2.

SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS

 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS
 In virtually every engineering application there is the need to
measure some physical quantities, such as displacements,
speeds, forces, pressures, temperatures, stresses, flows, and
so on. These measurements are performed using physical
devices called sensors, which are capable of converting a
physical quantity to a more readily manipulated electrical
quantity.
 Often the active element of a sensor is referred to as a
transducer. Most sensors, therefore, convert the change of a
physical quantity (e.g. pressure, temperature) to a
corresponding and usually proportional change in an
electrical quantity (e.g. voltage, current, charge). Often the
direct output from a sensor needs additional manipulation
before the electrical output is available to the user.
 Sensors: Element which produces a signal relating to the
quantity being measured. E.g. Electrical resistance
thermometer
 Quantity being measured – temperature. Sensor transforms
it to change of resistance
 Transducer: element that when subjected to some physical
change experience a related change.
 is a device which transforms the input signal of one energy
form into an output of another energy form.
Thus sensors are transducers.

 An example is the mercury-in glass thermometer in which
heat energy is converted into mechanical energy, forcing the
mercury to move along the glass as it expands or contracts.
 The most commonly used sensors and transducers, which are
specially suitable for automation and control purposes, make
extensive use of electrical signal.
 Transducers may be parts of complex sensors . For example,
a chemical sensor may have a part which converts the energy
of a chemical reaction into heat and another part, a
thermopile, which converts heat into an electrical signal. The
combination of the two makes a chemical sensor a device
which produces an electrical signal in response to a chemical
reaction
 What is the difference between sensors and transducers?
 Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical
phenomenon (temperature, displacement, force, etc.) produces
a proportional output signal (electrical).
 However, ideally, a sensor is a device that responds to a
change in the physical phenomenon.
 On the other hand, a transducer is a device that converts one
form of energy into another form of energy. Sensors are
transducers when they sense one form of energy input and
output in a different form of energy. For example, a
thermocouple responds to a temperature change (thermal
energy) and outputs a proportional change in electromotive
force (electrical energy). Therefore, a thermocouple can be
called as a sensor and or a transducer.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Binary (On-Off) vs. Analog (Proportional) Sensors
 Binary (or digital) sensors produce on-off signals. For
example, a limit switch contact might close whenever the
switch is mechanically actuated.
 The contact is either open or closed: there is no
intermediate position.
 Analog sensors, by comparison, produce so-called
proportional or analog signals.
 For example, a linear potentiometer might be used to
indicate position motion, with the voltage measured at the
potentiometer slide wire proportional to the motion.
 It is also important to distinguish between those sensors
which do not require the supply of energy from any source
other than the system under measurement, and those which
do. The former are now referred to as self-generators while
the latter are referred to as modulators. Self-generators,
which are also sometimes misleadingly called passive,
produce an output by directly extracting energy from the
system under measurement. Examples of these are
 the mercury-in-glass thermometer, whose mercury column
expands when exposed to increasing temperature
 the photo-voltaic cell, which gives an electrical output when
exposed to light
 the thermocouple, which generates a voltage proportional to
input temperature
 The other kind of sensor structure, which needs an
excitation or auxiliary supply of energy for its
operation, is called a modulating type.
 During their operation the energy flow is
modulated by the input measurand.
 They are also misleadingly classified as active.
Examples of the modulating group of sensors are
 all resistance based sensors, where electrical energy
must be applied to allow the resistance to be
measured
 Depending on the selected reference, sensors can be classified
into absolute and relative.
 An absolute sensor detects a stimulus in reference to an
absolute physical scale that is independent on the
measurement conditions.
 Example of an absolute sensor is a thermistor : a
temperature-sensitive resistor. Its electrical resistance
directly relates to the absolute temperature scale of Kelvin,
whereas
 A relative sensor produces a signal that relates to some
special case.
 Example: thermocouple is a relative sensor. It produces an
electric voltage that is function of a temperature gradient
across the thermocouple wires. a temperature gradient across
the thermocouple wires.
 STATIC & DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

 The most important function of a model devised for measurement or

control systems is to be able to predict what the output will be for a
particular input.
 Static characteristic:

 Values given when steady state condition occurs i.e. the values
given when the transducer has settle down after receiving some
input.
 Dynamic Characteristic:

 behavior between the time that the input values changes and the
time the values given by transducers settle down.
 Any system that changes with time is considered a dynamic
system.
 PERFORMANCE OF TRANSDUCERS
 Range: is the difference between the minimum (or most
negative) and maximum inputs that will give a valid output.
Range is typically specified by the manufacturer of the
sensor.
 Span: maximum value-min. value
 For a load cell measurement of forces might have a range of 0 to 50
KN and a span of 50KN
 Sensitivity: is defined as the change in output per change in
input.
 a measure of the change produced at the output for a given
change in the quantity being measured
 Is also frequently used to indicate the sensitivity to inputs other than
that being measured.
 A resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5 Ω/0C.
 A pressure measurement transducer may have sensitivity of ±0.1%
of reading per0C change in temperature.
 Error: is the difference between a measured value and the
true input value.
Error= measured value – true value
 Accuracy-is a number which expresses how closely the sensor
is capable of obtaining the true value of the measurand.
 is a measure of the maximum expected error
 Accuracy of ±20C means reading of instrument may lie + or -20C.
 Also expressed as % of full range output.
 Range 0 to 2000C, accuracy ±5%, means result is expected to lie
within + or -100C
 Resolution: smallest change in input value that will produce an
observable change in output values.
 Eg: for a wire wound potentiometer the resolution might be 0.50
 Hysteresis error
 Different o/p for the same value of the i/p-depending upon whether
it has been got for increasing value or for decreasing value.
 Typical causes are friction and structural changes in material.

For example, a displacement

sensor when the object moves
from left to right at a certain point
produces a voltage which differs
by 20 mV from that when the
object moves from right to left.
 Non Linearity Error: for many transducers a linear relationship b/n the
input and output is assumed over the working range.
 But few transducers have only true linear relationship and thus errors
occur as a result of the assumption of linearity.
 The error is defined as the maximum difference from the straight line.
Various methods are used for the numerical expression of the straight
line relationship against which the error is specified.

(a)- End range values (b)- best straight line for all values (using least
square) (c)-best straight line through zero point
 CONT…
 Stability: ability to give the same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time.
 Drift is used to describe the change of output that occur over time.
 Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is
zero input.

 Dead band/time: range of input values for which no output.

 Dead time : length of time from the application of an input until the
output begins to respond the change.
 Ex: bearing friction in a flow meter using a rotor…no reading until
friction is over passer by velocity.

o Repeatability/reproducibility: ability to give same o/p for

repeated application of same i/p.
=[(max-min value given)/full range]x100
 SYSTEM RESPONSE

 The total response of a control system, or element

of a system, can be considered to be made up of two
aspects, the steady-state response and the transient
response.
 The transient response is that part of a system
response which occurs when there is a change in
input and which dies away after a short interval of
time.
 The steady state response is the response that
remains after all the transient response have died
down.
 Response time:
 time which elapse after a const. i/p is applied up to the
point at which transducer gives values corresponding to
some specific % of the value of the i/p. (say 95%)
 Time constant:
 Time corresponding to 63.2% of o/p
 Measures inertia of the sensor and so how fast it will react
to changes of i/p.
 Rise time:
 Time taken for the o/p to rise to some specific % of steady
state o/p(often time from10% to 90 or 95%).
 Settling time:
 Time taken for the o/p to settle to within some % (2% of
steady state value)
 Response to a step input
 DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY SENSORS

 Displacement: concerned with the measurement of the

amount by which the object has moved.
 Position: the determination of the position of some object
w.r.t. some reference position.
 Proximity: used to determine when an object has moved to
within some particular critical distance of the sensor.
 POTENTIOMETER
 A potentiometer is a variable electrical resistance.
 A length of resistance material has a voltage applied over its
ends.
 A slider moves along it (either linear or rotary) and picks off
the voltage at its position or angle.
 The tracks may be made from carbon , resistance wire or
piezo resistive material.
 The latter is the best because it gives a good analogue output.

 The wire wound type produces small step changes in the

output depending on how fine the wire is and how closely it is
coiled on the track.
 CONT…

 When used as a measurement transducer, a linear

potentiometer is normally required.
 Use of the term linear assumes that the resistance
measured between one of the ends of the element and the
contactor is a direct linear function of the contactor position
in relation to that end.
 Linearity is never achieved, however, and deviation limits
are usually supplied by the manufacturer.
 OPTICAL ENCODERS
 An encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a
result of a linear or angular displacement. Position encoders
can be grouped in two categories: incremental encoders and
absolute encoders.
 INCREMENTAL ENCODER

 The incremental encoder, sometimes called a relative

encoder, is simpler in design than the absolute encoder.
 It consists of two tracks and two sensors whose outputs are
called channels A and B.
 As the shaft rotates, pulse trains occur on these channels at a
frequency proportional to the shaft speed, and the phase
relationship between the signals yields the direction of
rotation.
 By counting the number of pulses and knowing the resolution
of the disk, the angular motion can be measured.
 The A and B channels are used to determine the direction of
rotation by assessing which channels "leads" the other.
 The signals from the two channels are a 1/4 cycle out of phase
with each other and are known as quadrature signals.
 CONT…
 Often a third output channel, called INDEX, yields one pulse
per revolution, which is useful in counting full revolutions. It
is also useful as a reference to define a home base or zero
position
 ABSOLUTE ENCODER
 The optical disk of the absolute encoder is designed to
produce a digital word that distinguishes N distinct positions
of the shaft.

