5.

ACTUATION SYSTEMS
 ACTUATORS

Definition:
 Actuators are the muscle behind a Mechatronics
system that accepts a control command and produces a
change in the physical system by generating force,
motion (displacement and velocity), heat, flow, etc.
 An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one
type of physical quantity into some alternative form
 An actuator is usually activated by a low-level
command signal, so an amplifier may be required to
provide sufficient power to drive the actuator
 ACTUATION SYSTEM
 Actuation system- are the elements of control system
responsible for transformation of output of a
microprocessor into a controlling action on machine or
device.
 Electrical o/p of controller transforms into linear motion of a
load.
 Electrical o/p of controller transforms into an action which
controls the amount of liquid passing along a pipe.

Logical Signal Processing Final Actuation

Signal & Amplification Element

Actuator
Sensor
 ACTUATION SYSTEM: TYPES

 Actuation systems can be classified in to three

categories:
 Hydraulic and pneumatic actuation system
 Mechanical actuation system
 Electrical actuation system
 HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS
 Fluid power denotes the use of a pressurized fluid to
drive linear or rotary actuators.
 The subject can be broadly divided into two fields:-
hydraulics and pneumatics .
 In Hydraulics the working fluid is usually oil (sometimes
water-oil emulsions)
 In Pneumatics it is compressed air
 Pneumatic signal are used to control final control
element even though the control signal is electrical.
 They can actuate large valves, high power control
devices.
 Still high power - Hydraulic signals can be used.
 Pneumatic? – compressibility of air.
 Hydraulic ? – very expensive, liquid leakage.
 PNEUMATICS VS. HYDRAULICS: DIFFERENCES
 The two fields have a great deal in common, but there
are also some basic differences:

1. Pressure Levels:- Typically pressures in industrial

pneumatic circuits range from 5 to 10 bar whereas
hydraulic circuits commonly operate at pressures up
to 200 bar, or even much higher.

2. Actuating Forces:- Because of the relatively low air

pressures used, pneumatic actuators can produce only
low or medium size forces, whereas hydraulic
actuators are suitable for very high loads.

3. Element Cost:- Hydraulic cylinders and valves can cost

from 5 to 10 times more than similar-size pneumatic
elements.
 CONT…
4. Transmission Lines:-
 Hydraulic transmission lines are usually made of metal
tubing with expensive fittings, needed to withstand the high
working pressures and to avoid leaks.
 In pneumatics, inexpensive flexible plastic tubing is used,
and the fittings can usually be connected by hands, without
using wrenches.
 Also, in hydraulic systems, return lines are needed to return
the oil from each cylinder back to the reservoir. In pneumatic
systems, by comparison, only a single line is needed, since the
air is simply exhausted back to the atmosphere after it has
done its job.

5. Speed Control:-
 Because of the compressibility of air, it is difficult to control
the speed of pneumatic cylinders or motors accurately.
Therefore, whenever constant actuator speeds are required–
despite sudden load changes–a hydraulic system should be
used.
 CONT…
6. The Power Source:-
 In hydraulic systems, constant displacement pumps are used,
so that the oil flow rate is constant, regardless of load
pressure. The pump does not produce pressure, but rather a
constant flow. The pressure developed in the system depends
on the opposing load.
 The situation is exactly the opposite in pneumatic systems: a
pressure regulator connected at the compressor-receiver
outlet keeps air pressure essentially constant, whereas the air
flow rate into any given cylinder is determined by the load.

7. Actuation Speeds:-
 Since compressed air expands very quickly, the piston
velocities in pneumatic cylinders are usually very high,
provided the actuating valves and air supply tubing are
properly sized.
 In hydraulic cylinders, piston velocity is usually low, being
determined by the flow rate of the pump.
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC SYSTEM: COMPONENTS

 Power supply
 Directional control valves
 Pressure control valve
 Process control valves
 Cylinders
 POWER SUPPLIES
 Hydraulic power supply
ACCUMULATOR

 It smooth out any short term

fluctuations in output oil
pressure.
 A container in which the oil is
held under pressure against an
external force
 Pneumatic power supply
 DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE
 Directional Control Valves
 Direct the fluid flow through a system
 They do not alter rate of flow
 ON/OFF devices.
 Might be activated by means of mechanical, electrical, fluid
pressure signals
Spool valve
 CONT…

