Biology The Essentials 1st Edition

Hoefnagels Solutions Manual

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CHAPTER 10 – Patterns of Inheritance

CHAPTER OUTLINE

10.1 Chromosomes Are Packets of Genetic Information: A Review

10.2 Mendel’s Experiments Uncovered Basic Laws of Inheritance
A. Mendel Called Each Trait Either Dominant or Recessive
B. For Each Gene, a Cell’s Two Alleles May Be Identical or Different
10.3 The Two Alleles of Each Gene End Up in Different Gametes
A. Monohybrid Crosses Track the Inheritance of One Gene
B. Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Law of Segregation
10.4 Genes on Different Chromosomes Are Inherited Independently
A. Dihybrid Crosses Track the Inheritance of Two Genes at Once
B. Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment
C. The Product Rule Replaces Complex Punnett Squares
10.5 Studies of Linked Genes Have Yielded Chromosome Maps
A. Genes on the Same Chromosome Are Linked
B. Linkage Maps Derive from Crossover Frequencies
10.6 Gene Expression Can Appear to Alter Mendelian Ratios
A. Incomplete Dominance and Codominance Add Phenotype Classes
B. Inheritance Patterns Are Often Complicated
10.7 Sex-Linked Genes Have Unique Inheritance Patterns
A. X-Linked Recessive Disorders Affect More Males Than Females
B. X Inactivation Prevents “Double Dosing” of Gene Products
10.8 Pedigrees Show Modes of Inheritance
10.9 Most Traits Are Influenced by the Environment and Multiple Genes
A. The Environment Can Alter the Phenotype
B. Polygenic Traits Depend on More Than One Gene
10.10 Investigating Life: Heredity and the Hungry Hordes
LEARNING OUTCOMES

10.00.01 Explain how genetic traits are passed from one generation to the next.
10.01.01 Describe the role of chromosomes in inheritance.
10.01.02 Differentiate between the terms gene, allele, locus and chromosome.
10.01.03 Explain how meiosis and the production of gametes are associated with inheritance.
10.02.01 Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles of a gene.
10.02.02 Compare and contrast genotype and phenotype.
10.02.03 Differentiate between homozygous and heterozygous.
10.03.01 Use a Punnett square to diagram and explain a monohybrid cross.
10.03.02 Explain how meiosis contributes to Mendel’s law of segregation.
10.04.01 Use a Punnett square to diagram and explain independent assortment in a dihybrid
cross.
10.04.02 Explain how meiosis contributes to independent assortment of alleles.
10.04.03 Use the product rule to predict inheritance patterns for two or more genes.
10.05.01 Describe how linked genes produce inheritance patterns that do not appear to follow
Mendel’s laws.
10.05.02 Diagram how crossing over can separate linked genes.

WHERE DOES IT ALL FIT IN?

Chapter 10 uses the information on meiosis covered in Chapter 9 to explain the principles of
classical or Mendelian inheritance. Students are likely to have many misconceptions about
inheritance and pedigree patterns. Students primarily do not associate meiosis to inheritance. It
is important to reinforce to students the goals and outcomes of meiosis before starting this chapter. A
brief review of meiosis is useful. Chapter 10 serves as an important reference for Chapter 11 which
discusses human inheritance.
SYNOPSIS

Mendel’s principles of trait inheritance paved the way for understanding the structure and
function of genetic information. Mendel performed cross-breeding studies on well-documented
varieties of peas. Most importantly, he quantified his experiments by carefully counting seeds of
hundreds of crosses and grouped them by apparent visible traits. Mendelian genetics is derived
from the mathematical ratios that describe the segregation and assortment of hereditary material.
However, Mendel’s work did not explain that traits were inherited on chromosomes. This
discovery was made later by Thomas Hunt Morgan’s work on fruit flies which led to the
chromosomal theory of inheritance.

Mendelian or classical genetics is based on the principle that parents each transmit a set of
information about its traits in its gametes. Each piece of information (trait) exhibits many
possible forms (alleles) that do not influence one another. According to Mendelian genetics, each
trait remains discrete within the cell. An individual may be homozygous and possess two
identical alleles, or heterozygous and have two different alleles. However, the presence of an
allele does not ensure its expression. Dominant traits are expressed, while recessive traits are
generally not expressed. The existence of the recessive allele in a heterozygote causes that factor
to be masked for a generation. Additionally, there is a difference between an individual’s
phenotype, or overall appearance, and its genotype, its precise genetic blueprint.

Mendel’s First Law of Heredity explains how alleles randomly segregate in the gametes. Each
gamete has an equal chance of receiving either allele. His second law explains that different
alleles assort into gametes independently of one another, the presence of an allele of one trait
does not preclude the presence or absence of any other allele of any other trait. Mendel was
unaware of the environmental influences on phenotype and was not familiar with gene
interactions such as polygenic traits.

