HİGH SCHOOL

PHYSıC 9

RAHiM PoLAT
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l isrixı-Aı- MARşı
Korkma, sönmez bu şafaklarda yüzen al sancak
sönmeden yurdumun ü5tünde tüten en son ocak
O benim milletimin yıldızıdır, parlayacak;
o benimdiı o benim milletımindir ancak.
Çatma, kurban olaylm, çehreni ey nazll hilal!
Kahraman ırkıma biı 9ül! Ne bu şiddet, bu celal?
5ana olmaz dökülen kanlanmız sonra hel5l.
Hakkıdır Hakk'a tapan malletimin istiklal.
Ben ezelden beridir hür yaşadım, hür yaşarım.
Hangi çılgın bana zincir vuracakmış? Şaşanm!
Kükremiş selgibiyim, bendimi çiğner, aşarım.
Ylrtarlm dağlarl, enginlere slğmam, taşarlm.
Garbın 6f6kını sarmışsa çelik zırhlı duva1
Benim iman dolu göğsüm gibi 5erhaddim Var
Ulusun, korkma! Nasll böyle bir imanl boğar,
Medeniyyet dediğin tek dişi kalmış canavar?
Aıkadaş, yurduma alçaklarl uğratma sakln;
5iper et göVdeni, dursun bu hay5slzca akın.
ooğacakİlr sana Va'dettiği 9ünler Hakk ln;
Kim bilir, belki yarln, belkiyarından da yakın
Bastlğın yerleri toprak diyerek geçme, tanl;
Düşün altlndaki binlerce kefensiz yatanı.
sen şehit oğlusun, ihcitme, yaaktlr, atanl:
Verme, dünyaları alsan da bu cennet vatanl
Kim bu cennet Vatanln uğruna olmaz ki feda?
Şüheda fışkıracak toprağl slksan, şüheda!
canl, c6nanl, bütün Varlmlalsln da Huda,
Etmesin tek vatanlmdan beni dünyada cüda.
Ruhumun senden l16hi, şudur ancak emeli;
Değmesin mabedimin göğsüne namahrem eli
Bu ezanlar -ki şehadetleri dinin temeli-
Ebedi yurdumun üstünde benim inlemeli.
O zaman vecd ile bin secde eder -varsa- taşım,
Her cerihamdan llehi. boşanlp kanlı yaşım,
Fışklrır ruh-ı mücerret gıbi yerden na'şlm;
O zaman yükselerek arşa değer be|ki başım.
Dalgalan sen de şafaklar gibi ey şanh hilal!
Ol5un artık dökülen kanlarımın hepsi he16l.
Ebediyyen sana yok ırkıma yok izmih16l;
Hakkıdır hür yaşamış bayrağlmln hürriyyet;
Hakkldlr Hakk'a tapan milletimin istiklal!
Mehmet Akif E.soy
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ATATURK,S ADDRESS ETURKİSYOUTH

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YodşlheTurkish youth!
J,,,*,*
Your primağftt7is to forever protect and nd Turkish independence and
the Republic ofTurkey.

is is the mainst ay of your existence and r future. This foundation is your

. ln the future, as well, here will be wrongdoers, within
k to deny you f, one day, you are compelled
cea you shall not reflect on the
nln h you find yourself, in order

s and possi pear unfavorable. The adversa ries,

who eme aga inst your nce an d your Republic, may be the
representatives of a victory w cedent in the world. By force or by ruse,
all citadels and arsenals of our therland may have been taken, all of its
armles have been dispers llcorners ofthe country may have been

w
physi upied. More d istressi and more grievous than all these, those
and exercise the power hin the country may have fallen into gross
under, and even treason

power may have even united their personal interests with

't vaders. The nation itself may have fallen into
ı exhausted and desolate.
ı,
d daughters ofTurkey! Even under such circumstances
duty is to redeem the Turkish independence and the
you shalI need exists in the noble blood flowing through

M. Kemal Atatürk, october 20İ^,1927

 coNTENTs

,|98
UNlT 1: lNTRoDUCTloNTo PHYslcAL sclENcE 7 4.3.3. coİ{sERvATıoN ANoTRANsFoRMATloN oF ENERGY
9 .] ] ] [İel.iy ü< con5erved while ll Transforİns from
9.1.ı.THE lMPoRTANGE oF PHYslcAL sclENcE 9
.i ' ]ü -: :nportanceofPhysic5 in Unde15t.rndin
:li.] ., "'!,Ir the Univer5e 9.4.4. EFFlclENcY 204
9.1.2. APPLlcATloN FlELDs oF PHYslcs 10
: _ ' :,.ı,lches and Application Area5 of Phy5lC5
9,1.3 clAsslFlCATloN oF PHY5|CAL QuANTlTlEs 22 9.4.5. ENERGY soURcEs 20a
' '., ,,,
..] Quantities andTheil Units 1ewable Energ
'
9.1.4. sclENCE RESEARCH CENTERS 33 cHEcKYouRsELF 214
:. ' 'i].
ııportanCe of sCienCe Re5ear(h cente
CHECKYOUR5ELF 38 uNlT 5: HEAT AND TEMPERATuRE 221
9.5.,l.HEAl TEMPERATURE AND lNTERNAL ENERGY 223
uNlT 2ı MATTER Aı{D m PRoPEnTlEs 43 223
9.2,1. MATTER AND DEı{slw 45 225
, ..ri onship Among Mass, Vo
.:,,üül Daily Life
9.2,2. soLlDs
233
9.2.3. LlQulDs 85 9.5.2.cHANGE lN PHYslcAL STATE5 oF MAITER 237
dhesion, surface ,o to
CHECK YOURSELF 93 ,ıd
9.5.3. THERMAL EQULlBRlUM 252
Uı{lT 3: rlilonoı{ Aı{D FoRcE 101 9.5,4. HEAT TRANsFER 254
9.3.1, MoTloN 103 254
9] ]: Tü.e Motion of an object A(cordino to Diffe 26]
265
otion in Daily Life 267
irplacement, Di5tar 270
|ıocity and lnstanta 9.5.5. ExPANsloN 276
otion (Motion with )77
|fAccelerating and CHECK YOURSELF 2a9
,l23
9.3.2. FoRcE
UNlT 6: ELEcTRosTATlcs 299
9,3.3. NEwToN,s LAws oF MoTloN l33 9.6.1 ELEcTRlcAt cHARGEs 30l

es 327

ld ıi CHECKYOURSELF 337
FRlcTloN FoRcE ,l54
9.3.4. AN5wER5 343
Deı
CHECK YOURSELF ]59

uNlT 4: ENERGY 169

9.4,]. woRK, ENERGY AND PowER 171
pl

9.4.2. MEcHANlcAL ENERGY 184

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UNıT 1

İNTRODUCTİON TO PHYSİCAL SCİENCE

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9.1 .1 . THE ıMPoRTANGE oF PHYslcAt scıENGE

9.1.1.1. The lmportance of Physics in Understanding the Events in the Universe

9.1.2. APPtıcATıoN FıEtDs oF PHYSıcs

9 .1 .2.1 . Branches and Application Areas of Physics

9.1.3 ctAssıFıcATıoN oF PHYsıcAt QuANT|TıE5

9.1.3.1 Physical Quantltles and Their Units

9.1.4. scıENCE RESEARGH GENTERS

9.1.4.1. The lmportance of Science Research Centers for Physics

 9.1 İNTRODUCTİON TO PHYSİCAL SCİENCE
§
9.1.1 THE ıMPoRTANCE oF PHYslcAL sclENcE

9.1.1.1 The lmpoıtance of Physics in Understanding the

Events in the universe
Physics i5 the fundamental scienCe. lt explains how the universe behaves at
T r
every scale, from the subatomic to the extragalactic. lt des(ribes the most basic
objects and forces and how they interact. lts laws tell us how the planets move, @ ğo ı
where light comes from, what keeps birds aloft, why a magnet attracts and also
repels, and when a falling object will hit the ground, and it 9ives answers to count-
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less other question5 about how the world works. t l

Physics is the most fundamental of the sciences. From the large questions
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such as dark energy and the origin ofthe universe, to the science underlying solar
cells, the GP5 in the car, and that iPhone in your pockeç the imponance of physics
is readily apparent.

Physics touches every aspect of our lives. lt involves the study of matteı en-
ergy and their interactions. As such, it is one area of science that cuts across all oth- The contribution of physics in the developfuent of
telephone and comPuter is great.
er subjects. other sciences are reliant on the concepts and techniques developed
through physics. other disciplines -such a5 chemistry, agriculture, environmental
and biological sciences- use the laws of physics to better understand the nature of
their own studies. Physics focuses on the general nature ofthe natural world, 9en-
erally through a mathematical analysis. students of many fields find themselves
studying physics because ofthe basic role it plays in all phenomena.

Physics seeks to find alternative solutions to the energy crisis eXperienced by

both first world and developing nations. As physics helps the fields of engineer-
ing, bio-chemistry and computer science, professionals and scientists develop new
ways of harnessing preexisting energy sources and utilizin9 new one5.

Physics helps in maintaining and developing stable economic arowth since it

offers new technological advances in the fields of engineering, computer science
and even biomedical studies. These fields play a crucial role on the economic a5-
pect of Countries and finding new and better ways to produce and develop prod-
ucts in these fields can help boost a country's economy.

The importance of physics isn't limited to the "hard sciences." lncreasingly,

physıCists are turnin9 their talents to molecular biology, biochemistry, and biol-
ogy itself. EVen medicine has a niche for physicists, and since medical physicists
are hard to come by, they are much in demand. Physics also undergirds many new
technologies. Cell phones, the lnternet, and MRls are only a few examples of the
physics-based technological developments that have revolutionized our world.
Many theoretical and experimental physicists work a5 engineers, and many electri-
cal and mechanical engineers have physics degrees. A physics education equips

9
 a person to work in many different and interesting places-in industrial and govern-
ment lab5, on college campuses, and in the astronaut corps.

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9.1.2 APPLlcATloN FıELDs oF PHYslcs

9.1.2.'l Branches and Appli<ation Areas of Physics

l I Physics was known as natural phi|osophy until the late 18th century. From
the end of the Middle Ages, Galileo, Boyle, Hooke and Huygens and others, (es-
t
a f, pecİally lsaac Newton), applied mathematics and an experimental approach to the
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study of matter and energy. However, it was not until the 19th century that clear
a modern concePts of matter and energy appeared. Modern physics staned with ra-
dio, radioactivity, cathode ]adiation and the Photoelectric effe(ts.

t Planck and Einstein are perhap5 the most well known names of modern phys-

l-'. fr' ics. with many others they produced the two main theories of matter and energy:
quantum physics and relativity. Efforts are now being made to produce a single

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theory of the universe that covers these as well as nuclear physics and gravitation.
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By the ıfth century physics was realized a5 a discipline distinct from phi-
\ losophy and the other sciences. The development of physics has answered many
Doctor§ u§e Phy§icaı §cience when doing ear aıd questions of early philosophers. 5ince the twentieth century, the individual fields
eye eİamination§.
of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most physicists work
in single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Albert Einstein (1879-
'l955) and LeV Landau (ı908-]968), who worked ın multiple fields of physics, are

now very rare.

sclENcE ExHıBlTloN
Because physics covers so much area, it is divided into several specific fields.
organize an exhibition of photographs of The main fields are mechanics, optics, solid state physics, electricity, thermodynam-
technological tools and equipment pro-
ic5, magnetism, atomic physics, nuclear physics, high energy and plasma physics.
duced by using physics knowledge. Write
briefly the relationship of physics to the
bottom of the photographs.
Theımodynamics
(
solid-state 1
LOOK AT LİNK' physics \ Magnetism

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You can see the basic concepts about ent-
rance to physical science by video at the
following general web address. Bıanches of
http://9oo.gl/059bty
0Ptics
Physia
ı AtomiC physi(s

Mechanics Nu(lear physiC5

High energy and
plasma physics

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Max Planck (t858 - 1947) Force and motion concePts a݀ the toPic of mechanicl
Albert Einstein (l879-1955)

Mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical

bodies when subjected to forces or displacements. lt associates the motion with
concepts of force and energy.

oPtics is the branch of physics which involves the behavior and proPerties
of li9ht. includin9 its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments
that u5e or detect it. optic5 usually describes the behavior of visible, ultraviolet,
and infrared light.

solid-state Physı(s is the study of rigid matter, or solids. Solid-state phys-

ics studies how the large-scale properties of solid material5 iesult from their atom-
ic-scale properties. lt also has direct applications, for examPle in the technology of
transistors and semiconductors.

Eledricity is the another branch ofphysics.lt involves what electricity is, how
it i5 measured, what it can be used for and how it is generated and distributed.

Thermodynamlcs is the branCh of physics concerned with heat and its rela-
tion to other forms of energy and work. lt examines the princip|es of the transmis-
sion of heat between materials.

MagnĞtism i5 one of the main forces of nature, like the force of gravity. Like
gravity, which causes objets to be attracted to each other, magnetism causes mag-
netized objects to be attracted to each other. Electromagnetism examines the
interactions of particles with electric charge. The 5tructure of electro ma9netic
waves and the interaction with matter is al50 the subject ofthi5 field.

Atomic phFi<3 (oı atom physics| is the field of physics that studies atoms
as an isolated system ofelectron5 and an atomic nucleus. lt is primarily concerned
with the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus and the processes by which
these arrangements change.

11
 ıluclea, physica is the fie|d of physics that studies the building block and
interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear
physics are nuclear Power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the
research has provided application in many fields, including those in nuclear medi-
cine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materia15 engineerin9,
and ıad|ocarbon datin9 in geology and archaeology.

The white light sent to the Pİism is divided into
colors
High energy and plasma physi(s cover5 the interactions of matter with tem-
peratures in excess of a million degrees "c, or densities from that of liquid water to
many times the density of solid lead. At these densities and energies, matter be-
comes plasma, also known as the founh state of matter. Plasmas are Very different
to the other states of matter.

