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DNA STRUCTURE AND

FUNCTION
Chapter Outline
6.1CLONING 6.4 DNA REPLICATION AND REPAIR
6.2 FAME, GLORY, AND DNA How Mutations Arise
STRUCTURE SUMMARY
Discovery of DNA’s Function SELF-QUIZ
Discovery of DNA’s Structure CRITICAL THINKING
DNA Sequence VISUAL QUESTION
6.3 DNA IN CHROMOSOMES

Learning Objectives
6.1 Describe the process of reproductive cloning and summarize the difficulties and potential
benefits of this technology.
6.2 Recount the discoveries of DNA as the hereditary material and its molecular structure.
6.3 Describe chromosomal structure and diversity.
6.4 Explain the process of DNA replication and repair.

Key Terms
autosome DNA polymerase reproductive cloning
centromere DNA replication sex chromosome
chromosome DNA sequence sister chromatid
chromosome number histone somatic cell nuclear
clone karyotype transfer (SCNT)
differentiation mutation
diploid primer

Chapter Six
Lecture Outline
6.1 Cloning
A. Trakr—a dog instrumental in the search and rescue at “Ground Zero” after the World Trade
Center attacks on September 11, 2001—was cloned in 2009.
B. Cloning offers new hope for understanding and treating human genetic disorders.
1. Cloning is currently unreliable and difficult to achieve.
2. Cloned human cells may eventually provide replacement tissues, or even organs, for
people with incurable diseases.
C. Successful cloning of lost pets has been done.
1. There are many ethical concerns with cloning.
2. Cloning of humans is controversial.

6.2 Fame, Glory, and DNA Structure

A. DNA is a polymer of nucleotides.
1. Nucleotides have three components: 5-carbon ribose, phosphate groups, and a
nitrogenous base.
a. Four different nitrogenous bases are possible in nucleotides: adenine, guanine,
thymine, and cytosine.
2. Hundreds of millions of nucleotides link together in a single DNA molecule.
a. The arrangement of the four types of bases in the DNA molecule was the subject of
research for over 50 years.
b. Erwin Chargaff determined that adenine always bonds with thymine, and guanine
always bonds with cytosine.
c. Chargaff’s first rule is: A = T and G = C.
3. Rosalind Franklin used x-ray crystallography to determine:
a. The helix shape of the DNA molecule.
b. The position of the bases on the inside of the molecule.
c. That phosphate groups formed the backbone on the outside of the molecule.
B. The double helix.
1. James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins combined Chargaff and Franklin’s
information to establish the final, correct form of DNA.
a. A double helix shape that allows the nitrogenous bases to pair on the inside of the
helix (A always bonds with T, and G always bonds with C).
2. Publication and recognition for the discovery.
a. Watson and Crick published the first paper on DNA structure.
b. Wilkins published a second article in the same series.
c. Rosalind Franklin published a third article in the series.
d. Nobel Prize recognition went to Watson, Crick, and Wilkins.
e. Rosalind Franklin died of ovarian cancer before the prize was awarded.
C. DNA’s base pair sequence.
1. Only four bases (A, T, G, C) give rise to the incredible diversity of traits in all of life on
Earth.
a. The order, or sequence, of base pairs along the DNA molecule varies among species
and among individuals.
b. The sequence of the bases is a code that is translated into traits.
c. Variation in the sequence is the foundation of life’s diversity.