 For example, if there are 8 tracks, the encoder is capable of

producing 256 distinct positions or an angular resolution of
1.406 (360/256) degrees.

 The most common types of numerical encoding used in the

absolute encoder are gray and binary codes.

 The linear patterns and associated timing diagrams are

what the photo-detectors sense as the code disk circular
tracks rotate with the shaft.
 CONT…

 The gray code is designed so that only one track (one bit) will
change state for each count transition, unlike the binary code
where multiple tracks (bits) change at certain count
transitions.

 For the gray code, the uncertainty during a transition is only

one count, unlike with the binary code, where the uncertainty
could be multiple counts.

 Since the gray code provides data with the least uncertainty
but the natural binary code is the preferred choice for direct
interface to computers and other digital devices, a circuit to
convert from gray to binary code is desirable.
CONT…
CONT…
 PNEUMATIC SENSORS
 Involve the use of compressed air.
 Displacement or proximity of an object being transformed into a
change in air pressure.
 Are used for measurement of displacements of fractions of
millimeters in ranges which typically are about 3 to 12mm.
No close by object
 Low pressure air is allowed to escape through a port in the front
of the sensor in doing so it reduces the pressure in the nearby
sensor output port.
With an object near by
 The air can not escape so readily and the result is that the
pressure increases in the sensor output port.
 PROXIMITY SWITCHES
 It is a switch which can be activated by the presence of an
object in order to give a proximity sensor with an output which
is either on or off.
Microswitch: a small electrical switch which requires
physical contact and a small operating force to close the
contacts.
Eg: determining the presence of an item on a conveyor belt.

Different ways such a switch can be actuated

CONT…
 CONT…
 Reed Switch: consists of magnetic switch contacts sealed
in a glass tube.
 It is a non-contact proximity switch.

 widely used for checking the closure of doors and as

tachometers.
 CONT…

 Photosensitive devices: used to detect the presence of an

opaque object by it breaking a beam of light or by detecting the
light reflected back by the object.
 CAPACITIVE SENSOR

 Capacitive sensors consist of two parallel metal plates in

which the dielectric between the plates is either air or
some other medium.
 The capacitance C is given by 𝐶 = ԑ0 ԑ𝑟 𝐴/𝐷, where ԑ0 is
the absolute permittivity, ԑ𝑟 is the relative permittivity of
the dielectric medium between the plates, A is the area of
the plates and D is the distance between them.
 Capacitive devices are often used as displacement
sensors, in which motion of a moveable capacitive plate
relative to a fixed one changes the capacitance.
 The three most common forms are shown in fig below.
 VELOCITY AND MOTION SENSORS

 Used to monitor linear and angular velocities and detect

motion.
 Can be obtained by differentiating displacement

 Some sensors give velocity directly

e.g. measuring frequency of pulses gives speed rather


than position
 Some sensors give acceleration directly

 e.g. accelerometers usually measure the force on a mass

 TACHOGENERATOR
 A variable reluctance sensor (VRS), (Tachogenerator) is
used to measure position and speed of moving metal
components.
 This sensor consists of a permanent magnet, a ferromagnetic
pole piece, a pickup coil, and a rotating toothed wheel.
 A variable reluctance sensor is composed of a winding wound
around a cylindrical magnetic material, typically made of some
type of ferrous material that is referred to as a pole piece.
 A magnet is attached behind the pole piece, creating a magnetic
field through the pole piece and winding.
 This magnetic field projects out from the pole piece front, also
known as the sensor tip. When ferrous material passes through
and disrupts this magnetic field, electricity (a sine wave) is
generated.
 CONT…
 They are passive devices and do not require any external source
of power to generate a signal.
 The frequency of the signal is directly proportional to the speed
of rotation. The amplitude of the signal is affected by the speed
of rotation, the material being sensed and the distance, known
as the "air gap", between the sensor tip and the rotating object.
 FORCE SENSORS
 Force is proportional to displacement.
 Forces are commonly measured by the measurement of
displacement.
 Eg: A spring balance

