LITERASI BAHASA INGGRIS

For all their great diversity of shapes and sizes, glaciers can be divided into two
essential types: valley glaciers, which flow downhill from mountains and are shaped
by the constraints of topography, and ice sheets, which flow outward in all directions
from domelike centres of accumulated ice to cover vast expanses of terrain. Whatever
their type is, most glaciers are remnants of great shrouds of ice that covered the earth
eons ago. In a few of these glaciers, the oldest ice is very ancient indeed: the age of
parts of the Antarctic sheet may exceed 500,000 years.
Glaciers are born in rocky wombs above the snow line, where there is sufficient
snowfall and summer cold for snow to survive the annual melting. The long gestation
period of a glacier begins with the accumulation and gradual transformation of
snowflakes. Soon after they reach the ground, complex snowflakes are reduced to
compact, roughly spherical crystals, the basic components of a glacier. The new layers
of snow that survive the melting of the previous summer accumulate and squeeze out
most of the air bubbles trapped within and between the crystals below. This process
of recrystallization continuous throughout the life of the glacier.
The length of time for the creation of glacier ice depends mainly upon the
temperature and the rate of snowfall. In Iceland, where snowfall is heavy and summer
temperatures are high enough to produce plenty of melt water, glacier ice may come
into being in a relatively short time—say, ten years. In parts of Antarctica, where
snowfall is scant and the ice remains well below its melting temperature year-round,
the process may require hundreds of years.
The ice does not become a glacier until it moves under its own weight, and it
cannot move significantly until it reaches its critical thickness—the point at which the
weight of the piled-up layers overcomes the internal strength of the ice and the friction
between the ice and the ground. The critical thickness is about 60 feet. The fastest
moving glaciers have been gauged at not much more than two and a half miles per
year, and some cover less than 1/100 inch in that same amount of time. But no matter
how infinitesimal the flow is, movement is what distinguishes a glacier from a mere
mass of ice.

1. The passage mainly discusses ____

a) the size and shape of glaciers
b) the formation of glaciers
c) why glaciers move
d) two types of glaciers
e) diversity of shapes and sizes of glaciers

2. What is the correct analogy for the development of glaciers?

a) Snowflakes d) Birth
b) Ice cream e) Earth
c) Ice sheets
3. Which of the following must be included for categorizing a mass of ice as a glacier?
a) It must go uphill
b) It must feel cold
c) It must be located on a wide terrain
d) It must move
e) It must be a mass of ice

4. The author organizes the ideas in the passage by ___

a) exemplifying the types of glaciers and pointing out where to find them
b) dividing the diverse shapes, sizes of glaciers and the weight of snowfall that
makes the glaciers
c) categorizing glaciers into two types and explaining how they come into being
d) dividing glaciers into two essential types and stating that movement makes
mass of ice immobile
e) presenting facts that glaciers are born in rocky womb

5. What is the main idea of the passage?

a) The rate of snowfall turns into glaciers
b) Glaciers that do not melt become crystal snowflakes and evaporate as water
vapours
c) Snowflakes that do not melt despite summer heat crystallize and become
glaciers
d) Snowflakes fall on the snow line as glaciers and survive the summer and
transform
e) Glaciers are stationary at the point where they come into being

