We shall consider the following basic graphic forms:
Histogram
A Histogram is a graph of frequency plotted against class boundaries. It consists
of a set of continuous rectangles such that the areas of rectangles are proportional to
the frequencies. For equal class width, the heights of the rectangles are equal to the
class frequencies. The histogram of the above data is as follows:
Frequency Polygon
This is line graph of frequency plotted against the class-mark.
It can also be obtained by connecting midpoints of the tops of the rectangles in a
Histogram. The gaps at both ends are extended to the next lower and upper class-
mark of class-intervals with frequency zero. The frequency polygon of above data is:

Cumulative frequency distribution

When frequencies of two or more classes are added, such totals are called
cumulative frequencies and the table constructed is known as the cumulative
frequency distribution.
Cumulative frequency polygon (Ogive)
A smooth curve of cumulative frequency plotted against the upper class
boundaries is called an Ogive (or cum. Frequency polygon). The ogive of the data
presented above is as shown below:
Measures of central tendency or location
In most sets of data, there is a tendency for the observed values to cluster
themselves about some value. This phenomenon is referred to as central tendency.
The values computed for this purpose are called measures of central tendency or
location.
Mean of individual observations data

73
 The mean is the sum or total of all the observations divided by the number of
observations, i.e.
Sum of all observations
Mean =
No. of observations
If X is the variable which takes the values x1, x2, … xn, where n is the number of
observations (or values), then the mean, denoted by X , is given by,

x1  x 2  ...  x 2  x
X  
n n

where the symbol  (sigma) is a Greek letter denoting sum or total of all the values.

Example 6.5.1
Ten pupils in a class obtained the following marks in a test.
50, 45, 38, 40, 60, 55, 70, 52, 62, 68,
Find the mean mark.
Solution:
Sum of the marks 540
Mean =   54 or
No. of pupils 10
Let X = marks scored by the pupils and n = no. of pupils, then
x  x  x  ...  x10
X 1 2 3
10
50  45  38  ...  68 540
=   54
10 10
Mean from ungrouped frequency distribution
If the observations occur with frequencies i.e. the values x1, x2, …, xn of the
variable has frequencies, f1, f2, …, fn, then the mean is given by
 fx total of freq. times the value
X  =
f total of all frequencies

Example 6.5.3
The number of beans in a pod was observed as follows:
No. of beans in a pod (x) 0 1 2 3 4 5

No. of pods (f) 5 7 8 9 7 4

Find the mean no. of beans per pod

Solution:
We put the information in a frequency distribution table as follows:
(x) (f) fx
0 5 0
1 7 7
2 8 16
3 9 27
4 7 28
5 4 20
Total () f = 40 fx = 98

74
 X =
 fx 
98
= 2.45
f 40

Mean from grouped frequency distribution

If the observations are too many, then the computation of the mean can be
tedious. It would be advantageous to classify the data into a grouped frequency
distribution. When the data are grouped, the individual observations lose their
identity. In such a case, each observation in a given class is assumed to have a value
equal to that of the midpoint (or class-mark) of the class in which it occupies.
Suppose the data is grouped into K classes, such that m1, m2, …, mk denotes the
class marks, f1, f2, …, fk, the corresponding class frequencies, then the mean is
defined as
 fm
X
f
Example 6.5.5
The daily wages of 30 workers on a farm are shown in the following table.
Calculate mean daily wage.

Wages (Kshs.) 30 – 34 35 – 39 40 – 44 45 – 49 50 – 54 55 – 59

Frequency (f) 1 6 10 8 2 3
Solution:
Calculate the mid-points of each class and represent the information in a frequency
distribution as shown below:-

Class (wages) Mid pts (m) Freq. (f) fm

30 – 34 32 1 32
35 – 39 37 6 222
40 – 44 42 10 420
45 – 49 47 8 376
50 – 54 52 2 104
55 – 59 57 3 171

Total f = 30 fm = 1325

 fm 1325
X  = 44.16
f 30

6.5.3 Mode
The mode is the value of the observations, which occurs or repeats itself the
greatest number of times.
The mode may not exist, and it if does exist, it may not be unique. If each
observation occur the same number of times, then there is no mode, otherwise two or
more observations may occur the same number of times. In this case, two or more
modes exist.
Mode of individual observations

75
 To determine the mode of ungrouped data, count the number of times the various
values repeats themselves and the value appearing the highest number of times is the
mode.
Example 6.5.7
State the mode of the following:-
3, 6, 7, 3, 8, 4, 7, 9, 8, 7, 3, 6, 7,  Mode 7
2, 4, 2, 5, 3, 2, 5, 7, 5, 8, 8, 8, 2, 5  Modes: 2, 5
10, 15, 12, 10, 11, 10, 15, 15, 12, 13, 11  Modes 10, 11
14, 16, 21, 19, 18, 24, 17  No mode

Mode of ungrouped frequency distribution

For ungrouped frequency distribution, the mode is just determined by
inspection, i.e. by looking at that value of the variable around which the observations
are most heavily concentrated.
Example 6.5.8
Find the mode of the following distribution.