PhFiCIsts Fİelds of oCCupatİon

Physicists are scientists who investigate motion and gravity, the behavior of
gases, the structure and behavior of matter, the 9eneration and transfer of energy,
and the interaction between matterand energy.They identify basic forces and laws
of nature. Theoretical physicists investigate these area5 without thou9ht to practi-
cal application, concerning themselves with ConcePts such as the nature of time
and the origin ofthe universe. other physicists apply their knowledge of physics to
§ practical matters, such a5 the development of computers, transistors, laser beams,
miCrowave appliances, communications sate|lites, and a wide Variety of other de-
vices.They solve problem5 in industry, medicine, defense, and other 6elds.
A crystallitte substance
Physicists work at colleges and universitie5, independent research centers,
hospitals, and government agencies. Many work in private industry, especially for
l, companies that make chemicals, electrical equipment, missiles, and aiİcraft. some
physicists spend most of their time doing research. others tea(h physics and re-
lated science courses.

t Physics i5 a Very broad science. Many physicists specialize in one branch. For
example, nuclear physicists study the structure of atomic nuclei and the way that
they interact with one another. Nuc|ear physıcısts sometimes use particle accelera-
İ tors to smash nuclei as an aid to their research. Their work has led to the devel-
opment of nuclear power plants and the use of radioactive substances that help
Haat in§ulation prevents energy loss medical doctors diagnose illness.

solid-state Physicists study the structure and propertie5 of such materi-

al5 as metals and alloys. They may grow synthetic crystals in a laboratory. The work
of solid-state physicists led to the development of the transi§tor. Health physicists
deVise equipment to detect harmful radiation. They design and supervise radı
ation protection programs for nuclear power plants, hospitals, and industries that
,i,
!§ use radioactive materials. Astrophysicists develop instruments for observation and
experimentation in space. optıcal physicists are ınterested in how to control li9ht.
Their research on lasers has already been applied to everything from eye surgery to
cutting tool5, Elementary partic|e physicists study atomic and subatomic particles.
Magnet attracts iron nails
Fluid and plasma physicists investigate the properties of ıiquids and gases. Plasma

|12
physicists are interested in electrically charged fluids, while fluid physicists are
interested in uncharged fluids. Plasma physicists help in such areas as reentry of
space vehicles into the atmosphere. Acoustical physicists study shock, Vibıation,
underwater sound, and noise. Biophysicists research the medical application of
physics. They are responsible for the development of the betatron for radiation
therapy.

Physicists are responsible for the theories and discoveries that have led to the
development of computers, transistor radios, laser beams, microwave appliances,
and communications satelIites.
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Niıclear power plant
Working conditions
Most physicists work indoors in clean, wel|-|ighted laboratories and class-
rooms. some types of physicists may spend a great deal of time outdoors. others
may work some of the time in hospitals or factories. Physicists generally work at DİSCUSSİON
least forty hours per week. overtime is often necessary for special projects. Most
physicists employed as college teachers spend six to eight hours a week in the lnvestigote the ro|e of physics in different pro-
classroom and the remainder of the workweek preparin9 lesson materials, advis- fessions. Discussyour rcsults in cldss.

ing students, conducting research, and writing. Physicists engaged in research fre-
quently work irregular hours while conductin9 experiments.

Physicists must be patient and hardworking. They must be willin9 to devote

many hoursto research. Physicists must be able to work both independently and as
part of a team. They need to have the ability to communicate thei, ideas to others
both orally and in writing. ?

lows:
Physics is generally based on engineering. However, there are many sectors
that benefit from the findings of physics. Some ofthese can be summarized as foF

1 . communication system, TV, radio, radar, telephone, computer, satellite

rı j
Pozitron Emisyon Tomogıafi (PET) deüce
communication
2. Energy production, transfer and efficiency
3. Theformation ofthe universe, and investigation of its development
4. The structure ofthe material and the development ofelectronic devices
5. Aerospace industry
6.
7.
Machinery and construction sector
Development of physical therapy methods and physical medical devices
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8. Environmental pollution, ozone layer and greenhouse effect studies,
The streıgth of the tallest buildiıg of the world
heating-cooling systems with a height of 828 m Burj Dubai shows üe cur-
9. Elimination of noise pollution rent position of Physics_

l 0. Use of forensic electron microscopy, DNA detection

1 l . The use of microwaves, lasers and infrared blends in the defense indus-
try

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Nanotechnology, or nanotech, is the study and design of
machines on the molecular and atomic Level. To be considered
nanotechnology, these structures must be anywhere from 1 to
loo nanometers in size. A nanometer is equivalent to one-bil-
lionth of a regular meter, which means that these structures are
extremely small.
Today, the word nanotechnology means something a bit
different. lnstead of building microscopic motors and comput-
ers, researchers are interested in buılding superior machines
atom by atom. Nanotech means that each atom ofa machine is a
functionin9 structure on it5 own, but when Combined with other
structure5, these atoms work together to fulfill a larger purpose.
Nanotechnology, in its traditional 5en5e, means building things
from the bottom up, With atomic precision. Nanotechnology is
sometimes referred to as a general-purpose technology. lt wi|l
offer better built, longer lasting, cleaner, safer, and smarter prod-
ucts for the home, for communicatıons, for medicine, for trans-
portation, for agriculture, and for industry in general. Here are
are some recent news about the researches on nanotechnology:
Nanomaterials used to localize and contİol drug
delivery. Nanomaterials may represent in such fields as on-
cology, endocrinology and cardiology. "U5ing this system, drugs
could be released slowly and under control for weeks or longer,"
said Cheng, a professor of microbiology, immunology and mo
lecular genetics.'A drug that is given orally or through the blood-
stream travels throughout the system and dissipates from the
body much more quickly. Using a more localized and controlled
approach could limit 5ide effects, particularly with chemotherapy
drugs." Nanotechnology can help reproduce or repair damaged
tissue. "Tissue engineering" makes use of artificially stimulated
cell proliferation by u5ing suitable nanomaterial-based scaffolds
and growth factors. For example, bones can be regrown on car-
bon nanotube scaffolds. Tissue engineering migh replace to-
day's conventional treatments like organ transplants or artifiCial
implants. AdVanced forms of tissue engineering may lead to life
extension.
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Non-wet fabric Nanorobot Fabric showing the back ofone pe6on

A reduction ofenergy consumption can be reached by bet-
ter insulation system, by the use of more efficient lighting or
combustion system, and by use of lighter and stronger materi-
als in the transportation sector. currently used light bulbs only
convert aPProximately 5% of the electrical energy into li9ht. Na-
notechnological approaches like light-emitting diodes (LEDS} or
quantum €aged atoms (QcAs) could lead to a strong reduction of
energy consumPtion for illumination.
Nanorobots are expectd to serve an the reconditioning of
necroti€ brain tissue. Nanotubes help advance brain tumor re-
search. Nanotechnology may helP revolutionize medicine in the
future with its promise to play a role in selective cancer therapy.
A nanotube i5 about 50,000 times narrower than a human hair,
but it length can extend up to several centimeters. |f nanotube
te(hnology can be effectively applied to brain tumors, it might
also be used to treat stroke, trauma, neurodegenerative disorders
and other disease pro(esses in the brain.

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You hove learned about the subfields of physics and what they are interes-
ted in, Some occupations are given below.Which subfields ofthe physics are relo-
ted to these occupations? Writeyour onswer on the other side.

o(cupations Related Physics Subfields

F
lİE
construction en9ineer

Geophysical engineer

Forensic specialist

Physical theraPist

Radiologi5t

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Astronomer
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F
o Nuclear energy engineer

x NioEP on gold
ı | 62 5? 1? 32
Eneloy (eV)

Nanotechnology has been proclaimed as the

'Next lndu§tİial Revolution' The distinctions between the natural science disciplines are not always sharp,
and they share a number of cross-discipline fields. Physics plays a significant role
in the other natural sciences, as represented by astrophysics, geophysics, chemi-
cal physics and biophysics. Likewise chemistry |s represented by such fields as
biochemistry geochemistry and astrochemistry. Now letl see the relationship of
physics with other discipline5.

The science which is perhaps the most deeply affected by physics is

chem|stry. The interaction between the two sciences was Very great because the
theory of atoms was substantiated to a large extent by experiments in chemistry.
ln inorganic chemistry the rules were ultimately explained in principle by quantum
mechanics, so that theoretical chemistry i5 in fact physics.

There is also a branch of physics and chemistry which was developed by both
sciences together, and which is extremely important. This is the method of statis-
tics applied in a situation in which there are mechanical laws, which is aptly called
statistical mechanics. statistical mechanics, then, is the science of the phenomena
of heat, or thermodynamics. lnorganic chem istry is, as a science, now reduced

[ıs
essentially to what are called physical chemistry and quantum chemistry; physi-
cal Chemistry to study the rates at which reactions occur and what is happening
in detail (How do the molecules hit? which pieces fly off first?, etc.), and quantum
chemistryto help us understand what happens in teİms ofthe physical laws.

The division between chemistry and physics becomes diffuse at the interface
of the two branches notably in fields such as physical chemistry, chemical physics,
quantum mechanics, nuclear physics/chemistry material5 science, spectroscopy,
solid state physics, solid-state chemistry, crystallography and nanotechnology.
,?-İ\
Biology and Physics
ğ
Biology is the study of living organisms. Physics is the 5tudy of matter and the
From Atoms to Medicine
laws of nature to understand the behavior of matter and the universe. Physics pro-
vides the basis for biology. without space, matter, energy and time-components
that make up the universe-living organisms would not exist. Everything on earth
is made of atoms, basic units of matter, that constantly move. since biology has its
foundation in physics, it applies physical natural laws to the study of living organ-
isms. For example, physics helps explain how bats use sound waves to navigate
in the dark and how wings give insects the ability to move through the air. Many
flowers arrange their seeds or petals in a Fibonacci-like sequence to maximize eX-
posure to light and nutrients. ln some cases, biology helps prove physical laws and
theories. For example, biology helped scientists come up with the law of conserva-
tion ofenergy.

ofcourse, physics and its techniques have played a significant role in biology
for decades. X-ray crystallography and nuclear ma9netic resonance are essential
tools for structural biologists. Biophysicists study everything from the forces ex-
erted by molecular motors to the energetic of enzyme catalysis. And electrophysi-
ologists need a working knowledge of the Nernst equation, which describes the
movement of ions across cell membranes.

Physics ha5 a time-honoured tradition of providing tool5 and methods for re

search in biology and medicine. This tradition is nowadays as alive as ever.

Technology and Physics

As we all know physics is the study of natural phenomena. Any sort of tech-
nology which we use in our daily life is related to phys|cs. Physics is also a necessity
in solving our future problems.

The forms of energy and forces we study in physics are all applied in our rou-
tine life. EVen the movemenvmotion in human body is also physics. Human body
i5 bound with the earth with the help of gravitational force. The food we take goe5
under some chemical reaction and results in mechanical energy. we are connected
with the people far away from us with the help of technology using satellites.

We can evaluate the significance of physics by comparing our grandparent's

17
 s
time with our modern period.The luxuries we have are all a development oftech-
nology. Physics is the basis of modeİn technology. The principles of physics make
Us interact better with our surroundings. Each and every actiVity from the moment
) ) we get up from our bed to the time we again go to bed involves physics. we run
cars; operate mobile phones, electric food processors. EVerything is a gift of phys-

7-
ıl-
rrI
ic5. lt makes our liVes comfortable.
rı
t J
ı Technology i5 nothing without physiCs. Every technology involves physics.
Physics and technology are very much related. The connection between physics,

I
technology and society can be seen in many examples.

Physics plays an important role in health, economic development, education,

energy, and the environment. our modern world is much more connected than in
previous historical times. These days we travel far, communicate ea5ily and quick-
ly, and conduct business around the world effortlessly. ln fact almost no place on

İ earth has been excluded from the modern interconnected world.

The scientific concept of thermodynamics, including phase changes and

a states of matteı was influenced by the technical needs of metallurgy, which is the
working of meta|s such as steel and other aIloys. Faraday's discovery of magnetic
induction led to the technological development of electric motors and generators.

Maxwell and Hertz's work with electromagnetic waves led to the creation of
wireless technology. This development of wireless technology stimulated the sci
Physics aıd technology aıe very much related.
entific interest in spark discharge and electrical emission. wireless te(hnology al5o
led to the refinement ofthetheory of atoms and the development of a new theory
on the states of metals.

5ome physical Concepts are no longer pursued due to the advancements in

other technolo9ies. This occurred to the concept of generating electricity by fric-
tion, which was dropped due to the invention of the galvanic cells. Galvanic cells
themselVes stopped being researched with the invention of generators.

Every kind of technology makes use of principles articulated by the scientific

discipline of physics. Even Very 5imple technology, such a5 the wheel or the lever,
have actions that can be described in terms of basic forces and matter interactions

More complex technology, naturally, makes use of more rarefied physical

concepts. GP5 satellites, for examplg ad.iust their internal timekeepin9 to account
for the relativistic effects of their motion. Einstein's theory of 5pecial Relativity de-
scribes the dilation of time that fast-movin9 objects experience. without takin9
steps to correct for this change in the rate that time pa55es, GPs coordinates would
be inaccurate by an una<ceptable factor.

ln general, physics describes the sort of thıngs that are possible in the uni
verse, and technology is eventually built to do work within the confrnes physics has
discovered. This interplay works in reverse, as well. While early physicists may have
been able to articulate basic principles with littIe more than thought experiments,

18
modern physicists frequently make use of extremely high- tech machines and pro-
cesses.The Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland, for example, is the world's largest
parti(le accelerator. lt operates at higher energies than any previous collider, and it
was built explic|tly for the purpose of conducting experiments in particle physics.

Ever gotten your blood pressure checked at the doctorl office or local phar-
macy? Chances are you have. Blood pressure is one of the most basic measures
of good health and when it's high, it serves as a warning for some pretty serious
medical problems. But did you realize that physics is what made that test possible?
Therel even a distinct branch of the science that deals specifrcally with medicine,
known as medical physics.

Broken bones are found with x-rays, which are also a product of physics. lf
you're ever seen or gotten an ultrasound that shows a developing child in the
womb, you were actually watching physics in action. Ultrasounds are crucial for
gettin9 an idea ofa newborn baby's health and diagnosing any complication5 be-
fore binh.

Physics is abso|utely huge when it comes to any and everything that we use
for energy. Oil for fuel is extracted and processed largely through physics-based
ideas. lt's key for mining coal and using it power massive factories.

Not to mention the electricity in homes that is considered a basic necessity in

our current day and age. Physics is largely responsible for the systems that allow it
to be harnessed, controlled, and used to power everything from your laptop to the
little light in your refrigerator.

From electromagnetism to quantum optics, physics is simply indispensable

to nearly every aspect of the way we currently communicate. without it, we'd prob-
ab|y still be stuck with horse messengers deliVerin9 our mail and news.

we alreadytalked about physics'importance ın mining and using fuel, which

powers our planes, trains, and automobiles. Without it, they simply wouldn't move.
BUt the role of physics in both our personal transportation and shipping goes even
deeper than that.

Engineering and Physics

Physics is the fundamental study of matter and space and their interactions
and evolution in time while engıneering is the application of this knowledge to
meet human needs in science and technology.

The Engineering Physicist uses the laws of physics to solve daily problems
encountered by engineers. Therefore, he is a physicist and an engineer at the same ( RfsEARcH
time. one of the main pu rposes of an eng ineering physicist is to make the connec-
lnvestigate how audio and video are trans-
tion between people working in the 6e|ds of science and technology.
miıted on mobıle phones and how it is expla-
The role of the structural engineer i5 a key component in the construction ined by physics. Make a plesentation to your
process. Part ofthe wider discipline ofcivil engineering, structural engineering i5 friends with the information you have.
concerned with the design and physical integrity of buildings and other large

1ll
 structures, like tunnels and bridges. structural engineers have wide range of re-
ş sponsibilities - not least a duty to ensure the safety and durability of the project on
which they are working.
-ı
5tudents of most undergraduate architecture programs are required to take
an introductory physics course. There are three good rea50ns for that requirement.
§ First, architects have to understand the fundamentals of physics as they apply to
processes taking place in buildings and in structuIes. Second, as part of general
Physical engineering education, physics broadens our understandıng of the physical world around us.
Third, since physics is an exact science that relies on mathematics, solving phys-
ics problems enhances the analytical and scientific thinking skills of the student.
"Physics-for-Architects"was written specifically for architecture students, aiming to
satisfy those three ba5ic requirements.