 The main types of force sensors are

 Mechanical types.
 Hydraulic types.
 Electrical strain gauge load cell.
 MECHANICAL TYPES
 Mechanical types are usually
complete measuring systems
involving some form of spring such
as in a simple spring balance or
bathroom scale. It is a basic
mechanical principle that the
deflection of a spring is directly
proportional to the applied force so
if the movement is shown on a scale,
the scale represents force.
 HYDRAULIC TYPES
 Hydraulic types are often referred to as hydraulic load cells.
The cell is a capsule filled with liquid. When the capsule is
squeezed, the liquid becomes pressurized. The pressure
represents the force and may be indicated with a calibrated
pressure gauge. The capsule is often a short cylinder with a
piston and the pressure produced is given by P = F/A where F
is the force and A the piston area.
 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL
 A typical load cell consists of a metal
cylinder with strain gauges fixed to
it. When the cylinder is stretched or
compressed, the strain gauges
convert the force into a change in
resistance and hence voltage.
 Since temperature change also
produces a resistance change, the
signal conditioning circuit used has
to be able to eliminate the effects
due to temperature.
 FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS
 Pressure sensors either convert the pressure into mechanical
movement or into an electrical output.
 Many of the devices used involve monitoring of the elastic
deformation of diaphragms , capsules, bellows and tubes.
 Type of Pressure measurement that are required are:

 Absolute (measured w.r.t. vacuum)

 Differential(a pressure difference is measured)
 Gauge (measured w.r.t barometer)
 Mechanical movement is produced with the following
elements.
 Bourdon Tube, Spring and Piston, Diaphragm, Bellows
and capsules.
 PISTON TYPE
 The pressure acts directly on the piston
and compresses the spring. The position of
the piston is directly related to the
pressure.
 A window in the outer case allows the
pressure to be indicated. This type is
usually used in hydraulics where the
ability to withstand shock, vibration and
sudden pressure changes is needed (shock
proof gauge).
 The piston movement may be connected to
a secondary device to convert movement
into an electrical signal.
 DIAPHRAGMS
 Deformation of diaphragms gives the pressure difference.
 When there is pressure difference b/n the two sides then the
center of the diaphragm becomes displaced.
 Corrugation in the diaphragm gives greater sensitivity.
 CONT…
 Movement can be sensed by displacement sensor.
 Electrical: 4 strain gauges used, 2 in radial direction, 2 in
circumferential direction.
 Mechanical: The movement is transmitted to a pointer on a
dial through a fine mechanical linkage.
 PIEZO ELECTRIC SENSORS

 Refers to a phenomenon in which

forces applied to a segment of
material(ionic crystals) lead to the
appearance of electrical charge on
the surfaces of the segment.
 The source of this phenomenon is
the distribution of electric charges
in the unit cell of a crystal.
 The strain which is induced by the
force leads to a physical
displacement of the charge in the
unit cell.
 Eg: Quartz, Barium titanate
 TACTILE SENSORS
 Form of pressure sensor
 One form of tactile sensor uses piezoelectric polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF) film.
 Reverse piezoelectric effect used here.
 Used in fingertip of robotic hand.
 Also in touch display screen
 CONT…
 The lower PVDF film has an alternating
voltage applied to it and this result in
mechanical oscillations of the film.
 The soft film transmits these vibrations
to the upper PVDF film.
 As a consequence of the pizoelectric
effect, these vibrations cause an
alternating voltage to be produced
across the upper film.
 When pressure is applied to the upper
PVDF film its vibrations are affected
and the output alternating voltage is
changed.
 LIQUID FLOW AND LEVEL SENSORS

 Rate of fluid flow

 Mass flow rate(more accurate)
 Coriolis flow meter( for liquids)
 Thermal mass flow measurement( for gases) :The

principle of operation is to direct the flowing material

past a heated element. Then either by measuring the
temperature rise in the flowing fluid or by measuring
the heater power required
 Volume flow rate
 Rate of solid flow
 Mass flow rate
 Conveyor based methods
 TEMPERATURE SENSORS
 Changes that are commonly used to monitor
temperature are
 expansion or contraction of solids, liquids, gases,
 change in electrical resistance of conductors and
semiconductors and
 thermoelectric e.m.f.
 BIMETALLIC STRIPS
 Two metal strips having different coefficient of expansion are
rigidly joined together.
 When the temperature changes the composite strip bends in to
curved strip with the higher coefficient metal on the outside of
the curve.
 A modification of this bimetallic strip serves as the basis for one
of the simplest and most commonly encountered temperature-
measuring instruments, the bimetallic thermometer.
 CONT…
 A bimetallic strip is wound in the form of a
long helix. One end of the helix is held rigid.
As the temperature varies; the helix tries to
wind or unwind.
 In the industrial type, the strip is twisted
into a long thin coil inside a tube.
 This causes the free end to rotate.