DNA Structure and Function

6.3 DNA in Chromosomes
A. A chromosome is a molecule of DNA.
1. Prior to duplication, each chromosome is a single DNA molecule.
2. Following duplication, each chromosome consists of two DNA molecules called sister
chromatids.
a. Sister chromatids are attached at a constricted region called a centromere.
b. Sister chromatids exist in a characteristic X shape.
c. Each chromatid is a tangled filament.
d. Each filament is a hollow tube formed by coils of twisted DNA fibers and proteins.
3. Nucleosomes are sections of DNA wrapped around histone proteins.
a. Nucleosomes are the smallest unit of chromosomal organization in eukaryotic cells.
B. Chromosome number.
1. The chromosome number is the sum of all chromosomes in a cell of a given type.
2. A diploid chromosome number means two versions of each type of chromosome exist in a
cell, one donated by each parent.
C. Types of chromosomes.
1. Autosomes have the same length, shape, and centromere location.
2. Sex chromosomes differ between male and female.
a. Human sex chromosomes are X and Y.
b. Autosomes in human females have XX chromosomes.
c. Autosomes in human males have XY chromosomes.
3. Environmental factors influence sex determination in some species.
4. Karyotyping is a process of staining and observing the entire complement of chromosomes
from a cell.
a. Comparison of a karyotype to a standard reveals any abnormalities such as missing or
extra chromosomes, or structural abnormalities.

6.4 DNA Replication and Repair

A. Chromosomes must duplicate (replicate) before they reproduce, so each future offspring can
have a complete set.
1. DNA replication is the process of duplicating chromosomes before cell division.
2. The sequence of events in DNA replication.
a. An enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds holding the two strands of DNA together in its
characteristic helix shape.
b. The DNA helix unwinds.
c. DNA polymerase (enzyme) assembles a complementary DNA strand on the exposed
parent strand.
d. The strand is built using free nucleotides.
e. The sequence of bases assembled is based on the existing sequence in the parent
strand (A is bonded with T, and C is bonded with G).
f. DNA ligase (another enzyme) seals any gaps, so the new DNA strand is seamless.
g. As the strand lengthens, it begins to wind up again in a helix shape.
h. At the end of the process, two identical helices exist, each one with an old parent
strand and a newly built complementary strand.
B. How mutations arise.
1. The replication reactions occur very quickly.
a. 1,000 bases are added per second.

Chapter Six
 2. Mistakes occur in the process.
3. Bases get lost, incorrect bases are added, or extra bases are added.
a. DNA polymerases proofread their own work and detect errors.
4. DNA repair mechanisms resolve these errors in most cases.
5. If errors remain, cells may not divide and will die out.
6. Mutations are permanent changes in DNA sequences not repaired by cellular processes.
a. Mutations are the sole source of true variation in traits.

Suggestions for Presenting the Material

• The overarching goal for this chapter is to have the students grasp the base-pairing
rules, how DNA unzips and builds a new strand and then rewinds into a double helix.
Use an array of visuals and active learning exercises to accomplish this. Begin with the
animations provided with the text. Follow this with a brief quiz on Chargaff’s first rule
that asks the students to demonstrate their understanding.
• Reinforce the above approach with use of models. Some students are not familiar with
the term helix, and seeing the arrangement three-dimensionally helps their
understanding. First, show a simple model for observation purposes only. Follow this
with a model that allows the students to disassemble the molecule and reassemble it
using correct base-pairing rules.
• If your school does not own the models described above, consider assigning the students
a lab project in which they make a DNA model out of Styrofoam, cardboard, and
construction paper.
• Use construction paper of different colors cut into shapes and sizes that reflect the
differences between adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine. Once students see the
structural and size differences, and realize the total distance between DNA backbones
cannot be exceeded, they can more easily understand the base-pairing rules.
• Do classroom exercises to demonstrate how copy errors produce mutations. Write a
sequence out on the board that has about 10 to 15 unpaired bases. Show what the correct
sequence would be if all bases in the sequence paired correctly, and then show the
resulting strand if the wrong base paired, or if one were left out.
• Discuss the relative sizes of the female and male sex chromosomes. Pointing this out and
presenting a question as to the consequences of this difference will lead the student to
better comprehension of sex-linked traits being expressed in males in future chapters.