Score 20 25 36 40 45 46 60 72

Frequency 1 1 3 5 2 6 1 1

Solution:
The highest frequency is 6. This implies that the value 46 is repeated itself 6 times.
Hence the mode is 46.
Mode of grouped frequency distribution
In this case, the problem of determining the value of the mode is not simple as it
appears from the foregoing descriptions. The class in which the number of
observations occurs most frequently is called the modal class of the distribution and is
first located by inspection. The next problem is to interpolate the value of the mode
within the modal class by applying the formula
f1  f 0
Mode = L  c
2f1  f 0  f 2
Where,
L = lower class boundary of the modal class.
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class.
f1 = frequency of the modal class
f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class
c = size of the modal class.
This formula is only applicable for equal class-intervals (or size).
Example 6.5.8
Find the mode of the following grouped frequency distribution.

Class 3–7 8 – 12 13 – 17 18 – 22 23 – 27 28 – 32

Frequency 15 13 27 29 10 13

Solution:
The highest frequency is 29. Thus the modal class is 18 – 22.

76
  f1  f 0 
Mode = L +    c
 2f1  f 0  f 2 

 20  27 
= 17.5 +    5
 2 x 29  27 10 

= 17.5 + 0.5

= 18.0
Median
If the observations are either arranged in ascending or descending order of
magnitude, then the median is defined as the middle observation if the number of
observations is odd and the average of the two middle observations if the number of
observations is even.

Median of individual observation

Let N denotes the number of observations in an array. If N is odd, then the
 N 1 
th

median is the value of the   observation and if N is even the median is the
 2 
 N 2
th th
N 
average   and   observations.
 2   2 
Example 6.5.9
Find the median of the following:
1, 3, 5, 7, 9
Solution:
The number of observations is 5 which is odd (i.e N=. 5).
 N 2
th

 Median =   observation
 2 

 5 1 
th

=  observation
 2 
= 3rd observation
=5
Example 6.5.10
Find the median of the following
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20
Solution:
The number of observations is 6 which is even (i.e N=. 6).
 N 2
th
N
Median = ½   +   observation
2  2 
= ½ (3 + 4) observation
= ½ (6 + 8)
=7
Median of ungrouped frequency distribution

77
 In this case, the procedure is similar to that just described. We first calculate the
cumulative frequencies, then the median is the value of that total which is equal to
 N 1 
th th
 N 2
th
N
  observation or average of the   and   observation if N is odd
 2  2  2 
or even respectively.
Example 6.5.11
The table below shows the number of goals scored by a team in 15 matches.

Score 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Frequency 1 0 3 2 5 3 1

Find the median.

Solution
The frequency distribution with cumulative frequencies is constructed as follows.

Score 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Freq. 1 0 3 2 5 3 1

Cum.freq. 1 1 4 6 11 14 15

Number of observations is 15 which is odd (i.e. 15).

 N  1
th

 Median =   observation
 2 
This occurs where the cumulative frequency is 11. Thus median is 4.
Example 6.5.12
Find the median of the following data.
Marks 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Freq. 2 3 10 12 8 3 2

Solution:
Construct a table with cumulative frequencies as follows:
Marks 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
frequencies 2 3 10 12 8 3 2
c.f 2 5 15 27 35 38 40
The number of observations is 40 which is even (i.e. N= 40). The median is the
 N 2
th th
N th st
score between   and   observation, i.e. the 20 and 21 observation.
2  2 
This occurs where the cumulative frequency is 27 and thus the median is 7.
Example 6.5.13
Determine the median of the data below:

Marks 30 40 50 60 70 80

78
No. of pupils (f) 5 7 8 8 7 4

Solution:
Construct the table with cumulative frequencies as follows:

Marks 30 40 50 60 70 80
Frequencies 5 7 8 8 7 4
c.f 5 12 20 29 36 40
Again the number of observations is even (i.e. 40) and median is the score
between the 20th and 21st observation. The 20th score is in the 50 marks section and
the 21st score in the 60 marks section. The median is thus the average of 50 and 60 i.e
50  60
Median=.  55 Marks.
2