How does physics apply to building design and architecture? Let's see. First
of all, it help5 determine the entire basic structure of a building. The best ways to
support weight and keep everything stable and standing.

I lt helps us understand whi(h materials are most affected by heat, light, and
water. By studyin9 how Vibrations affect different structures, we're able to design
buildings that Can withstand natural dısasters like earthquakes and hurricanes. lm-
agine a city full of skyscrapers collapsing from a minor earthquake - then take a
second to thank physics that they don't.

The science is largely responsible for our ability to push the limits and create

L* -]nlİı the magnificent structures we see all around us today while keeping them safe to
live and work in.
AIchitecture
Physics is widely used in electrical engineering, electron ics, computer sci-
ence. construction, and mechanical engineering. From the physical behavior of a
rotating machine part to the movement of electrical current in electronic circuits,
everything is about physics.

Art and Physics

EarIy musicians had a|ready observed that the tone produced by a plucked
string could be varied by decreasing or incfeasing its length. ln the sixth centu-
ry B.c., Pythagoras found that when he divided the string by whole numbers, he
could produce half the notes of an octave of music. Thus, he demonstrated that
interval5 had a mathematical, which meant a rational, foundation, and music and
physics entwined for the first, but not the last time.

science and art naturally overlap. Both are a means of investigation. Both in-
Volve ideas, theories, and hypotheses that are tested in places where mind and
hand come together-the laboratory and 5tudio. lntroduction to physics of sound
and light, with application5 to music and Visual arts: sound perception, harmony,

Mechanical engineering mu5ical scale5, instruments, lenses, cameras, colour perception and mixing. some
artists u5e physic5 in the development oftheir installations such as the light.

20
 Both of the important cultural activıties art as well as physics contribute in
a specific manner to the formation of the world View of the members of a given
culture. Many interactions on different levels can be recognized. A closer View on
paintings and drawings show numerous physicaI aspects. only some of them can
be given here:

. Artistic reflection of physical achievements (e.g. the discoveries of lsaac

Newton), ?:---.--J
. Physics as magic art: presentation of technical devices initiated by natural
science (e.g. telescope, electrostatic machine, Vacuum pump),
. Representatıon ofnatural phenomena Irainbow sunset, "sundogs'i "su ndol-

ıar5" (solar pinhole images)],

. Representation of natural catastrophes,
. Representation of motion and other non static phenomena (e.g. sound),
. Representation of physical, especially optical effects (colour, gloss, reflec-
tions),
, Artistic play with the laws of nature,
. Physical techniques in art (determination of age, techniques of restoration).

Mathematics and Physics contemPorary art meets Particle physics.

lf we define physics by its methods, we have a simple answer to why math-

ematics is useful: physics is mathematics. This i5 certainly true: without mathemat-
ics, there would be no science of physics. Math appears to be absolutely necessary
to make precise and accurate predictions about the world.

But we dont study physics because of its methods.we study physics because
the pursuit of the fundamental laws of nature. And it is a remarkable fact indeed
that mathematics is so useful in describing these laws and what follows from them.
The laws of physics expressed so well by mathematics.
{*
rıı ) a

A5 it is known globally,'Mathematics i5 the language for physicistsl and with- /Ğ ,,r

out proper mathemat|cal knowledge it is nearly impossible to learn or understand (
higher physics. Ç \_;
Mathematics and physic5 have always been closely interwoven, in the sen5e
of a'two-ways process":

. Mathematical methods are used in physics.. Physical concepts, ar9uments

LOOK AT LINKS
and modes ofthinking are used in mathematics.
To understand the importance of mathema-
tics in physics, you con wotch the video ot
the oddress below.

http://goo,gl/Ul Da2e

21
 9.1.3 ctAssıFıcATıoı{ oF PHYsıcAL QuANTiTıEs
9.1.3.1 Physical Quantities and Their Units
a. Basic Quantities
A physical quantity is a physical property characterizing some aspect of na-
ture that can be measured or calculated. Tlme, temperature, Velocity, energy are
just a few examples of physical quantities. Physical quantities are u5ually expressed
by symbols. They have a number which is showing the magnitude. The numerical
PREFlxEs oF 5l value of a physical quantity is in complete without a reference to the "size" of the
pıefix Symbol Multip|ying Factor numbers. A value's units state the standard to whiCh the number will be compared.

tera T l o12 Basic Quantities are those quantities on the basics of which other quantities
can be expressed.The seven base quantities ofthe lnternational system ofQuanti-
9|ga G ı09
ties (lsQ) and their corresponding sl units and dimensions are listed in the follow-
mega ]06 ing table. Other conventions may have a different number of fundamental units
,ı (e.9. the CGS and MK5 systems of units).
kilo k 03
The 5l base quantities form a set of mutually independent dimensions as re-
hecto h l02
quired by dimensional analysis commonly employed in science and techno|ogy.
deka da 10 However, in a giVen realization of these units they may well be interdependent, i.e.

8A5E UNlT defined in terms of each other.

deci d l o-t The names of 5l units are written in lowerca5e characters (the degree Celsius'
meets this rule, as'degree'is the unit, and'celsius'is a modifier). The symbols of
centi c ı o-2
units are written in lowercase (e.9. meter has the symbol m), except that symbols
milli m 1o-3 for units named after persons are written with an initial capital letter (e.9., the hertz
has the uppercase symbol Hz).
mlcro g l 0-6

nano n ı o-9 b. Derived Quantitıes

,ı
plco p o-12 Many other physical quantities can be derived out of the combination of
these basic quantities. They defined by an equation, which can eventually be re-
duced to base units.

1. Derived quantities are physical quantities which are derived from the
base quantities by multiplication or division or both. For example, speed
is a derived quantity of length (distance travelled) over time.

2. Derived units are units of measurements (for derived quantities) which

are derived from base units of the component base quantities by multi-
plication or division or both. ln the case ofthe derived quantity, speed, its
derived unit is meter/time (with unit symbol, m/s or ms-l ).

D
 Many other units, such as liter, are formally not part of the sl, but a re ac(epted for use with sl

Name symbol Measure cuİrent (2005) Formal Definition Historical origin / Justificatıon

l/10,000,000 of th€ distanc from tie Earth! eqlarol

"Tht meteı i5 the length of the piü traEll€d by light in yi(uım duıing a
Meteü m Length b dıe ılodı pole m€asund on üe dromftrcnc€
time interval oİ of. i€(ond."
t'ııwh hıi1
'299,792.458

"ne kilogüam i, the Unit of ma55; t i, equ.l to the ma5r 0f th€ int€ma- Th€ mas§ ofone litre ofwaüel. A litl€ i, one thousandlh
Klogram ıg Maç,
tional prolot]/pe ofthe ldlognmj ofa(ubi(m€tn.

"-Ihe 5eond i5 the duntion of 9,192,631,770 p€ıiod of th€ radiatioül Ihe day i, divifu in 24 hours, ead hour dMded in 60
seond , llm€ Correspondi0q to th€ tıdnsitio0 betw€en tlE ttlo hyp€rfne lffil5 ofüe mjnutğ eadı minute diYided in (o se(onds. A !€(ond
ground rtate of th€ ce§ium 'l33 atom: b l /24 ı 60 x 60) of th€ döy.

Th€ oiginal 'lnteünational Amperc" was defined ele(

"Jhe amp€re i5 üat Const.nt (urcnl whid, if maintaind in two ,tnDhı
tl(hmka]|y ö tfi€ (ur€ot nquıİed to deporit 1,1 ı 8
parallel ondudoE of lnfi nite length, of negligible drularo055-5tdion,
Amperc IlQdi((urent nilligla.n5 of silve, pe. ie@nd fıotn a solution of 9iıver
and pla(ed ] metre ap.rt in va(uun, would pİoduc b€tween these
nit,ate. (ompand to the sl amp.ıe, the diffrİe(e a5
Condudo6 a foüCe equal to 2 ı l0-/ neMon peı metre of len$h."
0,015%.

Ihe Gl5Iü55ale:the (elvin s(al€ u5€, the deglee

( Thermodynamktem- "The ıelvin, unit ofthemodynami( temperature, i5 the fiaaıon l/27],16
KeIvin Celcius for İt5 unit inrcment, but i5 a thgmodynami(
p€rature of thQ thermodynami(temp€ratuüe of the triple point 0f water.'
xal€ (0 l( is abiolute rQro),

"1 . The molQ is the amounı of,ubnan(e of syİem whid (onbiü a5 many
elemfİtary entitiğ ar the'P are atoms in 0,0ı 2 İjlogram of (aöon l } it5
Atomi( weight or mole(ulal tüeighl divided by tlıe
Amount of 5ymboli5"mol]
Mo]Q mol molal mas @nrtant.
iub5tıO(e 2. when th€ molt is used, the elementary entiti€, mun b€ lp«ifi€d .nd 'l g/mol.
may b€ atoms, mole(Ules, ioni, eled.on, othel partidğ or spedfied
gİoups of ,!d partid€r."

"The @ndela is the luminou5 intensity, in a gaven dar€dion, ofa sourc

(andela [uminOu, ]he Gndlepow€r, whid i§ bared on the light emitted
(d that emits monodromati( adiation offt€quen(y 510 ı ı0l2 herü and
lntensity forn a buİning 6ndle of ltaodald pop€rıies.
that has a ndiant intensity in that diredion of 1/683 watt peİ ster.dian."

23
 Derived quantity Symbol Description 5l Units

Acceleration a Rate of change of velocity ofan object. ms'

Area
Electric potential
Electrıcal resistance
Thetwo-dimensional extent of an object. m2
The amount of work required to bring a unit charge
Volt (V)
into an electric field from infinity.
The degree to which an ob.iect opposes the passage
R ohm (O)
of an electric current.

Energy E The capacity of a body or system to do work. joule (J)

Force F The cause ofacceleration, acting on an obje(t. newton (N)

Amount of energy transferred between systems due

Heat O J
to temperature difference.
The amount of mass per unit Volume ofa three-
Den5ity d
dimensional object.
kg 6-ı
Power P The rate of change in energy over time. watt (W)

Speed Rate of change of the position ofan object. ms

5pecific heat capacity C Heat capaCity per unit ma5s J kg-l çl
Velocity speed of an object in a chosen direction. ms
Volume The three dimensional extent ofan object m3

wei9ht Amount of 9ravitation force exerted on an object. newton(N=kgms 2)

Energy dissipated by a force movin9 over a distance

Work joule (J = kg m2 s-2)
scalar product of the force and the movement Vector.

c. scaıar and vector Quantities

Mathematicians in the 19th century developed a convenient way of describ-
ing and interacting with quantities with and without direction by dividing them
into two types: scalar quantities and Vector quantities. scalaİ quantities have a
ma9nitude but no direction.

vectoİ quantities have both a magnitude and a direction. For instance, one
might describe a plane as flying at 800 kilometers per hour. However, simply know-
ing the speed of the airplane is not nearly as useful as knowing the speed and
direction of the airplane. A more accurate description may be a plane flying atıl00
kilometers per hour southeast.

Most ofthe physical quantities encountered in physics are either scalar or Vec-
tor quantities. A scalar quantity is defined as a quantity that has magnitude only.
Typical examples of scalar quantities are time, speed, temperature, and volume. For
example, the units for time (minutes, days, hours, etc.) represent an amount of time
only and tell nothing ofdirection. Additional examples of scalar quantities are den-
sity, mass. and energy.some examples of scalar quantities are numbers without
units (5uch as three), time (30 second5), temperature (twenty-two degrees celsius),
and mass (five kilograms).

24
 3 t = 30 seconds t=22'C m=5 k9
number symbo| number unit symbol number unit symbol number unit

A Vector quantity is defined as a quantity that ha5 both magnitude and direc-
+
F
tion. To work with Vector quantities, one mu5t know the method for representing
these quantities.

Magnitude, or "siz€ of a Vector, i5 also referred to as the Vector's tısplace-

ment." lt can be thought of a5 the scalar portion ofthe vector and is represented by
the length of the Vector. Vectors are a geometric way of representing quantities vector ilIustration
that have direction as well as magnitude. An example of a vector is force. lf we are
to fully describe a force on an object we need to specify not only how much force is
applied, but also in which direction. Another example of a Vector quantity i5 Veloc-
ity. An object that is traveling at ten meters per second to the east has a different
Velocity than an object that is traveling ten meters per second to the west.

By definition, a Vector has both magnitude and direction. Direction indicates

how the vector is oriented relative to some reference axis. Giving direction to sca-
lar "A" makes it a Vector. The length of "A" is representative of its magnitude or
displacement.

A (Vector A) action of line

-/
/ <- magnitude

appliCation Point direction

Components ofa vectoı

When Vectors are written, they are represented by a single letter in bold tyPe
or with an arrow above the letter, such as A or A .The only basic sl unit that is a Vec-
tor i5 the meter. All others are scalars. DeriVed quantitie5 can be Vector or scalaı but
every Vector quantity mu5t involve meters in it5 definition and unit.

Vector quantities have two c ha ra cteristics, a magnitude and a direction.

scalar quantities have only a magnitude. when comparin9 two Vector quantities
of the same type, you have to compare both the magnitude and the direction. For
scalars, you only have to compare the magnitude. when doing any mathematical
operation on a vector quantity (like adding, subtracting, multiplying..) you have
to consider both the magnitude and the direction.This makes dealing with Vector
quantities a litt|e more complicated than scalars.

"Vectors have magnitude and direction, sca|ars only have magnitude. The
fa(t that magnitude occurs for both scalars and Vectors can lead to some confu-
sion.There are 5ome quantities, like speed, which have very special definitions for

25'!
 s(ientists. By defination, speed is the scalar magnitude of a Velocity Vector. A car
going down the road has a speed of 50 km/h. lts Velocity is 50 km/h in the north-
east direction. lt can 9et Very confusin9 when the terms are used interchangeably!
Another example is mass and weight. Weight is a force which is a Ve(tor and has
a magnitude and direction. Mass i5 a scalar. weight and mass are related to one
another, but they are not the same quantity.

s(alaİ Quantities vector Quantities

Volume length, area, volume, speed, Velocity
displacemet, direction, Velocity
-a mass, density, pressure,
acceleration, momentum, force,
temperature, energy,
lift, drag, thrust weight
entropy, work, power

EXERclsE

Categorize each quantity given below as being either a vector or a scalar.

Quantİty category Quantity catCgoİy Quantıty category

7m 30
,c 650 N, west

40 m/s, west 250 bytes 45 mm

'|O m/s2, upwards

ı0 km, south 2850 J

V : speed is a vector quantity.

V: Volume scalar is a quantity.

Now we will learn short information about the basic quantities, length, time, temperature and current

Length of an Object
The unit of length ıs the meteı represented by m. To measure length, metric
DİD YOU KNOW?
rulers are used. A meter is divided into centimeters (cm) and millimeters (mm) to

The pro0ess to determine the mognitude ofo measure small distances. ln the metric system of measurement the meter is the
physical quantity by the oppropriate instru- international standard unit of length.The meter is the length ofthe path travelled
ment is called measurement. by light in Vacuum durİng a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.