 The free end is connected to a pointer. The

pointer actually indicates angular rotation
of the helix; however, since the rotation is
linear and a function of temperature, the
scale is marked in units of temperature.
 THERMISTOR
 A special type of resistance sensor
 They are made from a small piece of semiconductor
material(mixtures of metal oxides).
 Available in the form of beads, discs and rods.

 The material is special because the resistance changes a lot

for a small change in temperature(very non-linear) and so
can be made into a small sensor and it costs less than
platinum wire.
 They are only used for a typical range of -20 to 120oC and are
commonly used in small hand held thermometers for every
day use.

R= Ro e (β(1/T-1/To)
 LIGHT SENSORS(PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS)

 Use a modulated light beam that is either broken or

reflected by the target.
 Elements: consists of
 an emitter (light source),
 a receiver to detect the emitted light, and
 electronics that evaluate and amplify the detected signal
causing the photoelectric’s output switch to change state.
 MODULATED LIGHT
 Modulated light increases the sensing range while reducing
the effect of ambient light. The photoelectric sensor is able to
distinguish the modulated light from ambient light.

 Light sources: laser diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

These emit light in a narrow frequency band in the infrared
region and are not affected by sunlight.
 Light detector: photocells (cadmium sulphide or cadmium
selenide being the most common type of photocell),
phototransistors and photodiodes. Resistance is reduced
according to the intensity of light to which they are exposed.
 SCAN TECHNIQUES
 Scan technique: is a method used by photoelectric sensors to
detect an object (target).
 In part, the best technique to use depends on the target.
 targets are opaque and others are highly reflective.
 Scanning distance is also a factor in selecting a scan technique. Some
techniques work well at greater distances while others work better
when the target is closer to the sensor.
 Thru-Beam: Separate emitter and receiver units are
required for a thru-beam sensor.
 An object (target) placed in the path of the light beam blocks the light
to the receiver, causing the receiver’s output to change state.
 When the target no longer blocks the light path the receiver’s output
returns to its normal state.
 Suitable for detection of opaque or reflective objects.
 It cannot be used to detect transparent objects.
 CONT…

 Reflective or Retroreflective Scan: The emitter and

receiver are in one unit.
 Light from the emitter is transmitted in a straight line to a
reflector and returns to the receiver.
 ULTRASONIC SENSORS
 Sound is transmitted through propagation of pressure in air
 Speed of sound in air = 331 m/sec at 0oC and 343 m/sec at 20oC
for dry air
 Ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency sound waves and
evaluate echo which is received back by the sensor
 Sensors calculate time interval between sending signal and
receiving echo to determine distance to object.
 Range of sensor varies between 5 cm to 20 m
 CONT…
 Technology can be used for measuring:
 In robots for obstacle avoidance
 Wind speed and direction (anemometer),
 Fullness of tank, and speed through air or
water
 Measuring amount of liquid in tank, sensor
measures distance to surface of fluid.
 Other applications include: burglar alarms,
non-destructive testing, and etc
 OXYGEN SENSORS

 Application: located in the exhaust manifold, senses whether

the air-fuel ratio is rich or lean, and sends signals to the
ECU(electronic control unit) for minor corrections to the
amount of fuel being metered.
 There are two kinds of oxygen sensors:

 Zirconia oxygen sensor

 Titania oxygen sensor
 CONT…
A. Zirconia element type
 This O2 sensor consists of an element made of
zirconium dioxide (ZrO2, a kind of ceramic material).
 This element is coated with a thin layer of platinum
on both the inside and the outside.
 Ambient air is introduced into the inside of the
sensor, and the outside of the sensor is exposed to the
exhaust gases.
 When the air fuel mixture is lean, there is a lot of
oxygen in the exhaust gas.
 CONT…
B. Titania element type
 This oxygen sensor consists of a semiconductor
element made of titanium dioxide (TiO2, which is, like
ZrO2, a kind of ceramic).
 This sensor uses a thick film type titania element
formed on the front end of a laminated substrate to
detect the oxygen concentration in the exhaust gas.
 KNOCK SENSOR
 The charge of air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder
should burn quickly to permit optimum performance
and high speed but, equally so, it should burn
progressively, smoothly and not too quickly to create
early detonation i.e is knocking of the engine.
 There are many factors which may lead to knocking
combustion; different fuel qualities; advanced ignition
timing; aging and environ mental effect.
 A knocking combustion process leads to an extremely
sharp rise in cylinder pressure and produces pressure
oscillation..