Median of grouped frequency distribution

When the observations have been grouped into classes, the median is slightly
complicated because the real values of the individual observations are not known.
The class in which N 2 th observation lies is called the median class.
To estimate the median, we first determine the Median class and assume that
the observations are distributed uniformly or equally throughout the median class.
After ascertaining the class in which the median lies, the formula for calculating the
exact value of the median is given by the interpolation formula;

 N  c.f. 
Median = L +  2  c
 f 
Where L = lower class boundary of median class
N = total number of observations f = frequency of the median class
c.f. = cumulative frequencies up to the class preceding the median class
c = class-size of median class
Example 6.5.14
Calculate the median of the following frequency distribution table.

Class 3-7 8-12 13-17 18-22 23-27 28-32

Freq. 15 13 27 29 10 13

Solution:
Construct the table with cumulative frequencies as follows:

Classes 3-7 812 13-17 18-22 23-27 28-32

Frequencies 15 13 27 29 10 13
c.f 15 28 55 84 94 107

79
 N th
107 th
The 2 observation = observation = 53.5th observation
2
This falls in the class 13 – 17.
median class = 13 – 17.
 N  c.f 
Median = L +  2 c
 f 
 53.5  28 
= 12.5 +   5
 27 
25.5
= 12.5 +  5
27
= 12.5 + 4.7
= 17.2
.6.6.Measures of dispersion
The measures of central tendency do not in any way tells us the extent to which
the numerical data spread out about the average value. In order to compare
distributions in a quantitative way, we need the measures of dispersion.
Dispersion is the degree of scatteredness of the variable about the central value.
The variance and standard deviation
The most useful measure of dispersion and those with the most desirable
mathematical properties are variance and standard deviation. The variance is defined
as the arithmetic mean of the squared deviations of the observations about their mean
and the positive square root of the variance is called the std-deviation. A small
standard deviation means a high degree of uniformity of the observations whereas a
large standard-deviation is just the opposite.

6.6.2.Variance of individual observations

Let x1, x2, x3, …, xn be a set of n observations on a random variable X with
mean x . The variance is denoted by S2 or sometimes  2 is given by
n

x - x
2
i
i 1
S2 =
n
Example 6.6.1
Find the std-deviation of the observations:
52, 53, 61, 67, 71, 72, 78, 82
Solution:
n

x i
536
x  i 1
 67
n 6

 x 52 53 61 67 71 72 78 82

x- x -15 -14 -6 0 4 5 11 15 0

(x - x ) 225 196 36 0 16 25 121 225 844

80
 1
 S2 = x - x
2

n

844
= = 105.5  S = 105.5 = 10.3
8
6.6.2.1. Computational formula
When the number of observations is large or the observations are in decimal form,
the computation of S2 from its definition can be laborious. We adopt an indirect
method given by the formula:
2
 xi  xi2   xi 
S  2
- x 2 or S2  - 
n n  n 

From the above example, the two sums can be found quickly and simultaneously on a
pocket calculator, i.e.
 xi =536 ;  xi2 = 36756, N = 8 and X = 67
36756
 S2 = - 672
8
= 105.5 or S = 10.3

6.6.2.2. Variance of ungrouped frequency distribution

Let x1, x2 , x3,...xn be a set of n observations with corresponding frequencies f1, f2,
…, fn, then the variance is defined as:
 f(x  x )2
S2 = , where f = n.
f
It can also be shown that the computational formula is
 fx 2   xf i 
2

S2 = -  
n  f 
Example 6.6.2
Find the std-deviation of the following distribution:

x 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 20

f 4 11 32 21 15 8 5 4

Solution:
The following table can be constructed:

x f fx x2 fx2

12 14 48 144 576
13 11 143 169 1859
14 32 448 196 6272
15 21 315 225 4725
16 15 240 256 3840
17 8 136 289 2312
18 5 90 324 1620
20 4 80 400 1600

81
 100 1500 22804

2
22804  1500 
S =2
-   3.04  = 1.74
100  100 

6.6.2.3. Variance of grouped frequency distribution

If X is a continuous variable with mi and fi (i = 1, 2, …, k) denoting the
midpoints and class frequencies for each class respectively, then the variance is
defined by

f m - x
2
i i
S2  i 1
k

f
i 1
i

and the computational formula is

 fm 2   mf 
2

S2   
f  f 
Example 6.6.3
Calculate the std-deviation of the following frequency distribution:

Class 1-3 3-5 5-7 7-9 9-11 11-13 13-15

Freq. 1 9 25 35 17 10 2

Solution:
Construct the following table.