25
 lG

f,
-\ EXPERıMENT - 1

Measuring the Length ofsome objects

EquiPment
1. Ruler 2. Meter
procedure
will work in groups offour or fiVe students. Each member ofthe groups will do the
1. You
,
measurements.
2. Measure the length of the objects given in the table below by using a ru|er and write
i
\
the measurements to the 9iven table.
3. Now measure the length ofthe same objects by usin9 a meter and write the measure-
\ l -
ments to 9iven table.
4. compute the average values ofthe measurements and write them to the table.

Length of your book Length of your desk Height ofthe door

Measurement

AVerage

Questions

1, Are the measurements done by using a ruler or a meter the same or not? lf not, why?

2. Estimate the error for each measurement.

scientist§ need to measure Very large and Very smal| distances; for exam-
ple, the moon is than three hundred and fifty thousand kilometers away from the
earth, however a bacteria is less than one millionth of a meter in width. Therefore,
to make measurements easy, scientists use prefrxes with 5l units. Prefrxes of length
change by multiples often.

Various instruments are used to measure length. For example:

. Rulers and tape measures are marked in millimeters or centimeters to meas-

ure shorter length§ accurately.

.A trundle wheel is used to measure length to the nearest meter.

27)
 units of Length

Units of length and symbols Length in meters

Kilometer (km) 1000

Hectometer (hm) 100

,l0
Decameter (dam)

Meter (m)
,]

Decimeter (dm) 0,ı

centameter (Cm) 0,0,1

Millimeter (mm) 0,00,1

Note that a counter may be attached to the trundle wheel to count meters.

. A car's odometer often measure distance in tenths of a kilometer.

Now let us i!lustrate the subject with some examples.

To convert |ength from a larger unit into a smaller unit, multiply by the rel-
.

evant power of 'l0.

. To convert length from a smaller unit into a larger unit, divide by the relevant
power of 10.

x 1000 x 1O0 x 10

km cm l mm

+ 1000 +'l00
7- + 10

You should be able to work Confidently with metric units to solve problems in daily life

ExAMPLE

Convert the following meas'urements to the units indicated

a.7cmtomm b.8mtocm c.9kmtom.

d.6 m to mm e,4 km to cm f.3kmtomm

.?B
E@
a.7 cm=7 x 'l0 mm = 70 mm l cm=l0 mm)
b.8m=8x1oocm=8oocm l m=]00cm)
C.9km=9x1000m=9000m 1 km = 1000 m)

d.6 m = 6 x 1oo cm = 600 cm '| m

= l00 cm)
= 600 x
'l0 mm
= 6000 mm 1 cm = 'l0 mm)

€.4km =4x 1000m=4OO0m 1 km = 1000 m)

= 4000 x l00 cm = 400 000 cm '| m = 'l00 cm)

f.3km=3x1ooom=3OOOm 1 km = 1000 m)

= 3000 x 100 cm = 300 000 cm 1m=l0Ocm)

= 30O 000 x 10 mm = 3 000 000 mm 1 cm = '!0 mm)

REsEARcH
lnvestigdte which meosurement tools ond
ExERcıSE
length units are used for length measure-
ment in the past and in the present.
convert the follow|ng measurements to the units indicated

a. 62.8 cm to mm b. 48.7 m to cm C. 8.26 m to mm.

d. +.75 km to mm e. 975 m to km f. 650 cm to m

g. 8000 mm to m h. 950 00o cm to km

ğ
.,'.
\
l
Time
A simple definition states that "time is what clo(ks measure'i Time is one of Sun clock

the seven fundamental physical quantities in the lnternational system of Units.

Time is the part ofthe measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the
durations of events and the intervals between them.

I
İme is used to define other quant|t|es-such as Velocity-so defining time in
terms of such quantities would result in circular ity of definitıon. An operational
definition of time, wherein one says that observing a certain number of repetitions
of one or another standard cyclica| event (such as the passage of a free-swinging
pendulum) constitutes one standard unit 5uch as the second, is highly useful in the ar
conduct of both advanced experiments and everyday affairs of life.

Humans have been measuring time for a relatively short period in our long
history. The desire to synchronize our activities came about 5,000 or 6,000 years
ago as our nomadic ancestors began to settle and build civilizations. Before that,
sand watch
we divided time only into dayli9ht and night, with bright days for huntin9 and

--
29
 working and dark nights for s|eeping. But as people began to feel the need to co-
\"-t-/
ordinate their actions, to be Prompt for public gatherin9s and such, they needed a
t I 0
unified system of keeping time.
l
- \-r_ The sl ba§e unit for time is the sl second. From the second, larger units such
a5 the minute, hour and day are defined. They are, however, officially accepted for
use with the lnternational system. There are no fixed ratios between seconds and
months or years as months and years have sıgnificant Variations in length. one
l day is equal to 24 hours (h). 1 hour is 60 minutes (min) and 'l minute i5 60 seconds.

Mechanical clocks The offi<ial sl definition of the second is as follows:

The second is the duration of 9,192,63'|,77o periods of the radiation corre-
spondin9 to the transition between the two hyperfine levels ofthe ground state of
the cesium 133 atom.

At its 1997 meeting, the clPM affirmed that this definition refers to a cesium
atom ın its ground state at a temperature of0 K.

A stopwatch or clock is used to measure time.The earliest time measurement

devices before clocks and watches were the sundial, hourglass, sand clock and wa-
ter clock.

Temperature
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the
common notions of hot and cold. The temperature of a 5ubstance typically Varies
with the average speed of the particles that it contains. lt i5 proponional to the
mean kinetic energy of |ts constituent panicles. Formally, temPerature is defined as
the deriVative ofthe internaI energy with respect to the entropy.

Temperature plays an imPortant role in all fields of natural science, including

physics, geology, chemistry, atmospheric sciences and biology.

Many physical properties of materials includıng the phase solid, liquid, gase-
ous or plasma, density, solubility, Vapor pressure, and electrical conductivity de-
pend on the temperature. TemPerature al5o plays an important role in determining
the rate and extent to which chemicaI reactions occur.

Quantitatively, temperature is measured with thermometers, which may be

calibrated to a Variety of temperature scales. There is several temPerature scales
used in different countries.

Some ofthe world uses the cel5ius scale ('c) foi most temperature measure-
ments. Anders Ce|sius determined the freezing temperature for water to be 0 de-
gree and the boiling temperature 10O degrees. A few countries, most notably the
United states, use the Fahrenheit scale for common purposes, a scale on which
water freezes at 32 "F and boils at 212 "F.

3o
 ,
READlNG TEXT

Galileo's Pendulum

A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing

freely. When a pendulum is displaced sideways from its restin9 equilibıium
position, it is subject to a restoring force due to 9ravity that will accelerate
it back toward the equilibrium position. When released, the restoring force
combined with the pendulum's mass causes it to oscillate about the equi-
librium position, swinging back and forth.The time for one complete cycle,
ı a leftswing and a right swing, is called the period.A pendulum swingswith
a specific period which dep€nds (mainly) on its length.

The simple gravity pendulum is an ideallzed mathematical mode| of

a pendulum. This is a weight (or bob) on the end of a massless cord sus-
pended from a pivot, without friction. when given an initial push, it will
swing back and forth at a constant amplitude

ltalian scientist Galileo Galilei was the first to study the properties
l of pendulums, beginning around 1602. His biographer and student, Vin-
cenzoviviani, claimedhis interest had been sparked around '!
582 by the
swinging motion of a chandelierin the Pisa cathedral. Galileo discovered
the CrUcial property that makes pendulums useful as timekeepers, called
isochronism; the period of the pendulum is approximately indeP€ndent
of the amplitude or width of the swing. He also found that the period is
independent of the mass ofthe bob and proponional to the square root
ofthe length ofthe pendulum. He first employed freeswinging pendulums
in simple timing applications. A physician friend lnvented a device which
measured a patient's pulse by the length of a pendulum; the pulsilogium.
ln 164'l Galileo conceived and dictated to his son Vincenzo a design for
a pendulum clock; Vincenzo began construction, but had not completed
when he died in 'l646.The pendulum wasthe first harmonic oscillator used
by man.

From the discovery around 1602 by Galileo Galilea the regular mo-

tion of pendulums was used for timekeeping, and was the world's most
ı accurate timekeeping technology until the 1930s. Pendulums are used to
regulate pendulum clocks, and are used in 5cienti6c instruments such as
accelerometers and seismometers. Historically they were used as gravim-
eters to measure the acceleration of gravity in geophysical surveys, and
even as a standard of length.

ı
I ,l :-, ı

31 l
 E
The 5l unit of temperature is Kelvin (K). The unit symbol of the kelvin is K.
Absolute zero is defined as a temperature of precisely 0 kelvin, which is equal to
-273,16,c.

The Kelvin scale is designed to go to zero at thı§ minimum temperature.

The relationships between the different temperature scales are:

K= 273 +'C
,c
"F-32 or
180 100
'F=32+
*'C
'c=(5/9) X ("F - 32)

Mercury thermometer Electric current

Electr|c current is a flow of electric charge through a medium. This charge is
typically carried by moving electrons in a conductor such as wire. lt can also be car-
ried by ions İn an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons in a plasma.

The sl unit for measuring the rate of flow of electric charge is the ampere (A),
which is charge flowing through 50me surface at the rate of one coulomb per sec-
ond. Electric Current is measured usinq an ammeteı

An ammeter i5 an instrument which is used to measure the current whıch

flows through a wire. Always remember the following:

- . An ammeter is always placed in series with the resisto(s) when measuring

the current.
. An ammeter always has a low impedance (resistance) 5o that there is a neg-
Digitaı thermometer
ligible voltage across it, and so does not disturb the circuit.

lnstruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or micro-

ampere range, are designated as milliammeters or microammeters. Early amme-
ters were laboratory instruments which relied on the Earthl magnetic field for
6-
l operation. By the late 19th century, improved instruments were designed which
1t ı could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric
ı \ power systems.
^ı
lı
,4
a
I
L.
.l
Ammeter

I 32
 Multipliers and Fractions of Ampere
Unıts Symbo| Amp.İe
ı
swdch Fü§ö Gi9aampere GA 1x1o9A
,ı
x 06 A
,l
Megaampere

Kiloampere kA 1x1o3A
+
Amper 1A
l
+ Globe Milliampere mA 1x1o-3A
Battery ! Microampere pA 1 x,!ojA
Nanoampere 1x,ıo-9A

A simPle electric ci.cüt Picoampere pA '] x 1o-r2 A

SCİENCE RESEARCH CENTERS

l The lmportance of science Research Centers

a. Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Araştlrma ı(uİumu (TuB|TAx)

The Scientifi( and Te<hnological Researth Council ofTurkey

The scientific and Technological ResearCh council of Turkey (TüBITAK) is the

leading agency for management, funding and conduct of research in Tu rkey. lt was
established in 1963 with a mission to advance science and technology, conduct
research and support Turkish researchers. The council is an autonomous insti-

ıüıiııx
tut|on and is governed by a scientific Board whose members are se|ected from
prominent scholars from univer5itie, industry and research institutions.

TÜBiTAK is responsible for promoting, developing, organizing, conducting

and coordinating research and development in line with national targets and pri- Mission ofThe scientific and Technological
orities. Research council ofTurkey (TÜBITAK) is to;

TÜB|TAK acts as an advisory agency to the Turkish Government on science develop science, Technology and lnno-
and research issues, and is the secretariat of the supreme council for s(ience and Vation (5Tl) policies,
Technology (5C5T), the hi9hest s&T policy making body in Turkey. helP create the necessary infrastructure
and the means for implementation of
setting its Vision as to be an innovative, 9uiding, participating and cooperat-
these policies,
ing ınstitution in the fields of science and technology, which serves for improve-
fund R&D
ment of the life standards of our society and sustainable development of our coun-
perform R&ğ
try.TÜB|TAK not only supports innovation, academic and industrial R&D studies but
coordinate Turkey! international sTl re-
aIso in line with national priorities develops scientifiC and technological policies
lations,
and manages R&D institutes, carrying on research, technology and development
lead the way for fostering a culture of
studies. Furthermore, TÜBiTAK funds research projects carried out in universities
science and technology in society.
and other public and private organizations, conduct research on strategic areas,
develops support programs for public and private sectors, publishe5 scientific jour-

33
-il
ı TÜB|TAK where contract research as well
\ 1-1
\
tl
l was finished. The center was affiliated to the General Secretariat of Atomic Energy
t activities in nuclear field.
1AEr(
İF
1,4ission:To be a pioneer in ensu ngthotour
country benefits from nuclear technology
ond to perform the regulotory and supeNi-
sory aaivities in nucleor field,
Vision:To provide our country to become an
arbiter country in the field of nuclear techno,
logy ond to be o reliable, effective and inde-
pendent authorğ in ensuringthe protection
of human and environmentfrom radiotion.
nals, popular science magazines and books, organizes science and society activi-
ties and supports undergraduate and graduate students through scholarships.
More than '],500 researchers work in ]5 different research institutes of
as targeted and nation-wide research is
conducted.
b. Türkiye Atom Enerjisi Kurumu (TAEK)-Turkish Atomic
Energy Authority
ln 1956, General secretariat of Atomic Energy Commission was estab|ished
in Ankara.ln 'l982,the commission was restructured asTurkish Atomıc EnergyAu-
thority. ln 1962, establishment of Çekmece Nuclear Research and Training center
commission and its purpose was research, development, application and training
Ankara Nuclear Research and Training center (ANAEM) was established in
1967.|n 1979, Nuclear Agriculture center was established within the structure of
ANAEM. La|ahan Animal Health Nuclear Research center was established in l98'|
and continued its actiVities in5ide the organization of Ankara Nuclear Agriculture
and Livestock Research center (ANTHAM) located in sarayköy.
The duties and authorizations of the Tuİkish Atomic Eneİgy Authoİİty
are as follows:
a) To determine the basis of the national policy and the related plans and
progıammes in connection with the peaceful utilization of atomic energy
for the benefit ofthe state.
b) To determane the general principles to be complied in a|l kinds of pros-
pecting, exploiting, Purification, distribution, import, export, trade, trans-
port, use, transfer and storage of nuclear raw material, special fissionable
material and other 5trategic materials used in nuclear fields and to make
recommendations and cooperation thereon.
() To establish or enfor(e the establishment of research and training centers,
units, laboratories, test centers.
d) To establish and operate the radioisotope prodUction, qual|ty control, scal-
ing and distribution installation5.
e) To qrant approval, permission and licen5e related to the site selection, con-
struction, operation and environmental protection of nuclear power and
research reactors and nuclear fuel cycle facilities.
f) To take the necessary measures or have them taken for the safe proces,
transport permanent or tempolary storage of the radioactive waste from
nUclear facilities and radioisotope laboratories.
9) To establish relations with the national institutıons and bodies concerned
with the atomic enerqy.
 h) To train the personnel who will work in the nuclear field or to assist their
trainin9.
i) To collect, disseminate and introduce the necessary information and the
results of the studies from inside and outside the Country related to the
application of atomic energy.
j) To carry out studies related to national and international law in nuclear
field and to propose the necessary regulatory arran9ements.

c. Askeri Elektronik Sanayii (ASELSAN)-Military Electronics

Industry

ASELSAN is a company of Turkish Armed Forces Foundation, established in

ı 975 in order to meet the communıcation needs of the Turkish Armed Forces by

r aseısan
national means.
l§! ' ı
1'l

A5ELsAN is the largest defense electronics company ofTurkey whose capa-

bility/product portfolio comprises communication and information technologies, Askeİi El€ktİonik sanayii {AsELsAN)

radar and electronic warfare, electİo-optics, avionics, unmanned systems, land, na-
val and weapon systems, air defense and missile systems, command and control
systems, transportation, securiry traffic, automation and medical system5. Today
ıaalı.n il
AsELsAN has become an indigenous products exporting compan, investin9 in in- =.
ternational markets through Various cooperation models with local partners and
listed as one of the top 'l00 defense companies of the world (Defense News Top
l00). r\
ASEL5AN, together with the technology emphasis in its vision, has targeted to
be a comPany that maintains its sustainable growth by creating VaIue in the global
market; preferred due to its competitiveness, trusted as a strategic partner, and car-
ing for the environment and people.