Directional Control Valves

 Poppet valve:

 normally in closed
condition.
 balls, discs or cones are System side
used in conjunction
with valve seats to
control the flow.
 CONT…
Directional Control Valves
 Directional valve: Free flow can only occur in one
direction through the valve, flow in the other direction is
blocked by spring.
 VALVE SYMBOLS

 Square: for each switching

position
 Eg: a 2 position valve- 2 squares
:a 3 position valve- 3 squares
 Arrow headed lines-to indicate
direction of flow
 Blocked-off lines: closed flow lines
 Connections: ports to the valve

(a) Flow path (b) Flow shut off

(c) Initial connections
 VALVE ACTUATION SYMBOLS
 Various ways the valves can be actuated
 EXAMPLE: POPPET VALVE

(a) 2/2 valve (Two port two position)

 Ports are labeled

1 (or P) for pressure supply
3 (or T) for hydraulic return port
3 or 5 (or R or S) for pneumatic exhaust ports
2 or 5 (B or A) for output ports
 EXAMPLE: SINGLE SOLENOID VALVE
 Solenoid operated spool valve

 The valve is actuated by a current passing through the

solenoid
 And return to its original position by spring
 EXAMPLE: APPLICATION OF VALVES

 Pneumatic lift system (Two push button 2/2 valves used)

 In pneumatic Open arrow : to indicate a vent to the
atmosphere
 PILOT OPERATED VALVE
If force required to actuate the valve is too large for
manual or solenoid
 One valve is used to control second valve
 Pilot pressure line is indicated by dashed lines
The pilot valve is small capacity and can be operated
manually or by solenoid
 Pilot operated 4/2 valve
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

 Three principal types

 Pressure regulating valves: maintains constant
pressure
 Pressure limiting valves: safety device to limit the
pressure.
 Pressure sequence valves: sense pressure in external
line and gives a signal if it reaches a preset value.
 PRESSURE LIMITING/RELIEF VALVE
 When the inlet pressure overcomes the force exerted by the
spring ,the valve opens and vents to the atmosphere
 Used to safeguard a system against excessive pressures

Pressure limiting /relief valve

 PRESSURE SEQUENCE VALVE
 Used to allow flow to occur to some part of the system
when the pressure has risen to the required level
 Eg: we might require some operation to start when the
clamping pressure applied to a work piece is at some
particular value.
 PROCESS CONTROL VALVES
 Used to control the rate of fluid flow.
 Basics: an actuator being used to move a plug into the flow
pipe and so alter the cross-section of the pipe through
which the fluid can flow.
 Eg: diaphragm actuator

 P.A=k.x; Where P: gauge pressure =Control pressure-

atmospheric pressure A: diaphragm area
 The basis of this is an actuator being used to move a plug
into the pipe and so alter the cross section of the pipe.
 CYLINDERS

 Cylinders
 Hydraulic /Pneumatic cylinders are actuation devices
that utilize pressurized fluid to produce linear motion
and force.
 Hydraulic/Pneumatic cylinders are used in a variety of
power transfer applications.
 Operating specifications(force, speed), configuration or
mounting, materials of construction, and features are
all important parameters to consider when searching
for hydraulic cylinders.
 CONT…
 Cylinder Type
 As we know, cylinders cause linear action from pressure
pushing against piston in a cylinder. There are two
common types of cylinders:

Single acting: Fluid may only enter the cylinder from one
side, therefore can only push the cylinder in one direction.
Springs are commonly used to return the cylinder to the
original form when the pressure is leased.

Double acting: Fluid may enter the cylinder from either

side of the piston, allowing control to move the piston
under pressure in either direction.
 CONT…
 Hydraulic/Pneumatic cylinders are example of a linear
actuator.