Class Midpoint Freq. m2 mf fm2

1– 3 2 1 4 2 4
3– 5 4 9 16 36 144
5– 7 6 25 36 150 900
7– 9 8 35 64 280 2240
9 – 11 10 17 100 170 1700
11 – 13 12 10 144 120 1440
13 – 15 14 3 196 42 588

100 800 7016

 fm 2   mf 
2

S2  - 
f  f 
2
7016  800 
  
100  100 
 6.16.
Activity 6.1

82
 1. Briefly describe the three methods of sampling
2. A survey is to be conducted to obtain information on the use of drugs
amongst students in the university, what method of data collection
would you adopt? Give reasons for your choice.
3. The following table shows the number of bad eggs in each of 20 boxes.
9,12,5,13,4,3,0,15,9,16,5,7,9,8,8,1,15,10,9
Construct: (i) Grouped frequency distribution
(ii) Histogram
(iii) Frequency polygon
(iv) Ogive
Calculate (v) Mean
(vi) Mode
(vii) Median
(viii) Variance
4. The following table shows the lengths of 40 leaves recorded to the
nearest mm

138 164 150 132 144 123 149 157 146 158
140 147 136 148 152 144 168 126 138 126
163 119 154 165 136 173 142 147 135 153
140 135 161 145 135 142 150 156 145 128
Construct: (i). Grouped frequency distribution
(ii). Histogram (iii). Frequency polygon
(iv). Ogive
(v). How many leaves have lengths less than 152cm
(vi). How many leaves have lengths greater than 144cm
(vii). How many leaves have lengths lying between 140 and
154 cm
Calculate (viii). Mean (ix). Mode (x). Median (xi). Variance.
5. In a class of 100 students, each student was asked the number of books
each had read in a particular year and the following results were
obtained.
No. of books(X) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No. of students(f) 5 5 6 9 11 7 4 2 1
Calculate the mean, mode, median and std- deviation.
6. Calculate the mean, mode , median and std- deviation of the following
data.
Age(yrs) 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24
Frequency 8 10 20 7 5

6.6 The normal distribution

The random variable - < x <  has a normal distribution if its probability
distribution function is of the form:

1   x -  
f(x)  exp - 12   ; - < x < 
 2    
where the parameters  is the mean and  is the standard deviation, respectively
satisfying the conditions - <  <  and  > 0. We denote the above expression as X

83
follows a normal distribution with mean  and variance 2, written in mathematical
notation as X ~ N (,2). The graph of f(x) is as shown below:

f(x)

The curve is bell shaped and symmetrical about the line x = . This means the
mean, median and mode occur at the same point X = . Again, the normal curve
tends to be flat if  is large while it tends to be peaked if  is small.
6.6.1 The standard normal distribution
If X follows a normal distribution with mean  and variance 2, then the variable
X 
Z=

is called a standard normal variable with mean zero and variance unity. That is
Z ~ N (0, 1).
The probability distribution function of Z is now given by
1
F(Z) = exp (-½ Z2), - < Z < 
2
This is called the standard normal distribution.
6.6.2 Computing normal probabilities
Suppose that X ~ N(.,), then

2
1  x  
b 1 2 
a
 
P(a  X  b) = e  dx
 2

It is not easy to evaluate this integral. To compute the above probability, we

standardize X, i.e.
X 
Z=

and the standardized normal p.d.f. is given by

84
 1
1  Z2
f(Z) = e 2 ,   Z  
2
The probabilities of the standardized normal p.d.f., usually denoted by (x) is given
by
1
Z 1  2 t2
(x) = P(Z < z)=  2
e dt have been tabulated extensively.