The research has been published in the latest edition of Psychology of

Consciousness: Theory, Research and Practice by QUT Adjunct Professor Eric Brymer,
who is currently based at Leeds Beckett University in the UK, and QUT Professor
Robert Schweitzer.
Professors Brymer and Schweitzer said extreme sports were leisure activities in
which a mismanaged mistake or accident could result in death, such as BASE jumping,
big wave surfing and solo rope free climbing.
“Extreme sports have developed into a worldwide phenomenon and we are
witnessing an unprecedented interest in and engagement with these activities,”
Professor Brymer said.
“While participant numbers in many traditional team and individual sports
such as golf, basketball and racket sports seem to have declined over the past decade,
participant numbers in extreme sports have surged, making it a multi-million dollar
industry.”
Professor Brymer said until now there had been a gross misunderstanding of
what motivates people to take part in extreme sports, with many writing it off as an
activity for adrenalin junkies.
 “Our research has shown people who engage in extreme sports are anything
but irresponsible risk-takers with a death wish. They are highly trained individuals
with a deep knowledge of themselves, the activity and the environment who do it to
have an experience that is life enhancing and life changing,” he said.
“The experience is very hard to describe in the same way that love is hard to
describe. It makes the participant feel very alive where all senses seem to be working
better than in everyday life, as if the participant is transcending everyday ways of
being and glimpsing their own potential.
“For example, BASE jumpers talk about being able to see all the colours and
nooks and crannies of the rock as they zoom past at 300km/h, or extreme climbers feel
like they are floating and dancing with the rock. People talk about time slowing down
and merging with nature.”
Professor Schweitzer said understanding motivations for extreme sports were
important to understanding humans.
“Far from the traditional risk-focused assumptions, extreme sports
participation facilitates more positive psychological experiences and express human
values such as humility, harmony, creativity, spirituality and a vital sense of self that
enriches everyday life,” Professor Schweitzer said.
He said because extreme sports participants found it hard to put their
experiences into words, the research project had taken a new approach to
understanding the data.
“So rather than a theory-based approach which may make judgements that
don’t reflect the lived experience of extreme sports participants, we took a
phenomenological approach to ensure we went in with an open mind,” he said.
“This allowed us to focus on the lived-experience of extreme sport with the goal
of explaining themes that are consistent with participants’ experience.
“By doing this we were able to, for the first time, conceptualise such
experiences as potentially representing endeavours at the extreme end of human
agency, that is making choices to engage in activity which may in certain
circumstances lead to death.
“However, such experiences have been shown to be affirmative of life and the
potential for transformation.
“Extreme sport has the potential to induce non-ordinary states of consciousness
that are at once powerful and meaningful.
“These experiences enrich the lives of participants and provide a further
glimpse into what it means to be human.”

6. The passage mainly discusses ….

a) how people do BASE jumping
b) why people are interested in extreme sports
c) the motivation behind people’s engaging in extreme sports
d) the danger of extreme sports
e) human’s fondness of doing risky things
7. What do participants undergo while performing one of extreme sports?
a) The passage talks none of it
b) Extreme sports have developed into worldwide phenomenon
c) Traditional sports such as golf and basketball declines in popularity
d) They experience kind of transformed wellbeing
e) They easily put that into everyday words

8. The main idea of the passage is that ….

a) extreme sports have people merge with nature
b) extreme sports provide a transcendental feeling doing the extreme sports
c) general public often cite correct reasons for why people do extreme sports
d) mismanaged mistake could result in death during extreme winters
e) participants are able to see all the colours and nook and crannies of the rock
performing BASE jumping.

9. All of the following are true about the passage EXCEPT ….

a) the information in the passage results from psychological research
b) extreme sports can be put into lucrative business
c) the researchers study only the motivation of the extreme sport participants
d) people wrongly assume the factors of why people are doing such extreme
sports
e) love is hard to describe

10. By stating “…as if the participant is transcending everyday ways of being and
glimpsing their own potential. “…the writer wants to say which of the following?
The participants undergo … when doing the extreme winter.
a) a sense of happiness d) a reformation
b) a transcendental feeling e) a joyful euphoria
c) a transcendence

11. What did the researchers do to study the experience the participants had, doing
the breath-taking endeavour? They ….
a) did laboratory research
b) used phenomenological approach
c) gave field interview
d) talked to the participants
e) asked the participants politely