Geneticists typically use pedigrees to trace inheritance patterns and genetic diseases in
agricultural animals and humans. Pedigrees help determine Mendelian inheritance patterns in
families. Genes are not the only explanation for phenotype expression and variation.
CONCEPT MAP

Concept mapping is a structured graphical presentation of the concepts covered in a particular

topic. The following concept map represents the links between the information covered in this
chapter. It is important to tell students to develop their own concept maps after covering the
particular information covered in class.
COMMON STUDENT MISCONCEPTIONS

There is ample evidence in the educational literature that student misconceptions of information
will inhibit the learning of concepts related to the misinformation. The following concepts
covered in Chapter 10 are commonly the subject of student misconceptions. This information on
“bioliteracy” was collected from faculty and the science education literature.

• Students believe that sexual reproduction is merely for increasing populations.

• Students have trouble connecting the events of meiosis with germ cell formation.
• Students have trouble connecting the events of meiosis with patterns of inheritance.
• Students think that traits skip generations.
• Students believe that Mendel knew about chromosomes and genes while performing his
studies.
• Students do understand that a Punnett square represents offspring probabilities.
• Students believe that gender in all organisms is determined by X and Y chromosomes.
• Students confuse the roles of autosomes and sex chromosomes.
• Students do not associate gene expression with inherited characteristics.
• Students believe sexual reproduction always involves mating.
• Students do not understand other mechanisms of sexual reproduction besides mammalian
reproduction.
• Students do not fully understand the role of genetics and environment on determining
observable variation in organisms.
• Students believe acquired characteristics can be inherited.
• Students think that all genetic disorders are homozygous recessive.
• Students believe that inbreeding causes genetic defects.
• Students do not take into account the role of crossing over in classical inheritance
variation.
• Students believe that chromosomes are segregated into gametes that contain either pure
maternal or pure paternal homologous sets.

The following articles provide strategies for increasing bioliteracy in the college classroom:

Baldwin JD, Ebert-May D, Burns, D. 1999. The development of a college biology self-efficacy
instrument for non-majors. Science Education 83(4): 397-408.

Ebert-May D. 2001. Research-based change: how one college professor approached the
challenge of changing teaching. In: Implementing the Science Standards in Higher Education,
eds. W. J. McIntosh and E. Siebert, pp. 36-39. Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers
Association.

Khodor J, Halme DG, Walker GC. 2004. A Hierarchical Biology Concept Framework: A Tool
for Course Design. Cell Biology Education, 3(2): 111-121.

Klymkowsky MW, Garvin-Doxas K, Zeilik M. 2003. Bioliteracy and teaching efficacy: what
biologists can learn from physicists. Cell Biol Educ, 2(3):155-61.
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY PRESENTATION ASSISTANCE

Few students grasp the concept of segregation and independent assortment. Segregation of
alleles is difficult to visualize without a good understanding of meiosis. It would be valuable to
reinforce Mendelian genetic by using animations or tangible models of meiosis to reiterate the
mechanism behind Mendel’s principles.

Have the class use toys or objects to demonstrate Punnett square combinations. Have them place
the toys or objects into “gonads” drawn on a sheet of paper. Then have them produce gametes on
paper by modeling meiosis that assorts and segregates the objects. The students can use the paper
gametes to carry out fertilization. The students can be asked to place the fertilization results into
a Punnett square, and for monohybrid and dihybrid crosses.

It is encouraged to use some lecture or recitation time to discuss the “What’s the Point?,” “Why
We Care,” “Burning Questions” boxes, and the end-of-chapter reading titled “Investigating Life:
Heredity and the Hungry Hordes.” The information in these resources encourages students to use
the chapter information in critical thinking situations.

When assigning the chapter as a reading, encourage the students to stop and complete the
“Mastering Concepts” features as a way of assessing their knowledge of what they read. In
addition, the “Pull It Together” provides students with a visual summary of the important
concepts in the chapter.
HIGHER LEVEL ASSESSMENT

Higher level assessment measures a student’s ability to use terms and concepts learned from the
lecture and the textbook. A complete understanding of biology content provides students with the
tools to synthesize new hypotheses and knowledge using the facts they have learned. The
following table provides examples of assessing a student’s ability to apply, analyze, synthesize,
and evaluate information from Chapter 10.

Application • Have students explain what they would need to know to predict a
monohybrid cross Punnett square for a simple trait in their family.
• Ask students to explain the relationship between meiosis and the
assignment of alleles in a Punnett square.
• Have students explain why a family who had four female children in a
row had an equal chance of having a boy or a girl as the next child.