Classroom and Laboratory Enrichment

• Assign a simple exercise in which the students first arrange cut-outs of the 23 pairs of
human chromosomes, including the two sex chromosomes with correct relative sizes,
and then label each pair correctly. The instructor can also provide copies of various
individual karyotypes and ask the students to label the sex hormones (in particular) and
determine if the karyotype is that of a human male or female. Include several samples of

DNA Structure and Function

 genetic variations that produce birth defects, such as trisomy, to make the exercise more
challenging.
• Discuss case studies of famous mutations, such as that of the Morgan horse, stressing
that not all mutations are bad. Include in the discussion at least one mutation that causes
a disease, such as sickle-cell anemia.
• Discuss the production of mule offspring from the hybridization of a donkey and horse.
This interesting genetic puzzle provides the opportunity for discussing a number of
aspects of chromosomal replication. Use it to reinforce the concept that different
organisms have different numbers of chromosomes.

Impacts, Issues: Classroom Discussion Ideas

• Have you ever had a pet cloned, or considered having a beloved pet who was very ill
reproduced by cloning?
• Would a cloned pet be the same pet that you lost, or would it be a different individual
from an emotional perspective?
• Is cloning of endangered species a reliable and acceptable way to repopulate those
ecosystems that suffer the loss of important species?
• If we become accustomed to a world that includes cloned pets, cloned livestock, and
cloned wildlife, would we begin to accept the idea of cloned humans?

Additional Ideas for Classroom Discussion

• Discuss the historical events in the scientific community, as outlined in the text, at the
time DNA structure was determined in the 1950s. The fact that Rosalind Franklin’s
crystallography data was acquired and used without her permission should be
presented to the students with the appropriate ethical concerns.
• Organize a class debate on the topic of cloning endangered or extinct species. Is cloning
a practical and reasonable way to repopulate ecosystems that have lost species or are
very underpopulated in important species? For example, is it feasible to clone blue
whales, polar bears, anacondas, or manatees? What problems are associated with
cloning these species? Is it feasible to clone smaller, more manageable species? If DNA
from extinct species is available, should they be cloned and reintroduced into their
former habitat, if it still exists?
• Discuss the monetary and personnel issues inherent in cloning and reintroduction of
endangered species. Who should finance such an enterprise?
• In 1984, a baboon heart was transplanted into a human infant called Baby Fay. Should
baboons or other mammals be cloned to produce organs for humans? Is this type of
transplant practical and/or ethical? Should other primates or suitable mammals be
cloned to provide organs for humans who face incurable, fatal diseases?

Chapter Six
 • The enzyme that unwinds the DNA double-helix molecule was originally called ”DNA
unwindase” but was later renamed to helicase, its present name. Discuss why both
names are appropriate, according to enzyme-naming convention.

Videos, Animations, and Websites

Videos
The University of Utah—Genetic Science Learning Science
Videos detailing natural versus artificial twinning and the processes involved in somatic cell
nuclear transfer (SCNT).
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cloning/whatiscloning/

Animations
The University of Utah—Genetic Science Learning Science
Interactive animation on building a DNA molecule.
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/builddna/

Interactive animation on cloning.

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/tech/cloning/clickandclone/

Websites
The Center for Bioethics and Human Dignity.
https://cbhd.org/category/issues/cloning

How Would You Vote? Classroom Discussion Ideas

• Is animal cloning research the same as other types of research on live animals? Should
the same regulations pertaining to treatment of animals apply?
• Should animal cloning research be limited to certain types of animals? For example,
studies on the nervous system are sometimes done on organisms without developed
brains such as sea anemone or other intertidal animals. Are they more acceptable
subjects for cloning research or not?
• Should the fate of animals born because of animal cloning experiments be regulated?
What regulatory body would perform this function?
• Would your choice of the animals you view as acceptable subjects for animal cloning
research be influenced by having a loved one afflicted with an incurable disease?

Term Paper Topics, Library Activities, and Special Projects

• Cloning pets: monetary and ethical considerations.
• Lessons from Jurassic Park: Michael Crichton’s message.
• The history of DNA as a forensic tool.