Due to symmetry of the standardized normal curve about Z = 0, then for any real
number a, then
P(Z < - a) = P(Z a) i.e (-a) = 1 - (a)
as shown below
a- X- b-
 P(a  X  b) = P  Z  
    
a- b-
= P  Z 
   
b-  a- 
=   -  
     
and for specified values of , , a and b, the answer is obtained from the normal
tables.
Example 6.7.1
Suppose the average height of college students is N (69, 9). Calculate the
probability that the average height is:
(i) less than 75 units
(ii) greater than 72 units
(iii) less than 65 units
Solution:
X ~ N(69, 9), then
X  69
Z= ~ N (0, 1).
3
 75  69 
(i) P(X < 75) = P  Z  
 3 
= P (Z < 2)

= 0.97772
 72  69 
(ii) P(X > 72) = P  Z  
 3 
= P (Z > 1)
= 1 – P (Z < 1)
= 0.1587
 65  69 
(iii) P(X < 65) = P  Z  
 3 
= P (Z < -1.33)
= 1 – P(Z > 1.33)
= P (Z < 1.33)
= 0.9082

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Example 6.7.2
A random variable X ~ N (50, 100). Compute P(45  62).
Solution:
 45  50 62  50 
P (45  X  62) = P  Z 
 10 10 
= P (-0.5  Z  1.2)
= P (Z  1.2) – P (Z  -0.5)
= P (Z  1.2) – (1 – P(Z  0.5)
= 0.8849 – (1 – 0.6915)
= 0.8849 – (-3085)
= 0.5764
Activity 6.2
1. A random variable X is normally distributed with mean 50 and standard
deviation 10. Compute P (45  X  62).
2. In an examination, the average mark was 76.5 and the standard deviation was
9.5. If 15 percent of the class scored grade A and the marks are assumed to
follow a normal distribution, what was the lowest possible grade A mark?
3. If a random variable X is normally distributed with mean  and variance 2
and P(X  8) = 0.95. Determine P (4  X  11).
4. Two students were informed that they received standard scores of 0.8 and –0.4
respectively on an examination in English. If their marks were 88 and 64
respectively, find the mean and standard deviation of the examination marks.
5. The mean length of 500 laurel leaves from a certain bush is 151 mm and
standard deviation is 15mm. Assuming that the lengths are normally
distributed, find how many leaves measure:
(a) between 119.5 mm and 155.5 mm.
(b) more than 185.5 mm.
(c) less than 127.5 mm.
6. The mean inside diameter of a sample of 200 washers produced by a machine
is 5.02 mm and the standard deviation is 0.05 mm. The purpose for which
these washers are intended allows a maximum tolerance in the diameter of
4.96 mm to 5.08 mm, otherwise the washers are considered defective.
Determine the percentage of defective washers produced by the machine,
assuming the diameters are normally distributed.
7. Assume that your stature X, of college males are normally distributed with
 = 69 cm and 6 = 3 cm. Calculate the percentage of such students for which
(a) X < 65 (b) X > 72 (c) 64 < X < 74.
8. If the weights of ball bearings are normally distributed with mean 0.6140 N
and standard deviation 0.0025N, determine the percentage of ball bearings
with weights:
(a) between 0.610 and 0.618N
(b) greater than 0.617N
(c) equal to 0.615N
9. Assuming that the mean height of soldiers to be 68.2 cm with a variance of
10.8 cm. How many soldiers in a regiment of 1000 would you expect to be
over 72 cm?
10. In a normal distribution, 7 percent of the items are under 35 and 89 percent are
under 63. What is the mean and standard deviation of the distribution?

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 PROBLEM SET 6
1. Briefly describe the three methods of sampling
2. A survey is to be conducted to obtain information on the use of drugs amongst
students in the university, what method of data collection would you adopt?. Give
reasons for your choice.
3. The following table shows the number of bad eggs in each of 20 boxes.
9,12,5,13,4,3,0,15,9,16,5,7,9,8,8,1,15,10,9
Construct: (i). Grouped frequency distribution (ii). Histogram
(iii). Frequency polygon (iv). Ogive
Calculate (v). Mean (vi). Mode (vii). Median (viii). Variance
4. The following table shows the lengths of 40 leaves recorded to the nearest mm

138 164 150 132 144 123 149 157 146 158
140 147 136 148 152 144 168 126 138 126
163 119 154 165 136 173 142 147 135 153
140 135 161 145 135 142 150 156 145 128
Construct: (i). Grouped frequency distribution
(ii). Histogram (iii). Frequency polygon (iv). Ogive
(v). How many leaves have lengths less than 152cm
(vi). How many leaves have lengths greater than 144cm
(vii). How many leaves have lengths lying between 140 and 154 c
Calculate (viii). Mean (ix). Mode (x). Median (xi). Variance.
5. In a class of 100 students, each student was asked the number of books each had
read in a particular year and the following results were obtained.

No. of books(X) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No. of students(f) 5 5 6 9 11 7 4 2 1

Calculate the mean, mode, median and std- deviation.

6. Calculate the mean, mode , median and std- deviation of the following data.

Age(yrs) 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24

Frequency 8 10 20 7 5

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