12. Which statement is TRUE according to the passage?

a) Extreme sports are an activity for adrenalin junkies
b) Extreme sports participants are risk-takers with death wish
c) Extreme sports participants do training before carrying out the extreme sports
d) A solo rope free climber does rock climbing all by himself using no rope
e) The participants seek fame
 Generally, in order to be preserved in the fossil record, organisms must possess
hard bodyparts such as shells or bones. Soft, fleshy structures are quickly destroyed
by predators or decayed by bacteria. Even hard parts left on the surface for and length
of time will be destroyed. Therefore, organisms must be buried rapidly to escape
destruction by the elements and to be protected agents of weathering and erosion
Marine organisms thus are better candidates for fossilization than those living on the
land because the ocean is typically the site of sedimentation, whereas the land is largely
the site of erosion.
The beds of ancient lakes were also excellent sites for rapid burial of skeletal
remains of freshwater organisms and skeletons of other animals, including those of
early humans Ancient swamps were particularly plentiful with prolific growths of
vegetation, which fossilized in abundance. Many animals became trapped in bogs
overgrown by vegetation. The environment of the swamps kept bacterial decay to a
minimum, which greatly aided in the preservation of plants and animals. The rapidly
accumulating sediments in flood plains, deltas, and stream channels buried freshwater
organisms, along with other plants and animals that happened to fall into the water.
Only a small fraction of all the organisms that have ever lived are preserved as
fossils. Normally, the remains of a plant or animal are completely destroyed through
predation and decay. Although it seems that fossilization is common for some
organisms, for others it is almost impossible. For the most part, the remains of
organisms are recycled in the earth, which is fortunate because otherwise soil and
water would soon become depleted of essential nutrients. Also, most of the fossils
exposed on Earth’s surface are destroyed by weathering processes. This makes for an
incomplete fossil record with poor or no representation of certain species. The best
fossils are those composed of unaltered remains. Generally, it is the inorganic hard
parts, composed mostly of calcium carbonate, that form the vast majority of unaltered
fossils. Calcite and aragonite also contributed to a substantial number of fossils of
certain organisms.

13. According to the passage, an organism without hard body parts

a) is not worthy analysing
b) is not likely to appear in the fossil record
c) is not heavy enough to sink below the surface
d) is not attractive to predators
e) takes a long time to decay

14. The word “agents” in line 5 is closest in meaning to

a) prices
b) dangers
c) examples
d) areas
e) causes
15. Why are marine organisms good candidates for fossilization?
a) they are more visible than demons
b) they have more fleshy structures than land organisms.
c) It is likely that they will be buried rapidly
d) The water environment speeds the decay caused by bacteria.
e) It takes longer for them to be preserved.

16. The fact that the “land is largely the site of erosion” (line 7) is significant because
a) ice is more solid than rock
b) erosion is less destructive than sedimentation
c) fossils are most common in areas subject to erosion
d) erosion contributes to the destruction of skeletal remains
e) few organisms live in areas that experience extensive erosion

17. According to the passage, why were the remains of organisms trapped in swamps
better preserved for the fossil record than those that were not?
a) the ocean is a mysterious phenomenon
b) The swamp environment reduced the amount of bacterial decay.
c) Swamp waters contained higher amounts of materials such as calcium
carbonate.
d) There were fewer sediments in swamps than in other bodies of water.
e) Swamp vegetation accelerated the decomposition of organisms.

18. It can be inferred that flood plains, deltas, and stream channels (lines 13-14) are
similar in which of the following ways?
a) Cars and engines have been manufactured there
b) Animals rather than plants have been preserved at such locations.
c) Such locations are likely to be rich sources of fossils.
d) Fossilized human remains are only rarely found in such locations.
e) Rapid sedimentation in such locations makes it difficult to locate fossils.

19. What is the author’s main point in paragraph 3?

a) Fossils makes it possible to identify weathers
b) Weathering makes it impossible to identify many fossils.
c) Many fossils have been buried forever under the soil.
d) Fossils provide a limited sample of ancient organisms.
e) It is easier to find the remains of plants than animals.

20. Why does the author mention “aragonite” in line 26

a) To make myth about fossils
b) To explain why fossils are rare
c) To compare aragonite fossils and calcite fossils
d) To argue that certain fossils are more informative than others
e) To illustrate the kinds of inorganic hard parts that can form fossils