DNA Structure and Function

• Endangered species reproductive studies at the San Diego zoo.
• Why defense attorneys opposed DNA evidence in court cases.
• Analyze and critique The Double Helix by James Watson.
• Read biographies of Rosalind Franklin, James Watson, and Francis Crick. Present your
findings to the class in oral reports.
• Research the genetic research industry that was spawned by the knowledge of DNA
structure and how it can be manipulated. Who regulates this industry?
• Search genetic research journals to determine some of the most current health issues that
are the subject of biomedical research.
• Research how karyotypes are used by genetic counselors to advise their clients.
• Research the Human Genome Project. Determine how long this project has been going
on, how it is funded, and what conclusive results have been achieved to date. How has
this project benefitted the average US citizen?
• Ask the students to write out a random strand of DNA with 20 unpaired bases on a
sheet of paper with their name on it, and have them turn it in. Then make copies of each
student’s “DNA” listed vertically down the left side of a page; include 10 blank spaces
across the page for students to fill in with other students’ base sequences. At the next
class meeting, return the pages to the students, and have them compare their strand to
10 other students’ strands during a 15-minute lecture break (or during lab). There should
be no exact matches among the class. This active learning exercise demonstrates how
four bases can provide the variation we see in all organisms.
• Invite a law enforcement or forensic lab professional to speak to the class about how
DNA has changed the forensic landscape. If your college is located in a city or town with
a crime scene investigation lab or a lab where polymerase chain reactions are done on
DNA fragments, this is the best choice. However, even local sheriff or police
departments have personnel trained in the collection and use of DNA evidence.
• Do a class project investigating the use of DNA evidence to solve old crimes and procure
the release of formerly convicted individuals subsequently proven innocent. Use this
project to: 1) provide another exercise on Digging Into Data (the number of convictions
of innocent people is significant); 2) promote discussion about the costs of
reinvestigating old crimes and whether this option is available to all those who claim
innocence; and 3) discuss how science has advanced the cause of fair treatment for all
who are accused of crimes, and helps ensure the conviction of those who are guilty.
• The class can debate the topic of genetic research and DNA manipulation as a private,
for-profit industry. What possible problems exist with this? Should the licensing of
individual genetic research programs in the private sector be licensed on a case-by-case
basis by the government? Should patents be issued to scientists or companies that
successfully create a drug or new organism through genetic research? Should all genetic
research be conducted within the confines of government-controlled or non-profit
laboratories?
• Arrange a visit to a genetic research lab as a class field trip. Most universities with
graduate programs in biology are conducting some form of genetic research. In some
areas, private-sector firms have extensive genetic research teams.

Chapter Six
Answers to Self-Quiz Questions
1. d. a and c 10. d all are required.
2. c. glutamine 11. c. the nucleotide itself
3. c. A-T, C-G 12. d. all of the above
4. b. DNA sequence 13. f. all of the above
5. b. DNA sequence 14. d. change the DNA sequence
6. a. histone proteins 15. d. nucleotide; c. clone;
7. b. is a characteristic feature of a species. b. autosome; a. DNA polymerase; f.
8. b. have two sets of chromosomes. mutation; e. bacteriophage; g.
9. a. the two DNA strands unwind from semiconservative replication.
each other

Possible Responses to Critical Thinking Questions

1. Some errors in base pairing remain uncorrected in the cell. If the cell goes on to divide
and reproduce successfully, the change becomes permanent in the cell and is called a
mutation. Some errors also do not result in a functional change and therefore can go
uncorrected.
2. Technical problems, alone, may prevent success in this endeavor. Recall from the
chapter that in reproductive cloning, the embryo is implanted into the uterus of a similar
animal for developing the embryo. Whether or not a suitable surrogate exists among
current animal species remains a question. Elephants are obvious candidates. However,
the success of the endeavor remains a question. If a wooly mammoth is successfully
cloned, where would the animal live, and what would it eat? Although we may
successfully clone the animal, we are not able to recreate the ecosystem that it lived in
and the food on which it survived. Is it ethical to clone and essentially bring into the
world an animal whose fate is life in a zoo? What would the justification be for such an
endeavor?

Visual Question

1. CCAAAGAAGTTCTCT.

DNA Structure and Function