Together with the hi9hly qualified engineerin9 staff within more than 5000
employees, beang the main driving factor of the company's success, ASELSAN al-
locates 6% of its annual income for self-financed research and development activi-
tie5.

Human Resources Policy of AsELsAN is based on recruitin9 successful and

dynamic talents as a member of AsELsAN famiiy; contributin9 to the sustainable
success of ASELSAN with employee-oriented approaches and to pursue a manage-
ment system that complies with the internatıonal standards.

ln order to create an indispensable ASEL5AN brand for our employees;

a)The qualified human resources under the roof of A5ELSAN are brought to-
gether.
b} ln continuou5 development ofour employees are invested.

. The attachment of our employees is motiVated and increased.

. sustainable performance policies are sUpported.

35

An institution that turns knowledge into
power and tru5t.
Mission: Being a notionoltechnology com-
ponythot maintains its sustajnoble growth
by creoting value in the global market; pre-
feffed due to it' competitivene's, trusted as
o strotegic poftner, ond coring for the envi-
ronment and people.
Vision: By focuıing primoIily on the needs
of the Tuıkish Armed Forces; to provide
high-value-added, innovative ond reliable
ploducts and solutions to both locol and
foreign customers in the fields of electronic
technologies ond system integrction; con-
tinuing octivities in line with globaltorgets
oswellas increa;inq brand awareness ond
contributing to the teChnologicol indepen-
dence offurkey.
J
7.ı
ı,
what is the universe made of? How did it
stort? Physicists ot CERN are seeking ans-
wers, using some of the world's most power
fu l pa rtic le o cce l e r at o r s
36
d. European Organization for Nucleaı Research (CERN)
At cERN, the European organization for Nuclear Research, physicists and en-
gineers are probing the fundamental structure ofthe universe.They use the worldt
largest and most complex scientific instruments to study the basic constituents of
matter - the fundamental panicles. The partic|es are made to collide together at
close to the speed of light. The process gives the physicists c|ues about how the
particles interact, and provides insights into the fundamental laws of nature.
The instruments used at CERN are purpose-built particle accelerators and de-
tectors. Accelerators boost beams of particles to high energies before the beams
are made to collide with each other or with stationary targets. Detectors observe
and record the results of these collisions.
Founded in 1954, the cERN laboratory was one of Europe's firstjoınt Ventures
and now has 22 member states. CERN regularly accepted new members. Türkiye,
pakistan, ukraine and lndia are associate members.
The name cERN is derived from the acronym for the French "Conseil Europöen
pour la Recherche Nuclöaire'i or European Council for Nuclear Research, a provi-
sional body founded in ']952 with the mandate of establishing a world-class fun-
damental physics resear(h organization in Europe.
At that time, pure physics research concentrated
on understanding the inside of the atom, hence
the word "nuclear'i CERN
Today, our understanding of matter goes
much deeper than the nucleus, and cERN's main
area of research is particle physics- the study of
the fundamental constituents of matter and the
forces acting between them. Because of this, the
laboratory operated by CERN i5 often referred to as the European Laboratory for
Particle Physics.
several important achievements in particle physics have been made through
eXperiments at cERN. They include:
1973: The discovery of neutral currents in the Gaugamela bubble chamber
1983: The discovery ofw and z bosons in the UAl and UA2 experiments
1989; The determination of the number of light neutrino families at the
Large Electron-Positron collider (LEP) operating on the z boson peak
t 995:The first creation of antihydrogen atoms in the Ps2'l0 experiment
1999:The discovery of direct cP Violation in the NA48 experiment
2010:The isolation of 38 atoms of antihydrogen
20'] 1: Maintaining antihydrogen for over l5 minutes
2o12: A boson with mass around 125 GeV/c2 consistent with the long-
sought Higgs boson
 The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named ENQU|RE, initiated by
Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 and Robert cailliau in 'ı 990. Berners-Lee and Cailliau were
jointly honored by the Association for computing Machinery in 1995 for their con-
tributions to the development of the world Wide Web.

Many activities at cERN currently involve operatin9 the Large Hadron Collider
(LHc) and the experiments for it. The LHc represents a large-scale, worldwide sci-
entific cooperation project.

The LHc tunnel is located 100 meters underground, in the region between
the Geneva lnternational Airport and the nearby Jura mountains. Seven experi
ments (cMs, ATLAs, LHcb, MoEDAL, ToTEM, LHC-forward and ALICE) are located
along the collider; each of them studies particle collisions from a different a5pect,
and with different technologies.

€. National Aeronautics and 5pace Administration (NASA)

The National Aeronautics and 5pace Administration (NA5A) is an independent
agency ofthe executive branch ofthe United states federal government respon5i-
ble for the civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.

NAsA is the agen(y responsible for the U5 space program. Established in

1958. Today, NASA has led the Us space studies mainly with studies on the Moon
and with the skylab space statıon as a space shuttle. lt also supports the lnterna-
tional space station proje(t. NAsA also focuses on the development of Ares l and
V landing gear. lt is also found in long-term civil and military rocket studies. NAsA
NAsA's Vision: We reach for new heights and
has many space flight programs, human or unmanned. He is also signing projects
revealthe unknown for the benefit ofhumon-
foradvanced warplanes. NASA also works on the appointment space travel project.
kind.
NASA conducts its work in four principal organizations, called mission direc-

r
torates: Aeronauticsı Manages research focused on meeting global demand for
air mobiıity. Human ExPloration and oPeİations: Focuses on lnternational spaCe
station operation5, development of commercial spaceflight capabilities and hu-
a
man exploration beyond low-Earth orbit. science: Explores the Earth, solar system
and universe beyond; charts the best route of discovery; and reaps the benefits ,
of Eanh and space exploration for society. space Technology: Rapidly develops,
innovates, demonstrates, and infuses revolutionary, h ig h -payoff tech nologie5
that enable NAsA's future missions while providing economic benefit to the nation. {,

REsEARÇH
lnvestigate the sholt life story of o scientist
who contributes to the science of Physics,
what impoftont contribution doesthis person
have in physics and technology?

37
 CHECKYOURSELF
A. Write down the answers of the followings.

1 . What are the sub-branches of physics?

2. The development of which technological devices did the improvements in the optical field of physics help? Give examples.

3. Give examples to physics and fields of occupation of physicists.

4. Give examples to the scholars who worked in the field of physics in the Medieval Period.

5. The inventions and discoveries in the physical science are not only used for the benefit of human beings but also disadvantageous

for them. Give examples for this.

6. Which pieces of knowledge on physics does a pilot use while working in his profession?

7. Give examples for the relation between physics and other disciplines.

8. what are the basic quantities and units used in physical science?

9. what are the differences between scalar and Vector quantities? Explain giving examples.

1 0. Explain the functions of scientific research centers and their importance for a country.

38
 B. True and False

write "T" neaİ each one of the statements if it is true or "F" if it is false.

1. ( ) Physics analrzes the events in the universe.

2.( ) Physics tries to explain alı natural phenomena only with their own discoveries.

3.( ) Physics can explain complex phenomena without takin9 advantage of mathematics.

4.( ) Force, speed and acceleration are scalar magnitude.

5.( ) Temperature, luminous intensity, electrical current basic quantities.

6.( ) ln the system of Sl, mass unit is kilogram.

7.( ) The quantities that can be defined completely by number and unit are called Vector size.

8.( ) Physicists take part in space explorations.

9.( ) ln the desi9n of instruments such as glasses and lenses, the findings of physics in the field of optics are utilized.

10. ( ) Physical science did not contribute to the development ofthe tools used in medicine.

C. Fill in the Blanks.

Fill in the blanks with the wo]ds givenin the box.

physic5
derived Velocity TüBiTAK basic magnetism

scalar
Vector electric current NAsA earth time

l. acts as an advi5ory agency to the Turkish GoVernment on science and research issues.

2. ....................................... is one of the main forces of nature, like the force of 9ravity.

3. A simple definition states that" .-..................................,.. is what clocks measurei

4. Length is a....................................... quantity.

5. The scientific study of matter and energy is called ...,.-....

6. The application of physics to the study of ..,....,....,..,....................... is called geology.

7. An ammeter is an instrument which is used to measure the ....................................... which flows through a wire.

8. is the agency respon5ible for the U5 5pace program.

9. Speed and are quantities.

1 0. Quantities which have a magnitude and direction are .,..,....,..,.,..,.,..,.,.,..,.,..,..,. quantities.

39
 D. Put the physical concepts on the table a5 scalar and vector quantities.

Vector Quantity

E. Matching

1 . Mat(h the followanq quantities with their units

Quantity Unit Matching

1. Length a. second 1

2.Time b. kelvin 2.

3. Mass c. candela 3.

4. current d. kilogram 4.

5. Temperature e. meter 5

6. Luminuous lntensity f. mole 6.

7. Number of panicles g. ampere 7

2. Match the measuıing device with the Physi(al quantity.

DeviCe
D n
Quantity Mat(hing

1, Length a. chronometer 1

2.Time b. photometer 2.

3. current c. Thermometer 3

4.Temperature d. Meterstick 4.

5. Luminou5 intensity e. Ammeter 5

40
 F. Muıtipıe choıce

1 , which of the following İepresents two vectoı quantities? 5

E
Quantity Unit 5ymbol

mass
E
A) distance, B) time, work
c) force, Velocity temperature, length ,c

E
D) Luminous inten5ity

@
CeIsius

E
E) speed, weight
lüa5s kg

E
Eil
4 Length l Meter

5 ime sec

ln the table above, the basic physical guantity, unit (sl)

and symbol are matched. whi(h paiİing is wrong?
2. which one ofthe following contaıns th?ee basic units?
A) l B) 2 c)3 D)4
meter kilogram
E) 5
A) coulomb
B)second ampere newton
C) kilogram ampere kelvin
D) kelvin coulomb second 6. l. Physics, while using the systems |n its field of study, uses

E)joule kelvin pascal maths at the same time.

ll. Mathematical Connections make physics understood bet-
tet
lll. ln order to make some events understandable in physics,
modeling is made use of.

which one/ones of thc infoİmation given above are <or-

rect?
3 " Which one of the following is a scalar quantity?

A) distance B)force c) Velocity A) Only l B) Only lll c) l and ll

D) weight E) disPlacement
D) ll and lll E) |, ll and lll

7. whi(h of the following is not one of the applications of

the Physi(s?

A) Design of electrically operated cars

B) The downsizing of technological devices by reducing pro-
Which one of the following isn't one of the bıanches of
physics? ce55or 5ıze5
c) lnvestigation of new materials for making bionic organ5
A) waves B) Mechanics c) optics D) 5pace research
D) Electricity E) Thermodynamics E) Xüay

41 1
8.
Quantity lnstrument
11 . Grade9 students make some measurements in the phys-
ics laboİatory, Which of the students used the wıong
1 current Dynamometer
measuıement tool?
2 Temperature Thermometer

3 Ma5s Equalarm balance Mehmet : He measures the thicknes5 of his hair with Vernier
caliper.
4 Length Meter
Melih : He measures the temperature of the water he
5 Time chronometer drinks with a thermometer.
Em]e : He measures the mass of the clock with an equal-
On the table above, basic physical quantities and meas- arm scaIe.
urİng İnstıuments are matched. Whi(h physical quantity Gamze : she is measurin9 the intensity of the light the
and measuring inst]ument a]e matched wrong? bulb is emitting with an ammetet
Levent : He measures his friend's 10 m walking time with
A) 1 B)2 c) 3 D)4 E) 5 stopwatch

A) Mehmet B) Melih C) Emre D) Gamze E) Levent

what subdivisions and topics of physics have been 12. whİCh ofthe following is not one ofthe science research
mapped inCorrectly? centers?

A) mechanics - motion
A) NAsA B) TUBITAK c) KlzlLAY D)TAEK E) CERN
B) thermodynamics - 50lid matter
c) optics - light
D) nuclear physics - radiation
E) atomic physıcs - atom 13. Whİch one of the following occupations have no rela-
tion with physi<s?

A)Astronaut B) Pilot c) Psychologist

D) Civil engineer E) Architect

10. |. Force
ll. Mass
lll. Displacement 1 4. Which of the followin9 questions is answeİed in terms
lV.Temperature of vectoİ quantity?
V speed
A) what is the speed ofthe car in m/sec?
How many ofthe above a]e th€ basi< quantities a(Cepted B) What is the potential energy of the apple in the tree in J?
in physics? c) what is the density of water in g/cm3?
D)What is the child! mass in kg?
A) 1 Bl2 c) 3 D)4 E) 5 E) How many meters has the car displaced?