Analysis • Ask students to hypothesize why inbreeding populations are likely to

have either an abundance or a lack of genetic disorders in the population.
• Ask students to explain the effects of a 4N complement of DNA on the
expression of genes.
• Ask students to explain why certain alleles may appear very rarely in a
population of organisms.

Synthesis • Ask students to come up with a reason why gender in many reptiles does
not follow the predicted 50:50 Mendelian pattern of inheritance.
• Have students hypothesize why a certain dominant characteristic only
appears in male offspring of an organism and does not show up in
females.
• Ask students to explain why the child of a father with type AB blood and
mother with type O blood was born with type O blood.

Evaluation • Ask students to evaluate the benefits and risks of drugs that block
dominant alleles that produce genetic disorders.
• Ask students to discuss the pros and cons of inbreeding crops that
express recessive traits for many characteristics.
• Ask students to evaluate the affects of crossing over during meiosis on
polygenic traits.
BIOETHICAL CONSIDERATION

Biological knowledge contributes to the betterment of human society in many ways. However,
there also are various ethical concerns that are raised by the applications of this knowledge.
Genetic testing has given the medical community the option to better council people about the
chances of passing genetic disorders to offspring. An ethical consideration provided by
ActionBioscience called “Genetic Testing to Predict Disease: Ethical, Legal, and Social
Implications” presents students with views about implications of genetic testing for human
disease. Ask students to come up with a way to balance the pros and cons of human disease
testing. The issue can be found at: http://www.actionbioscience.org/genomic/glenn2.html.

FUN FACTS

Trivial facts about biology are a fun way to spice up a lecture. They can be read in class or
placed at appropriate points into a lecture using the board or a projected presentation. The trivia
can be used as a jumping point for students to further investigate the fact.

• Geneticists have confirmed 19,599 protein-coding genes in the human genome.

• Human DNA likely contains about 30,000-40,000 protein-coding genes.
• It is likely that there are at least 2 genetic disorder alleles for approximately 20,000-
25,000 human genes.
• The largest chromosome of an organism is generally referred to as chromosome 1.
• The protein-coding regions of human DNA make up less than 5% of the genome.
• Mycoplasma genitalium has the smallest genome of any organism that can be grown in
pure culture possessing less than 500 genes.
• Number of genes and chromosomes in various organisms:
Escherichia coli 4,408 1
Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) 6,548 16
Roundworm (Caenorhabditis elegans) 20,000 6
Arabidopsis thaliana 26,000 5
Drosophila melanogaster 16,000 4
Rice (Oryza sativa) 20,000 12
Maize (Zea mays) 20,000 10
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) 20,000 7
IN-CLASS CONCEPTUAL DEMONSTRATION

Interacting with Reginald Punnett’s Creation

This demonstration uses an on-line animated Punnett square to review the calculation of
offspring probabilities. It immediately draws the Punnett squares for monohybrid and dihybrid
crosses. In addition, it gives the offspring probability ratios. The animation is useful for in-class
formative evaluation of Mendelian inheritance.

Materials

• Computer with live access to Internet

• LCD projector attached to computer
• Web browser with bookmark to Punnett Square Calculator at:
http://www.changbioscience.com/genetics/punnett.html
• Sheets of writing paper for students

Procedure and Inquiry

1. Introduce the topic of meiosis and how it relates to Punnett squares.

2. Pull up the Punnett Square Calculator.
3. Pick a simple monohybrid cross from the drop-down windows.
4. Ask the students to write the Punnett square for cross.
5. Then show the cross results.
6. Repeat this with several crosses while questioning and surveying students about their
answers.
USEFUL INTERNET RESOURCES

1. Case studies are a wonderful way to reinforce complex concepts related to classical
genetics. A case study provided by the University of Buffalo uses skin color as a model
for understanding the outcomes of polygenetic traits. The website can be found at
http://www.sciencecases.org/skin_color/skin_color_notes.pdf.

2. Thomas Hunt Morgan’s fruit fly experiments and Mendel’s classical studies on pea traits
can be used to help students review the concepts covered in Chapter 10. The Biology
Project: Mendelian Genetics website, hosted by the University of Arizona, has an
interactive classical genetics tutorial that can be used as a projected class review exercise.
This website can be found at
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/mendelian_genetics/mendelian_genetics.html.

3. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory provides a valuable website for teaching the basic
genetics needed to understand classical patterns of inheritance. It provides many
animated discussions and videostreams of Mendelian genetics. The website can be found
at http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/.