 Control of single acting cylinder

CONTROL OF DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
 A LINEAR ACTUATOR USED TO PRODUCE
ROTATION

 A linear cylinder can, withsuitable mechanical linkage

be used to produce rotary movement through angles less
than 360.
 EXAMPLE: CYLINDER SEQUENCING
 Required Sequence of operation: two cylinders A and B
are required that when the start button is pressed piston
of cylinder A extends and when fully extended cylinder B
extends when this has happened we need piston A to
retract and when fully retracted cylinder B retract.
 Both in retracted ….Start push button on valve 1 is
pressed
 Initially limit switch b- is activated and valve 3 is
switched …. A extends…releases limit switch a-
 A fully extends…a+ operates-switches valve 5-pressure
applied on valve 6-B extends…release b- .
 B extends fully…operates b+….switches valve 4…valve
3 switched …..A retracts…. release a+
 A retracts fully …..a- operates…..switches valve
7….pressure applied on valve 6…..B starts retracting.
 Mechanical Actuators/MECHANISMS
 Many jobs previously done by mechanisms are now
replaced by microprocessors.
 Mechanisms are devices used to convert one form of
motion to another, say linear to rotary.
 Mechanisms are still used for the following
 Force amplifier: lever
 Change of speed: gear
 Motion transfer(one axis to other): timing belt
 Particular type of motion: quick return motion
 They use linkages, cams, gears, rack & pinion, chain, belt
drives.
 Rack & pinion: rotational motion to linear
 Parallel shafts gears: to reduce shaft speed
 Bevel gears: rotary motion through 900.
 Toothed belts & chains: rotary motion b/n different shafts
ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS
 Switching devices-
 Mechanical switches – Keyboards, limit switches, Momentary
contact switches
 Relays, reed switches
 Solid-state switches: Diodes, Thyristors, Triacs, Transistors,
MOSFET
 Solenoid type devices – used in hydraulic/pneumatic
systems
 Drive systems – electric motors
 MOMENTARY CONTACT SWITCHES
(NORMALLY OPEN & NORMALLY CLOSED)

 The most fundamental control of any equipment is the

ability to turn it on/off. The easiest way to do this is using
switches.
ROLLER ACTUATED SWITCHES
 RELAYS

 Disadvantage of switches
 They have to be manually (physically) turned on/off.
 They are relatively large and occupy more space.
 The relay is essentially an electromechanical switch that
permits the opening and closing of electrical contacts by
means of an electromagnetic structure moving an arm.
 Relays are basically switches, which are turned on/off by
application of a low voltage across the relay terminals.
 They are universally found in automatic control
applications, since they can control equipment directly
through electric signals instead of requiring physical
operation.
 CONT…
 Relays may be Normally Open, or Normally Closed.
 In Normally Open, the contacts are connected only when
the actuation terminals are energized.
 In Normally Closed relays, the device is connected to the
power supply when the relay actuation terminals are not
connected.
 Relays with high current capacity (over 40 Amps) are
called contactors.
 APPLICATION…ELECTRONICALLY OPERATED STREET
LIGHT SYSTEM

 When a small
current from
sensor flow
through this
circuit, the relay
will activate its
output circuit,
allowing a much
bigger current to
flow. Thus
turning ON the
electrical bulb.
 REED SWITCH
 In electro-pneumatic control circuits, reed switches are
commonly used to sense the position of pneumatic
cylinder piston rods.
 are characterised by their small size and fast switching
time.
 SOLENOIDS

 Solenoid valves are

electro-pneumatic relays.
 The state of an electrical
input controls the state of a
pneumatic output.
 Solenoid valves are the
interface between electronic
control systems and
pneumatic power.
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

 The double poppet

armature is held by a spring
against the inlet orifice
sealing the supply at port 1
 Outlet port 2 is connected
to exhaust port 3
 When the coil is energized
the armature is pulled up
closing the exhaust orifice
and connecting the supply
port 1 to the outlet port 2
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

 The double poppet

armature is held by a spring
against the inlet orifice
sealing the supply at port 1
 Outlet port 2 is connected
to exhaust port 3
 When the coil is energized
the armature is pulled up
closing the exhaust orifice
and connecting the supply
port 1 to the outlet port 2
 MAGNETIC FORCE ON ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS WITH
FLOWING CURRENT AND ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION

 Lorentz force: Force acting on a long

straight conductor with a current I
flowing in it, as a result of a uniform
magnetic field is
 Faraday’s law: Any change in the
magnetic flux linked with a coil will
cause a voltage (emf)to be "induced" in
the coil itself, no matter how the change
is produced.
 ELECTRIC MOTOR CLASSIFICATION
 DC-motors
 Stepper motors(reluctance motors)
 AC-motor

Electric Motors

Direct Current (DC) Alternating Current (AC) Stepper (Reluctance)

Motors Motors Motors

Separately Self Excited Synchronous Induction

Excited

Series Compound Shunt Single-Phase Three-Phase

DC MOTORS
 Stator
(Rotating)
Commutator
Armature

Brushes
 A simple DC electric motor: when the coil is
powered, a magnetic field is generated around
the armature. The left side of the armature is
pushed away from the left magnet and drawn
toward the right, causing rotation
The armature continues to rotate
 BASIC PRINCIPLE
 Field circuit: an electric magnet fed by a dc power source(often
permanent magnet in small motors)
 Armature circuit: composed of windings, commutator, and brushes.

 Windings and commutator are mounted on the rotor shaft.

 The brushes are mounted on the stator and are stationary, but in
contact with the rotating commutator segment.
 Function of the commutator and brushes is to switch the coils
mechanically.
 The rotor windings are composed of
several coils; each has two terminals
connected to the commutator segments on
opposite sides.
 The commutator segments are electrically
isolated from one another. The segments are
exposed, and the brushes touch two opposing
segments.
 The brushes allow the commutator
segments to be connected to an external d.c.
source.
 CONT…
 The stator field produces flux, φ, from the north pole to
the south pole.
 The brushes touch the terminals of the rotor coil under
the pole.
 When the brushes are connected to an external d.c.
source of potential, V, a current, /, enters the terminal of
the rotor coil.
 The presence of the stator flux and rotor current
produces a force, F, on the coil known as the Lorentz
force.
 The coil that carries the current moves away from the
brush and is disconnected from the external source. The
next coil moves under the brush and carries the current
/. This produces a continuous force F and continuous
rotation.
 D. C. MOTOR WITH FIELD COILS

 Can be classified into four groups based on the

arrangement of their field windings.
 Separately excited motor: The field and armature
circuits are excited by separate sources.
 Shunt motor: The field winding is connected in
parallel with the armature circuit. A common source is
used for the field and armature windings.
 Series motor: This type is designed to carry large
currents and is connected in series with the armature
winding.
 Compound motor: This type uses the shunt and series
windings.
 SHUNT WOUND MOTOR
 A shunt motor has its field winding connected across the
same voltage source used for the armature circuit.
 The source current, /, is equal to the sum of the armature
current, /a, and the field current, /f.
 The shunt motor exhibits characteristics identical to those
of the separately excited motor.
 SERIES WOUND MOTOR

 Armature and field coils are in series.

 COMPOUND MOTOR

 Gives combined features i.e. highest starting torque and

better speed regulation.
 CONTROL OF DC MOTOR
 The speed-torque characteristics of a d.c. separately
excited (or shunt) motor can be expressed by the formula

 For a given torque, the motor speed is a function of the

following three quantities:
 Resistance in armature circuit: When a resistance is
inserted in the armature circuit, the speed drop,
increases and the motor speed decreases.
 Terminal voltage (armature voltage): Reducing the
armature voltage, Vt, of the motor reduces the motor
speed.
 Field flux (or field voltage): Reducing the field voltage
reduces the flux, φ and the motor speed increases.
 CON…

 Electric motors cannot be operated with voltages higher

than the rated value. Therefore, we cannot control the
motor speed by increasing the armature or field voltages
beyond the rated values.
 Only voltage reduction can be implemented. Hence, the
second method of speed control (armature voltage) is only
suitable for speed reduction, whereas the third method
(field voltage) is suitable for speed increase.
 For a full range of speed control, more than one of the
three methods must be employed.
 BRUSHLESS PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTOR

DC motors problem:
 Require commutator and brushes
to periodically reverse the current
through each armature coil.
 The brushes make sliding contact
and as consequence sparks jump
between the two and they suffer
wear.
 Brushes thus have to be
periodically changed and the
commutator resurfaced.
 CONT…