Iqz
 -/

aır-

n
I

-l

7
- ^J'-|

uNaT 2

MATTER AND İTS PROPERTİES

 t - -
L - ,r-

-a
-a

ry
\

9.2.1. MATTER AND DENS|TY

9.2.1.1. The relationship Among Mass, Volume and Density

9.2,1.2. Density in Daily Life

9.2.2. solıDs
9.2.2.1. Strength

9.2.3. L|QUıDs

9.2.3.1. Cohesion, Adhesion, Surface Tension and CapilIary Action

 9.2 MATTER AND lTS PROPERT|ES

9.2.1 MATTER AND DENS|TY

Matte] i5 anything that ha5 mass and takes up space. one piece of matter can
differ from another in size, shape, color, feel, hardness, weight, smell, etc. These are
called the properties of matter. A property describes how matter behaves. Hard-
ness is a property of diamond. The color black is a property of coal.
observatioo of thıee physical states of m.tter in
The classification of matter in different ways provides an advantage of learn- <laily life

ing matter easily. one way to classifu matter i5 the physical states of matter. Matter
.ommonly exists in either the solid, liquid,9as and plasma states or phases. Each
state of matter has a specifrc set of properties.

cha raCteristic Properties of Matter

The properties that differentiate between two substances are called chaİac-
teİista( properties. Densiry melting point, freezing point, boiling po|nt, conden-
sation point, expansion, elasticity and solubility are some examples to the char-
acteristic properties. rhe volue of o characteristic property does not depend on the
amount of matter. Unlike the common properties, the characteristic properties are
not additive.

characteristic Properties of Matter

common Properties of Matter
Density
Mass, volume and inertia are the common properties of matter. Mass is the
Me|tin9 point
amount of matter in an object.Volume is the space occupied or filled by an obje«.
Boiling point
Now take a rubber ball about 8 cm in diameter, containin9 a defrnite quantity
of matteı We might compress it and thereby reduce its volume, but the amount of conden5ation point
matter remains the same. we mi9ht take the ball up on a hi9h mountain, or even to
EXpansion
the moon.The quantity of matter in the ball remains the same, although its weight
changes. The quantity of matter an object contains is called its mass. The mass of Ela5ticity
an object does not Vary with location. solubility
Because matter has mass, it also has inertia. ln order to move matter, Change specific heat
its direction of motion, or stop it, a force must be exerted on it. This property of
matter which requires the exertion of a force on it to change its position or motion
is called ineİtia. lnertia is the property of a body that compels it to remain at rest or
at constant Velocity unless it ıs forced to change.
DİDYOU KNOW?
common properties depend on the amountof matter. Morc matter means more
volume, more mass, and more inertia. Values of the same common property can be Everything thot is mode up of otoms is
added together. For example the volume occupied by the water in two beakers is called motter.
the sum of the Volumes of the water in each of the beakers. common properties The shoped form of matter is called ob-
cannot be used to adentiry substances. Measuring volume of the substances and iect.
comparin9 their masses are not enou9h to distin9ui5h between them.Two objects

45
 can be made of different materials but can have the same mass. on the other hand,
two objects Can have different masses and be made ofthe 5ame materials.

9.2.1.1.The relationship Among Mass, Volume and Denslty

a. what are Mass Unİts? How to Measure Mass?
A spring balance is used to weigh things. An object placed on it will compress
or bend a spring to a degree that depends upon the amount of weight, which can
thereby be measured.The typical bathroom scale is an example of a spring balance.

A digital balan(e measures the weight of objects by the way of changes in

current passin9 through the circuit. Digital balances have simple electric circuits
which control the current. Digital balances generally comprise a mechanical
weighing mechani5m, a photoelectric encoding mechanism, a code generator and
an indication devic€.

. when a substance is placed on a digital balance, the length ofthe spiral coil
increases.

. lncreasing the length of the coil increases its resistance. Then it causes a

Cl Cl a,!Cl
reduce in current which passes over the coil.

. Magnitude ofthe change in the current is seen on the screen.

The limitation5 of volume as a measure ofthe amount of matter must have

Di8ital (electtonic) balance used to measure very
small masses.
been known to people many centuries ago. 8ecause they developed a method
for measuring the amount of different substances independent of their vol-
umes. lnstead of volume, another common property of matter, so called mass,
is used for comparing the amount of different substances. The amount of mat-
ter in an object is called the mass of that object.

DİD YOU KNOW?
The mass is indicoted by the symbol "mi
Klogram (kg) is used os the unit of mass
in 5l unit system,
5o mass is one of the properties of matter. Before you can answer the
qUestion "How much?" there must be agreement on the standard of mass. The
5l unit of mass is kilogram, abbreviated kg. How much is a kilogram? Roughly, a
liter of water at +4 "C has a mass of one kilogram. As standard, a piece of p|ati-
num, the Standard Kilogram, which has a mass equal to that of liter of water at
+4 "c is kept at svres, near Paris. ln the laboratory scientists work with much
smaller masses, such as grams (9) and milligrams (mg). 1 kg of mass is equal to
'l000
9, and l g mass is equal to ı 000 mg.

46
 EıEr
THE UN|TS OF MASS

Tone t
]EİEüE:Eıq ,l
Kilogram
.oo0.00o (ks)
Kental q 100.000

Kilogram k9 1.000

Hectogram h9 100

Decagram dag 10
Tone Gram
Gram 9 (g)
1
(t)
Decigram d9 0.,]

centi9ram ca 0.0,1 Kental

(q)
Milligram m9 0.00l

Mass unit conversion

ExAMPLE

convert the units 9iven below into the desired units.

1. a k9 = ................. , 2. 300 9 = .............. 1,

3.8 mg = .............. .9 4.s g= ............ mg

E@
1.4kg=4x103g=4ooo9 2.3O0 g = 3OO x 10-3 k9 = o,3 k9

3.8 mg = 8 x 10-1 ca = o,8 ca 4.59=5ı<19lrn=50OOm9

ExERcı5E
convert the units 9iven below into the desired units.

'ı. 0,03 9 = ........................_....._...._.._._. mg 6. 5 ca = ......_........_...._...._................. 9

2. 200 m9 =......................._.................... 9 7. 1 o9 =............................................. ca

3. O00a dag =,.,.............................,............ d9 8. 0,06 g =.................. .._.. _ ...._.. kg

4 kg = 600 dag 9. 0,5 kg =..........._.._...._........_..._....... dag

5. 2000 9 = t l O. 0,003 t = .................._......__........-..... k9

47
 Measuring the Mass of an Objett
An equal-arm balance, sometimes called a double-pan balance, is used to frnd
the mass of an object. The egual-arm balance gives us a way of comparing mass of
object of any kind, regardless of their shape, form, color or what substance they
are made of. ln our daily life, we use different types of equal arm balances. Balance
used in laboratories differ from those used in 5hops in that they are more 5ensitive.

A
E
!
-*

l
I ı-İ l
*
\ R \İ- j 't\,
I
]
l

!4ual-aım balance used in ü€ Past yeaİs in laboratories and jewelers. Today's rately used equal-
arm scale §?e.
ll

An equal-alm balance used in laboratory
An equal arm balance is the first class lever in which the load distance i5 equal
to the effort distance. lt consists of two pans, one at ea(h end of a bar, called beam.
The metal pieces attached to each arm are used for bringing the balance to an
equilibrium position.These metal pieces are mobile on the arms and are called rid-
ers. The beam is balanced at its midpoint. A pointer i5 attached to the center of the
beam. Behind the pointer there is scale with the zero mark at the center. Be sure
that the pans swing freely and that the Vertical pointer in the center does not rub
against the support.

When the pans are clean and empty, the pointer should line up with the zero
point. İf the pointer of your balance does not show zero adju5t it by moving riders.
MoVe the ride. on the right near the center and use the rider on the left to adjust
the pointer. Always use the 5ame rider to ad.iust the pointer.

To find the mass of an object, it is placed on the left-hand pan, and standard
masses on the other. The standard masses are placed on the right-hand pan until
the pointer shows the zero mark or it swings equal numbers of divisions on either
side ofthe zero ofthe scale.The 5um ofthe known masses is then equal to the mass
ofthe object. For example, ifthe known ma55e5 are 10 g, 6 g, 3 g and 'l 9, the mass
ofthe object is 20 9.

The important rules to weigh an obje(t with an equal-arm balance;

'l . U5e the rider on the left to adjust the pointer after consultin9 your teacheı
so that the pointer swings an equal distance on either side of the middle of the
scaIe.

48
 r a tr-l a) An electronic balance

f
b) A spring balaıce

İ-rL
aa, ır
{a} (b)

2. Never touch the standard masses with your fingers. U5e the tweezers
3. Never touch the balance when the beam i5 swinging.
4. Never weigh anything wet or hot on the balance.

ln later experiments, you will often use an equal-arm balance. You have to be
familiar with using an equal-arm balance and develop the necessary skill in using
a balance. The following experiments help you develop necessary skill in wei9hin9
the objects with an equal-arm balance.

ExPERlMENT r

1ı.ıqlghing obje(ts with an Equal-arm Balance

P fpose] To make the students familiar with the equa|-arm balance and develop the necessa ry skill in u5ing it

!:.!lliFrrneıt

l. Equal-arm balance 2. Pen(il 3. Eraser 4. coins, etc 5. standard masses (9ram, bead, hoop, ...)

procedure

ı{ote: You will use an equal-arm balance provided by DAYM in thi5 experiment.
'!. cıean the pans and any other part ofthe equal-arm balance.
2. Before weighing anything, the balance should be adjusted. For thi5 purpose, the pointer of the balance should swing
Very nearly the same distance on each side of the center of the scale when there is nothing on the pans. To adjust the
balance, make sure that the metal rider on the .i9ht arm is as near to the center of the balance as possibIe.
J. Move the rider on the left arm until the pointer on the center of the balance swings the same distance on each side of
the center ofthe scale. Now that your balance is adjusted.
4. Placethe object to be weighed on the left-hand pan. Usea set ofstandard mass (9ram, bead, hoop...) to ma55 sev-
eral objects (pencil, eraser, coin, ...etc) of between 1 and 20 9rams. Remember that if the pointer swings Very nearly
the same distance on each side of the center of the scale, the mass of the object is equal to the sum of the standard
masses. Record the mass of each object in your notebook.
5. Exchange objects with your classmates, and compare the measurements you get With theirs.

49
 The purpose in Experiment l, is to mass objects only to the nearest 0.1 9,

I
to give you facility in using a simple balance. lf you have 10, 20, 50 mg of stand-
./ ard masses in your set of masses, you can mass ob.ject to the nearest 0.0'l g. EVen
though you don't have milligrams in your set of masses, you can mass objects to
less than 0.1 g by calibrating your balance.
a ı
b. What aıe Volume units? How to Measure Volume?
what is the difference between a small and a large apple which are picked
from the same apple tree? The first answer you find out i5 maybe the space they
occupy. Then the space occupied or filled by an object is called the volume of that
object. Every object occupies a space in the universe. Hence, Volume is a common
property for matter.

we can compare different amounts of the same 5ubstance by comparing their

\..--- ) volumes. The use of Volume to distinguish between substances is not convenient.

/ For example, two substances with equal volumes can be made of different
materials or two substances with different volumes can be made of the same ma-

I
teriaIs.

l Vo|ume depends on the amount of a substance. Volume is length in meters

Cubed,50 its 5l-deriVed unit is the cubic meter (m3). Generally, however, scientists
work with much smaller Volumes, such as the cubic centimeters (cm3) and the cu-
bic decimeter (dm3).

Another common unıt of volume is the liter (L). A liteİ is the volume occupied
by one cubic decimeter. one liter of Volume i5 equal to 1000 milliliters (mL), and
one milliliter Volume is equal to one cubic centimeter.

t UNlTS OF VOLUME

, 1km3='tx1O9m3 '!kL='lx]03L 'l m3=1kL

1hm3=1x106m3 1hL=lx1o2L 1dm3='lL

some measuring instauments u§ed to
measue voluıne
'l dam3=txlO3m3 ldal='lX'lorL 1cm]=1mL

DlD YoU KNow? 'ı cub|c meter 'l liter

The spoce covered by on obje:t is colled the

volume of that object. ln the system of inter- ldm3=1x10-3m3 1 dL= 1 x 'lo-1 L
notional units 6l), the unit of volume is the
cubicmeter (m3) ond the volume is indicoted 1cm3='lx10{m3 1cL=lx1o-2L
by by the symbol "V'|
1mm3=1xl0-9m3 tmL='lx1o]L

5o
 cubic meter Liter
(m3) (L)

1O dm3 109 mm3 10 dL 103 mL

106 cm3 102 cL

a) Volume unit conversions in sl unit system b) liteİs volume unit conversions

ExAMPLE

write the corresponding units in cubic meters ofthe Values given in different volume units

Data cubic mete. (mı}

.60 dL 60 x 1o-r L = 60 x 1o-1 dm3 = 60 x 1 o-1 x 10-3 m3 = 6 x ] 0-3 m3

. 50 mm3 50x10-9m3=5x1O+m3

. 20 cm3 20 x 10{ m3 = 2 x 10-5 m3

. 30 hm3 30.'l06m3=3x 107 m3

. 100 mL 1oox1o-3L=0,1 L=O,,t x10-3m3=l x 1O{ m3

. 80 dm3 80 x l0-3 m3 =8x'l0-2m3

. 'l0000 cL ,l0-2
1oooo.t o-2 L =l ooo0 x x 10-3 m3 = 0,1 m3

ExERclsE

convert the units given below into the desired units.

a. 700 mL =.............-............................. L d. 2400 mL =............................................ hL

b. zzo mL = ..............--_----......... dm3 e. 36 m3 =............._...-........................ mL

c. 2.4 dm3 =........................,................... mL f. 0.92 L = ...._..._...--._--......--..._-..-. mL

51
 one way to find the volume of a liquid i5 to use a graduated cylinder or, as it
ıs usUally called a 9raduate.

The figure on the left shows some ofthe tools used for measuring liquid vol
umes. They are made in many sizes like measuring cups for the kitchen.

The level of the liquid in a graduated cylinder shows the volume of the liquid.

,
la
L _)
Apparafu§ for measuring volumes ofliquids.

EXPERİMENT 2

ileasuring the Volumes of lmmiscible Liquids

Puıpos€lTo measure the Volume ofthe mixture of carbon tet-

<:- i-

rachloride and water and compare this Volume to the sum ofthe Vol-
umes of carbon tetrachloride alone and ofthe water.

EquiPment

ı.Two graduated cylinders (50 mL)

2. Pure water L
3. carbon tetrachloride

pıocedure

1. Pour 30 mL water into one of the graduated cylinder.

2. Pour 20 mL carbon tetrachloride into the other graduated
cylinder.
3. Add the carbon tetrachloride to the water and read the volume of mixture carefully. Then record the volume.

52
 V*"ıo = _. mL V.,bon tao.hıoride = _- mL, Vrn,rrr. = _.. mL

Questions

l. ls there any difference between the volume of mixture and the sum of Volumes of the carbon tetrachloride and water
before mixing?

2. Are these liquids miscible? Can you obtain the 5ame results, |f miscible liquıds are mixed?

ExPERlMENT 3

Measuring the Volumes of Two Miscible Liquids

Purpo5e: To measure the Volume of the mixture of alcohol and

f.- !- !-
water and compare this Volume to the sum of the volumes of the k!o
alcohol alone and ofthe water. ğr
ğı l.
Equipment
Lİ
Fn
?ra
?
v@
1.Two graduated cylinders ('l00 mL) €4 İ5
2. Alcohol t
to
? t
3. Water }"

t
E,0
procedure [,"

1, Pour water into a 100 mL graduated cylinder until it is about

halffull. Measure and record its volume carefully.
2. Pour alcohol into another 100 mL graduated cylinder until it is about halffull. Measure and record its volume.
3. Add the aıcohoı to the water and read the volume of mixture carefully. Then record the volume.

V*"r", - .... mL, V"1.o1,o; = .... mL, Vaıcohoı+ *ute, = _.. DL

Questions

] . 15 there any difference between the volume of mixture and the sum of Volumes of the alcohol and the water before
mixlng?

2. lfthere i, what is your reasoning?