4. Animations are a pedagogical tool known to reinforce the teaching of complex concepts
such as meiosis. This website hosted by PBS provides a useful narrated movie of
animated meiosis. This website is available at
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/baby/divi_flash.html.
QUICK LABORATORY IDEA

Mendel’s Mathematics

The mathematical calculation of Mendelian offspring probabilities is best reinforced when

students are able to see the outcomes of genetic crossing. This activity uses genetic corn as a
model for investigating the probabilities of various dihybrid crossing.

Materials

Provide a group of students with the following materials without tell them anything about the
genetic nature of the corn ears:

• Ear of pure smooth yellow corn

• Ear of pure yellow wrinkly corn
• Ear of heterozygous X heterozygous corn cross - purple/yellow: smooth/wrinkled
• 4 X 4 Punnett square diagram as shown below:
Procedure and Inquiry

1. First ask the students to explain the differences between the three ears of corn.
2. Have students discuss which corn is typical of edible corn and whether that is the natural
characteristic that would be found in a large population of corn left to grow in the wild.
3. Instruct the students to use the Punnett square to calculate the offspring probabilities of
breeding two corn parents heterozygous for kernel color and shape. Provide students with
the following information:
a. Purple - P (dominant)
b. Yellow - p (recessive)
c. Smooth - S (dominant)
d. Wrinkly - s (recessive)
They should calculate a 9:3:3:1 ratio.
4. Ask the students if they believe the purple/yellow corn has a 9:3:3:1.
5. Ask them how they would determine this using the corn given to them.
6. Direct the students to count the different types of kernels on the purple/yellow corn. They
should be questioned to see if they recognize the four different types of kernels.
7. Have the students determine how close they came to a 9:3:3:1 ratio from counting kernels
on the purple/yellow ear of corn. They should record their information on a table such as
the one provided below:

Phenotype: _______ ______ _______ _______

Number: _______ _______ _______ _______

Ratio: ______ : ______ : ______ : ______

8. Have the students hypothesize the genotypes of the yellow smooth and yellow wrinkly
corn. Ask them which corn will always produce pure lineages of offspring that resemble
the parents. Also ask the students how the corn sold in grocery stores is bred to have its
characteristics.
LEARNING THROUGH SERVICE

Service learning is a strategy of teaching, learning and reflective assessment that merges the
academic curriculum with meaningful community service. As a teaching methodology, it falls
under the category of experiential education. It is a way students can carry out volunteer projects
in the community for public agencies, nonprofit agencies, civic groups, charitable organizations,
and governmental organizations. It encourages critical thinking and reinforces many of the
concepts learned in a course.

Students who have successfully mastered the content of Chapter 10 can apply their knowledge
for service learning activities in the following ways:

1. Have students present a forum on the benefits and risks of monoculture to a civic group.

2. Have students design an educational animated PowerPoint presentation about Mendelian

genetics for middle school teachers.

3. Have students tutor middle school or high school biology students studying classical
genetics.

4. Have students present a talk to a civic group about the significance of genetic testing and
the inheritance of genetic disorders.
CROSSWORD PUZZLE

Use copies and a projected image of the crossword puzzle as an entertaining way to review the
concepts in this chapter. Hand out the copies to the class and project an image of the crossword
using an overhead or LCD projector. Then use student input to complete the crossword puzzle
while quizzing them on other concepts and terms covered in the chapter.

Patterns of Inheritance
Across

1. Tracking the distribution of two traits

4. "Daddy" of the principles of inheritance
9. A trait affected by different genes that interact
12. Condition having two dominant alleles (2 words)
13. Trait is covered up by dominant allele

Down

2. Condition having two recessive alleles (2 words)

3. Condition having dominant and recessive alleles
5. Combines segregated genes
6. Used to calculate segregation of alleles (2 words)
7. The pattern followed by the inheritance of one gene
8. An allele that is usually expressed
10. Helps assort genes
11. Variation of a gene
Answers

Across

1. DIHYBRID—Tracking the distribution of two traits

4. MENDEL—"Daddy" of the principles of inheritance
9. POLYGENIC—A trait affected by different genes that interact
12. HOMOZYGOUSDOMINANT—Condition having two dominant alleles (2 words)
13. RECESSIVE—Trait is covered up by dominant allele

Down

2. HOMOZYGOUSRECESSIVE—Condition having two recessive alleles (2 words)

3. HETEROZYGOUS—Condition having dominant and recessive alleles
5. FERTILIZATION— Combines segregated genes
6. PUNNETTSQUARE—Used to calculate segregation of alleles (2 words)
7. MONOHYBRID—The pattern followed by the inheritance of one gene
8. DOMINANT—An allele that is usually expressed
10. MEIOSIS—Helps assort genes
11. ALLELE—Variation of a gene