 Brushless
 Consist a sequence of stator coils and a permanent
magnet rotor
 A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
experiences a force; likewise, as a consequence of
Newton's third law, the magnet will also experience an
equal and opposite force.
 The current to the stator coils is electronically switched
being controlled by the position of the rotor so that
there are always forces acting on the magnet causing it
to rotate in the same direction.
CONT…
 CONT…
 To switch the coils in sequence we need to supply
signals to switch the transistors on in the right sequence.
 This is provided by the outputs from the three sensors
 Eg: rotor position= sensor signals(001..abc)
Transistors on….
 STEPPER MOTORS
 Is a motor that produces rotation
through equal angles, the so called
steps, for each digital pulse
supplied to its input.
 They don’t turn continuously, but
move in a series of steps.
 The center shaft has a series of
magnets mounted on it, and the
coils surrounding the shaft are
alternately given current or not,
creating magnetic fields which
repulse or attract the magnets on
the shaft, causing the motor to
rotate.
 Has no commutator.
 CONT…
Variable reluctance stepper motor:
 It has ferromagnetic rotor rather than the permanent
magnet rotor.
 When an opposite pair of windings has current switched
to them a magnetic field is produced with lines of force
which pass from the stator poles through the nearest set
of poles on the rotor.
 The rotor will move until the rotor and stator poles line
up.
CONT…
 CONT…
Permanent magnet stepper motor:
 Has stator with four poles

 Current is supplied from a dc source to the windings

through switches.

 The rotor is a
permanent magnet and
thus when a pair of stator
poles has a current
switched to it the rotor
will move to line up with
it.
 PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR
STEP SEQUENCE

 By changing stator polarities rotor moves to successive

equilibrium position
 AC MOTORS
 Classification
 Single phase(induction/ synchronous)
 Three phase(induction/ synchronous)

 Single phase induction:

 No external electrical connections to the rotor
 The stator with a set of windings
 Not self-starting: use an auxiliary starting winding to
give to give the rotor an initial push
 CONT…

 When an ac current passes through the stator windings

an alternating magnetic field is produced. As a result of
electromagnetic induction, e.m.f.s are induced in the
conductors of the rotor and currents flow in the rotor.
 The rotor rotates at a speed determined by the frequency
of the ac current applied to the stator.
 The speed of rotation of the magnetic field is termed the
synchronous speed.
 The difference in speed b/n the rotation of the magnetic
field and the rotor is termed slip.
 CONT…
 Three phase induction:
 Has three windings located 120 deg. apart.
 B/se the three phases reach their max. at different times the
magnetic field can be considered to rotate round the stator
poles, completing one rotation in one full cycle of the current.
 Rotation of the field is much smother than single phase motor.
 CONT…
 Synchronous motors:
 Have stators similar to those described above for
induction motors but a rotor which is a permanent
magnet.
 The magnetic field produced by the stator rotates and
so the magnet rotates with it.
 CONT…
U V W

V V

S N

U U i
W W

Synchronous A.C. Motor Induction motor

the rotor is a permanent (asynchronous), the rotor is
magnet composed of one or more
windings in short-circuit
 CONT…

 When an ac current passes through the stator windings

an alternating magnetic field is produced. As a result of
electromagnetic induction, e.m.f.s are induced in the
conductors of the rotor and currents flow in the rotor.
 The rotor rotates at a speed determined by the frequency
of the ac current applied to the stator.
 The speed of rotation of the magnetic field is termed the
synchronous speed.
 The difference in speed b/n the rotation of the magnetic
field and the rotor is termed slip.
 CONT…
 Three phase induction:
 Has three windings located 120 deg. apart.
 B/se the three phases reach their max. at different times the
magnetic field can be considered to rotate round the stator
poles, completing one rotation in one full cycle of the current.
 Rotation of the field is much smother than single phase motor.
 CONT…
 Synchronous motors:
 Have stators similar to those described above for
induction motors but a rotor which is a permanent
magnet.
 The magnetic field produced by the stator rotates and
so the magnet rotates with it.
 CONT…
U V W

V V

S N

U U i
W W

Synchronous A.C. Motor Induction motor

the rotor is a permanent (asynchronous), the rotor is
magnet composed of one or more
windings in short-circuit