ExAMPLE

A cylindrical container whose radius and height are 5 cm and 50 cm respectavely is

going to be filled with water by using a cubical cup whose dimension is 5 cm. How
many cups ofwater are needed to fill the container? (7r= 3)

53
 @[
V.yına", = ıİh =3 x52x 50 =3750cm3, V.ur=a3 = 53= 125 ç63

The number of cups necessary is; 3750 cm3 x

-!l!!, = 30

ExERclsE
some amount of water in a cylindrical container with a diameter of 4r is
poured in another cylindrical container with a radius of r. what ıs the ratlo
betwe€n the helghts of wat€İ Columns ln the second Gontainer and th€
firstone? (4t

@Er
20 mL of liquid A is mixed to 30 mL of liquid B. The final volume is read as 48 mL.
Find the percentage of volume reduction.

@
The tota| volume is: 20 + 30 = 50 mL
The Volume reduction is: 50 - 48 = 2 mL
,)
The oercentaoe i5: -:- x l0o = 4%
50

ExERclsE
A vessel shown in the 69ure is filled with wa-
ter by means of a tap whose flow rate is con-
stant. Draw a graph showing the relationship
between the height of water in the section K of
the vessel and time?

|-

54
EXAMPLE
2Cm
2cm
cubica| containers A, B, c are connected to ea(h other as shown in the figure. The
8
dimens|ons of the cubes A, B and c are 6, 4 and 2 cm respectively. This Vessel is
4am
filled with water by means of a tap whose flow rate is 8 cm3/min. Draw a diagram
showing the relation5hip between hei9ht ofwater versus time.
6cm

} 6Cm

Vo = 63 = 63 = 2'16 çm3, time needed to fill the cube is

216 cm3 x l 'in = 27 .in.

8 cm3

VB = 43 = 64 cm3, time needed to fill the cube is 64 cm3 x ' ''! = .'n
8 cm3 '
to fill the cube is 8 cm3 x
' ''1 = ,'n.
V.=23=g663, time needed ''
8 cm3

height ofwater (cm)

12

Time lnterval (min) Height of water l0

0-27 0-6 8

6
27 -35 6 - 10
4
35-36 lO-'|2
2

36912 15 18 2ı 2427 303336

Mea5urİng the volume of Solids

Solids can be regular or irregular in shape. We use different methods to meas-
ure the Volume of regular and ırregular solids. Do the fol|owing experiments to
measure the volume of

i. regular shaped solids.

ii. irregular shaped solids

i. Measuring the Volume of Regular Shaped Objects

lt is easy to calculate the Volumes of regular objects. The figure on the next
page shows some regular shaped objects and formulas used for finding their vol
umes.study the figure and memorize the formulas.

55
 cube rectangular prism cylinder rectangular pyramid 5phere cone

h
r-, h

V=axaxa=a3 V=axbxc V=nx12xh v=Jaxbxh V=_nxr'

^-1_
33 V=]nxlxh
Some regular shapcd solids and formulas used to calculate their volumes

EXPERtMENT 4

Measuring TheVolume of Regular Solids

Purpose: To 6nd the volumes ofthe geometrical shaped 5o|ids by u5in9 mathematical calculation.

oBJEcT DlMEN5loN FORMULA OF VOLUME VoLUME

Cube a= .....- cm V=a3 cm3

Prism a =........., b =........., c =..,...... cm V=axbxc V = ............... cm3

Cylinder r = ,......., cm, h = ......,.. cm V = rrr2h V = ............... cm3

Sphere r = .......... cm V = 4/3 nr3 cm3

Equipment

1.cube 2. Prism 3. cy|inder 4.sphere 5.Ruler

Pro<eduıe

1. Using the ruler, measure the dimensions of cube, rectangular prism, cylinder and sphere. The ruler should rest on the
object along the length to be measured.
2. Find the volume of each solid mathematically by using the formulas given in the table. The volume of a regular solid ıs
the product of iG dimensions.
3. Record yourfindings in the table.

56
EXAMPLE }
HoMEwoRK
lf the shape ofyour room is rectangular Prism with dimensions of 2.5 m x 3 m x 4 m,
what i5 its volume in a. book b. eraser
pencil d. match box,... etc.
a. m3 b. liter?
c.

As you do in Experiment 5, the volume of a

@ regular solid con be colculoted mathemati-
cally.
a. Theformula to calculatethe volume ofa rectangular prism is V=axbxc.
V=2.5x3x4=30m3
,tO00 100OL
b.
,l
1 m3 = ooo dm3 = L =ş 30 m3 = =30OO0L
]m3

EXERclsE
Fill in the table by doing the calculations necessary

oBJEcT width (cm) ığngth (Cm} Height {Cm) Radius (cm) Volume (cm)

Cube 4

Rectangular Pri5m 6 8 144

Cylinder 6

Sphere 3

EXAMPLE

The radius of a sphere is 2 cm. How many of these spheres can be placed in a cube
whose one side is 12 cm? What is the Volume of air space that remains in the cube?
(rr= 3)

@
The diameter ofone sphere i5 2 x 2 =4 cm.The number ofspheres which can
be placed on each side of the cube is l2l4 = 3. since the witdh, length and height
of cube equal, then the total number of spheres which can be placed in the cube is
3 x 3 x 3 = 27 (Width x length x height).

The volume of the cube: V = a3 = 1 2 x'l 2x 12 = 1728 cm3

The volume of one sphere: V= 433"r=* x3x23=32cm3

The volume of 27 spheres: V = 27 x 32 = 864 cm3

The volume of air space = Vcub€ - Vsphe,", = t 728 - 864 = 864 cm3

57
 ExERcıSE
Suppose you have a cube whose dimension is 30 cm. and identical spheres
with a radius of 3 cm each. How many of these spheres can be placed in this
cube? what is the volume ofair space that remains in the Cube?

(125 spheres, 1g5oo cm3)

ExAMPLE

Find the volume ofthe solids in Figures (a)and (b).

2cm
ıcm 2cm

4cm

2cm
2Cm
2.5 cm

3cm 8cm
(a) (b)

EEil
a. This solid can be divided into two pieces with dimensions of

1 cmx2cmx2cm and 2cmx2cmx3cm.

Volume ofeach pan and tota| Volume are as follows.

Vl = | 1]1]=ıt663, vr=2x213= 12ç7n3

VT=V1 +V2=4+ ı2= 16 cm3

b. This solid is half of a rectangular prism. The vo|ume of the so|id can be

calculated by using the relationship

Volume= J22(lenqth x width x thickness) 2x2,5x8 -

=
'o.r:
ii. Measuring the Volume of lrregular 5haped Objects
lt is difficult to ca|culate the Volume of an irregular shaped solid like a
stone by measuring its dimensions. A liquid in which solid does not dissolve ıs used

58
to measure its volume. For example, the volume of a stone can be measured by
usin9 water and a graduated cylindeı Some amount of water is placed into the
graduated cylinder and its Volume is recorded. And then the stone is placed into
the cylinder and the final volume is read. since Volume is a common property and
is additive, the final volume i5 the total volume ofwater and the stone.

V,o,r| = V*on" * V*",", - Vrron" = V,or"l- Vrr",",

ExPERlMENT 5

Mea5uring the Volume of lrregular Solids

Purpose:

ı.To measure the Volume of an irregular stone ığl

2. To measure the volume of a solid which do€sn't sink in water ff İ
EquiPm€nt
h a
E" İ
1, Graduated cylinder (50 mL)
F.
2. Beaker (100 mL and 250 mL) ts ıo

tr ao

3. A piece of stone lıa t0

4. string İ
procedure [::

r. Fill a 50 mL graduated cylinder about half full with water. Record the
volume of water.
2. obtain a paeCe of stone and tie a string to it.
3. Lower the stone into the cylinder until it is submerged. lf you dont use
string to tie the stone, tilt the cylinder and place the stone into the cyıinder.
4. Read the level ofthe watef. Record the amount the water level rises.

calculations
Volume of water, Vı = _-.. mL (cm3)

Volume of water + stone,V, = ....... mL (cm3)

Volume of stone, V = Vı - Vı = -._. mL (cm3)

ln Experiment 5 you have found the volume of irregular shaped objects by

displacement of water. By thi5 method, you can measure the volume of regular soF
ids too. But the 5olid must not dissolve in water. Another liquid can be used instead
of water if the solid dissolves in water. First you have to investigate whether or not
the 5olid di55olve5 in water.

59
 ffiEr
A stone is placed in a graduated cylinder which has 20 mL water. lf the final
Volume i5 26 mL, what i5 the volume of the stone?

@
Vrton" =V6n"l -V*"ter = 26 - 20 = 6 mL

ExERclSE
when a piece of marble is placed into the container
in Figure 'l, 12 mL of water overflows (Figure 2).
what is the yolumG of the marble?
V='|2 mL

Figure 1 Figuİe 2

ffiEil
The height of water column is 20 Cm in the Cylinder whose radius is 2 cm.
when a pie(e of stone is placed into the cy|inder, the height of water column be-
comes 25 cm. what is the volume of the stone in dm3? (rı = 3)

EEil
The height of water column increased 25 - 2o = 5 cm, when the stone was

placed into the water. Then the Volume ofthe stone equals the Volume ofa cylinder
25Cm
which has a radius of 2 cm and a height of 5 cm.

Vr,on" = n/6 = 3 . 22 .5 = 60 cm3 3,

60 .rn3 . 1 d'' = 0.06 dmj.

a b 1OOO cm3

6o
 ExERcısE

A container scaled in cm3 has water to the mark 14. When an insoluble object

is put into the containeı the |eve| of water ri5e5 to the mark 22.
What is the volume of the object in mL? (8 mL)

There are air spaces between granulated 5ubstances such as sand, salt, sugar,
dust, etc... 5o we must be careful about the Volume of air between the 'dry sand"
particles when we are measuring the Volume ofsand particles only.

Vdry sand = Vai, spaces + Vsand panicles

EXPERlMENT 6

Measuring the volume of 5and

(-
Purpose: To measure the Volume of sand alone by displacement of water

Equipment F E :

1.Three graduated cylinders (10O mL each) 2. Sand F.

E9 a
İ
E, =
E

l"
}ro
procedure -
ş
tro Jo
1. Pour some sand into a dry graduated cylinder until it is about one third
t-
full. Record the volume ofdry sand. §"
2. Pour water into a second graduated cylinder until it is about tvvo thirds
full. Record the volume of water. tiı
3. Add the dry sand to the water in the graduated cylinder, and record the
final volume.

Volume of dry sand: .,.......,......... mL

Volume of water alone : ................... mL

Volume of sand plus water : ....,.............. mL

Volume of sand alone : ... , mL

Volume of air spaces in sand : ..,.........,...... mL

Que5tion5

1. what did you observe when you havejust added the sand to the water?

61
 2. ls the Volume of sand plus water equal to the sum ofthe Volumes of the dry sand and water before mixing?

3. lf your answer to question 2 is no, what is your reasoning?

4, what is the Vo|ume ofthe sand alone?

5. what is the VolUme ofthe air spaces between the sand particles?

6. what percentage by volume ofthe dry 5and isjust air space?

Whenever we measure the Volume of a solid by displacement of water, we

make the assumption that the Volumes of the solid alone and of the water alone
add up to the Volume of the solid and water together. This assumption may or may
not be correct.This will depend on the kind of solid we have. For example, you have
ı seen that the sum of volumes ofthe dry sand alone and of the water alone is larger
than that of the mixture of sand plus water. Because there are air spaces between
§ sand particles. when the dry sand is added to the water, air spaces are filled with
water. Therefore the volume of the sand plus water is less than the sum of the vol-
umes ofthe sand alone and ofthe water alone.

Measuring the Volume of Gases

The volume of a gas is equal to the volume of the container. üe volume of
a gas can be changed by changing the force applied, Pressure and temperature.

C. Density
22 carat gold bracelet
When you go to jewelery, you willfind thatthe prices of goldsmiths are differ-
ent in 18 carat gold and 14 carat gold prices. Do you know why go|d is at a different
price?

a
Suppose we cut a p|ece of iron rod into sect|ons of equal volume-say, 1 cm3.
When we mass them we see that they all have the same mass. When many '| cm3
samples from a bottle ofwater are taken, we find that each sample ofwater has the
same mass. Howeveı the mass of 1 cm3 of iron is different.That |s to say, the mass
of a unit volume of material is the same for all samples of the same substance but
usually differs for different substances. can mass/ volume ratio be used to distin-

ı J guish one substance from another? Let us try and find an answer to this question
with the help ofsome experiments.

,ı i. Measuring the Densities of Solids

The mass and volume of a solid are measured as explained in the previous
section5 and then its mass/volume ratio is calculated.
Pure gold

E?
 EXPERİMENT 7

cal(u|ating the Massn olume Ratio fo] the Geometİically shaped objects

PurPose: To measure the mass/Volume ratio ofsubstances of regular shape

EquiPment

1. Equal-arm balance 2. cubes with equal volumes 3. A set of masses 4. Ruler

procedure

1.Take two cubes that look alike and that have the same volume. Measure the sides ofthe cubes and calculate theır rıol-
umes. Record the volumes in the table below.
2. Measure the masses ofthe cubes on your balance and record the masses in the table below.
3. using the masses and volumes you have obtained, find the mass,/volume ratio of each object.

oBJEcT Length (Cm) width ((m) Height (Cm} volume (cm3} Mass (9) MassNoıume (g/cm3)

cube - '1

Cube - 2

Questions
1. Are the masses and the mass/volume ratio ofcubes the same or different?
2. Are you now able to decide whether or not the cubes are made ofthe same substance?

As you see in Experiment 7, the mass/volume ratios of the cubes made up

of the same material i5 the same. This Value doesn't depend on its mass and vol-
ume. when the mass of the substance is increased, its volume increases too. But
the mass/volume ratio remains the same. The ratios of the cubes which are made
ofdifferent materials are different. such property is called characteristic ProPerty
a
of matter and i5 used to distinguish one substance from another.

ın everyday talking mercury is said to be "heavier"than water. By this is meant

that a certaan Volume of mercury is heavaer than the same Volume of water. ln sci-
ence we refer to the lightness or heavine55 of different materials by the use of the
term density. The density of a substance is defined a5 its mass per unit Volume.

one way offinding the density of a substance is to take a samp|e and measure
its mass and Volume. The density may then be calculated by dividing the mass by
the Volume. lf the mass m and volume V ofa substance are known, its density d can
be found from

Mass
uens(y=.-=- m

-
63
 The sl unit of density is the k9/m3, but in laboratories it is generally most con-
Venient to measure mass in grams and Volume in cubic centimeters or milliliters.
DlDYoU KNow? Then the result is expressed in 9/cm3 or g/ml(for liquids). lt is not difficult to con-
Vert this (9/cm3) to sl units (kglm3). For example ıhe density of water |s 1.0 g/cm3
The massofa unitvolume ofo pure subston- ,1.o
or x l 03 kglm3.
ce is colled density. The densiry is colculated
by d =m /V mathematicalmodel.The sl unit At a constant temperature, as the Volume of solid increases, its mass also in-
of density is kg/m3. creases. But its densıty doesnt change. Density of a substance doesnt depend on
the amount of matter.

lf we consider the equation 9iven on the left at constant temperature

Mass
U€hSlW=-
' Volume . Density i5 directly proportionalto mass if Volume is kept constant.

Mass =Volume x Density . Density is inversely proportional to Volume |f mass is kept constant.

Mass . Mass is directly proportional to Volume if density is kept constant.

Volume = ="""":-
uenslty
The density triangle:
Let's consider a glass balloon filled with air (V: constant).lfwe flow more airto
the glass balloon; the number ofair particles in unit volume will also increase, thus
increasing the density of air in the glass balloon.
m
But for a solid or a liquid, since they are incompressible, as the volume in-
Vxd
creases the mass also increases. 5o the density remain5 the 5ame for constant tem-
perature.
To frnd the quantity you want, cover up
that letter.The other letters in the trian9le A 5ubstance ha5 the same value of density for all amounts of that substance
show you the formula.
at a 5pecific temperature. lf temperature of the substance changes, it expands. This

l g/cm'
. 0.00t ko results as a change in volume. This causes a change in the density also.
=
0.00000l m'

= 1OOO kg/m3

m (9) d (g/cm3) d (g/cm3)

V (cm3) m (9) V (cm3)

Relotionship omong the mass,volume ond density of solid ot o constont temperoture

64
 DENslTY oF soME sUB5TANcE5

5oLlD5 tlQUıDs GA5E5 (o"c and l atm)

substance Density substance Den§ity
]

substance Dğnslty
Aluminum 2.7 Acetone 0.79 Nitro9en 0.00l25

Gold l9.3 Benzene 0.88 Air 0.00009

copper 8.92 Gasoline 0.70 Helium 0.00001 7

lce (0'c) o.92 Mercury 13.6 Hydrogen 0.000084

ainc 7.,| Ether o.71 carbon dioxide 0.00196

lron 7.a6 Ethly alcohol 0.79 oxygen 0.00143

5ilver 10.5 Glycerin 1.26

,l ,ı.59
Lead 1.3 carbon tetrachloride

Magnesium 1.7 chloroform 1.49

Cork 0.2 water (+4 "c) 1.00

Pine
,]
0.6 - 0.9 5ulfuriC acid ("98) .84
planitinum 21.4

Table salt 2.16

EXPERİMENT 8
comparing the MassNoİume Ratios of 5olids

Purpose: To recognize some soıids by comparing their mass/volume ratios

EguiPment

1. Equal arm balance 2. Smal| pieces ofstone

3. A set of masses 4. Graduated cylinder

procedure

1. Find the mass of each ofthe sample of stones on equal arm balance.
2. Find the Volume of each ofthe stones by using a graduated cy|inder and water.
3. calculate the density ofeach ofthe stones

Question5

1. compare the densities ofthe samples of stones.

2, Can allthe samples be made of the same material?
3. According to the resultş can the density be characteristic property for so|ids?
Discuss the results in class.
 EEEEIE .
The mass ofan iron cube whose edge is 2.0 cm is 62.88 9. what is the density
of iron?

ir)ı,;ı,)r| )

Volume ofcube, V=a3

V = (2.0 cm) x (2.0 cm) x (2.0 cm) = 8.0 cm3
Mass ofthe cube, m = 62.88 9
63:38
Density of iron, d = = z.ao sıcm3

@Er
A cylinder made of copper has a height of 50 cm and a diameter of 'l0.0 cm.
what is the mass of the cylinder? (d.oo*, = 8.92 9/cm3)

E@-,
Volumeof cylinder, V=ıl h=e.l+xS2x50=3925cm3
Density of copper, d = 8.92 glcm3

Mass ofcylinder, m =Vxd = 3925 (cm3)x8.92 (g/cm3) = 35ot l9

ExERclsE
a. calculate the density of silver if its 1O cm3 sample has a mass of 105 9.
b. A cube of iron has a mass of975 g. lf the density of iron is 7.8 g/cm3, what is

the edge ofthe iron cube? (a,1o.5 g/cm3, b.scm)

EtrEEIE ,
The mass of 10 identical metal spheres is 30 9. When 20 of them are placed
into a 9raduated cylinder which has some water, the level of water increases 30
cm3. What is the density ofthe spheres?

The mass of 20 spheres; + 'l0 spheres 30s

20x30 _?
,l0
20 5pheres

of 20 spheres cm3 +
.m60
d=V
The volume is 30 = 30 =29lcm'

{.l,
 ExERcısE
when t 0 identical spheres are placed into a container of water, the Volu me of
water increases from 30 cm3 to 50 cm3. lf the density of spheres is 2 g/ cm3,
what is the mass ofeach ofthe spheres?
(4 9)

EEEEIil -
The mass and volume ofa copper sphere are 1335 9 and 2O0cm3. lftheden-
sity of copper is 8.9 9/ cm3, what is the volume of air space in the sphere?

E@_-
m l335 o
The volume ofcopper; V =
T 8.9 g/cmJ

But the Volume of sphere is 20O cm3. Then the Volume of the air space is
'|50
2O0 - = 50 cm3.

EEEEIE -
A wooden block whose density and mass are 0.6 g/ cmr and 8OO g is bored
to form a cavity. And the cavity is filled with another substance having a density of
'1.5
9/cm3. The wooden btock is massed again and found to be 89o g. what is the
volume ofthe cavity formed on the block?

E@.
Let us say the volume ofthe cavity is V cm3. when this part ofthe wood is re-
moved, its ma55 decreases by (Vx dwooJ.when the cavity is filled with a substance
X, then mass lncreases as (Vxdr).

The change in the mass ofthe bloc[ Am=Vxdx-Vxdwood=V(d,-d*ooa)

Am=890-8O0=90g. =+ dwood = 0.6 glcm3 _ dr=1.59/cm3
AT
Am=V(d,-d*ooa) -v= d,: _ d**a=__!L=196ç6ı.
1.5 - 0.6

ii. Measuring the Densitie5 of Liquids

The density ofa liquid can be found in laboratory by measuring its mass on a
balance and measurin9 its Volume with a graduated cylinder. First, an empty grad-
uated cylinder is massed (ml). second, some liquid is put into the graduated cy|in-
der and massed again (m2). The difference between two Values (m2 - mt) gives the
mass of the liquid. The mass/volume ratio i5 equal to the density of the liquid.

l| /
 EXPERİMENT 9

comPaİin9 the Massryolume Ratios of Two Liquids

_>
Purpose: To find the density of some liquids after measuring their VolUmes and
their masses and compare their densities

EquiPm€nt

l. Equal-arm balance or electronic balance

2. A set of masses
3. Three graduated cylinders ('l0 or 25 mL) ıI
ıı. water and other liquids (your instructor will provide)

procedure

1. Find the mass ofan emPty dry 9raduated cylander and record it in the table given

below.
2. Pour water into the cy|inder until it is about two-thirds full. Then find the mass ofthe cylinder plus water a5 shown İn the
figure. Record in the table. Now find the mass of the water.

m*",", = (m,r",u, + mcylindeı) - mcylinder

3. Read the volume ofthe water in the cylinder and record it in the table.

LlQUlD mcyıına". (9} m(ylinde.ılquid mliquid liquid d liquid

Water

Liquid - 1

Liquid - 1

a. calculate the density of water.

5. Examine two samples of lıquids. smell them and shake them, but don't taste them. can you identi[ı whether they are
the same or different?
6. Now find the density ofthe liquids by ma55ing them on a balance and measuring their Volumes with a gradUated cylin-
der as explained in steps 'l, 2,3.

Questions

1. compare the densities of water and other two liquids. Are the two liquids the same or different?

2.What would you conclude if you found the densities to be 0.9l g/cm3 and o.78 9/cm3?

3.What would you conclude if you found the density ofeach liquid to be 0.83 g/cm3?

4.Which one of them has the largest ma55? 'l L water? 1 L liquid-'l? or'l L ıiquid-2?

cB
ExAMPLE }
A cylinder which has a height of 20 cm and a diameter of 10 cm is filled with
mercury.

what is the mass of the mercury in the cylindeİ? (dmercu,, = 'l3.6 g/cm3)

E@-
Volume of cylinder; V = nfh = 3,1+ x 52 x 20 = l 57O cm3

Vcyıinder =V.e,cury = 1570 cm3

Mass of mercury m =Vxd = 1570 (cm3) x 13.6 (9/cm3) = 2'1352 g =21.352kg

ExERclsE
A sample of glycerin has a volume of 50 mL and a mass of 62.5 g. Find its density.
a. in g/mL, B. in kg/m3
(o.1.25g/mL, b. ızso kg/m31

EXAMPLE

A bottle weighs 85.4 g when empty and weighs 245.4 g when filled with car-
bon tetrachloride which is used for dry cleaning of your clothes. The same bottle
weıghs 1&.4 g when filled with another liquid. lf the density of carbon tetrachlo-
ride is 1.6 g/cm3, what is the density ofthe other liquid?

@ }

Mass of carbon tetrachloride, m = 245.4 - 85.4 = 1 60 g.

Volume ofcarbon tetrachloride = Vbotth = m/d = (160 9) / (1.6 g/cm3) = lOO cmı
Volume of unknown liquid = V**" = lOg ç63
Mass of unknown liquid = 164.4 - 85.4 = 79.0 9.

Density of unknown liquid, d = m/r' = 79.0 9 / 1OO cm3 = 0]9 g/cm3

ExERclsE
A bottle can take 35 9 of a liquid whose density is 0.70 g/mL. what mass of another ıiquid can the same bottle take if the density
of the other liquid is 1.25 g/mL?
(62.5 9)

69
 iii. Density of Homogeneous Mixtures
The mass of a homogeneous mixture formed by two or more substances is
equal to the sum ofthe masses ofthe components.

hmiı=ffil+m2+...
lf the Voıume ofthe mixture equals the sum ofthe volumes ofthe substances
which form the mixture, Vmix =Vl + V2 +. . .

m] +m2+
sln(e
m
d=V _ hmix _
- dmix
V.i, Vl + V2 +

When equal Volumes of 5ubstances are mixed,

Vr =V2=V; V.i,=2V
m' +m2 Vr.dr +V2.d2
d.l,
V] +V2 Vl +V2
mı = drv and m2 = d2V

V. d] + V. d2 V(dt + d2)

2v

d. +d^
d^ı= _Lz:
-
m m
lf equalmasses of substances are mixed, m, =mr=1, Y,
d1 'd,

ml+m2 m+m 2m 2m 2m.d, .d,

d.i, mm md2 mdr m(d, + dr) m(d, + dr)
-+-
d. d2 d,d,
+
d,d, d, d,

2.dl.d2
d.i,
dt+d2

Density of a mixture i5 always between the densities of its components. For

example, when alcohol (d = 0.8 9/cm3) and sulfuric acid (d = 1.8 9/cm3) are mixed,
'1.8
the density of the mixture is more than 0.8 9/cm3 and less than 9/cm3. lts exact
Value depends on the amount of alcohol and acid in the mixture.

EilEEIE .
An insoluble solid with a mass of 'l20 9 i5 placed into a container which is
completely full of a liquid whose density is 3 9/cm3. The mass increase of the con-
tainer is found to be 30 g after the overflown liquid i5 taken away. calculate the
density of the solid.

7o
,ı),^ı,-i,_.,ı ı

Although the mass of the ob.iect is 'l 20 9, the mass of the conta iner increases

by 30 9.This is because some ofthe liquid is overflowing from the container.

mass increase = mass added - mass liquid

l-------YJ!------.vJ
object overfownliqı.ıid

30= 120- m1;or;3 + m[quid =909

m=d.V + Vlio";6=f =ğ=ıocm3

The volume of overflown liquid is equal to the volume of the object. 50 the
density ofthe solıd i5:

o=
. ..._
m l20
=4olcm-
V30 =
-

ExERclsE
The mass versus volume graphs of the substances X and Y are given aside. m(g)

Find the density of each substance. Y

Compare the mass of 20 cm3 of X with 20 cm3 of Y 31.8

l5.8

(a. d = o,7g g/cm3, d g/cm3, b. m x = 1 5.8 g, m g) V(mL)

x v = 1.59 Y =
3 1.8
0 10 20

ExAMPLE

The mass of a bottle is 2O0 g when 6lled with water, 350 9 when filled with a
liquid with a density of 2 glcm3.

what is th€ mass of bottle when empty? (d*u,". =ı 97ç.:1

@ }

ln both cases, the volume of liquids is equal to each other, sance they are fill-
ing up the same bottle.

,l1
 mbonıe + mlıquia = 350 g and mbott|e + m*",", = 200 9

m|iqrıa - m*ater= l50 and d,,ou,o.V- d*",",.V='l50

2.V - 'l .V= 15O + V=15Ocm3.

m,r",", = dV = l , 'l50
=
'l50
9 and mbotı|e = 200 - 'l50
= 50 9

EtrEEIE -
what is the density of
the homogeneous mixture A B

formed by mixing the liquids

A and B giv€n in the figure?
d = 0.8 g/cm3 d = ].8 g/cm3
(Volume is conserved.)
120 9 350 9

LOOK AT LİNKS

You can watch the video at the foılowing ge-

neral web address for subject expression ond E@-
mmple solutions obout the density.
Liquid A:
g@.gurbııTnA
mı 'l
= 20 9
m^ 120
'--Y,
o
- y.=JJIA=
^ do o.8 g/cmJ =,l5Ocm3
dı = 0.8 g/cm3

Liquid A:
Ve = 35O cm3
+ mB = VB x dB = 35O cm3 x 1.8 g/cm3 = 630 g

dg = 0.8 g/cm]

. mA + mB t20 + 630 75o

at
-mlı=- VA + V8 l 50 + 350 500

72
 READİNG TEXT

L-Bı ı § i(szı-ıo+e)
0

Ebu Reyhan al-Biruni, a philologist, a5tronomer, bioIogist, geologist, sociolo-

gist, mathematıcaan, lin9ui§t and philosopher, is a universal scientist who lived \
about a thousand years ago. Biruni is a 9reat physician at the same time.

Biruni believes that collecting data by holding and observing by hand is

much more beneficial to humans than to reading books. Having a real under- \,ı
standing of science, Biruni did not give imponance to the concept of race. He ıl
would speak with a deep respect from another people's advanced culture. ln hi5
\
preface to the book Potancali, which he tİanslated from sanskrit to Arabiç"Man's
thoughts are of various kinds, and development and peace in the world are
_i
based on this difference: it is written as. The number of books of El-Biruni, born
İn Harezm in central Asia, is about one hundred eighty. However, only twenty-
seventh ofthese works could have come up to daylight.

ln his work'Kitabü'|-camahir fi Marifeti'l-cevahir' (on the properties of the \]

ores), Biruni determined the densities of 23 solids and six liquids Very Close to
their present values. ln his book, "Kitabut saydanei written on medicinal herbs
and some medicine, he writes about how three thousand or so plants are used ğııiİ$l,"ia. )

and how they are used. ln addition to medicineı the plant is also named in other
languages such as ArabiÇ Persian, Greek, sanskrit and Turkish.

Some examples of objects from which the Biİuni determined the densities
and their comparison with todayt known values are as shown below.
700 years before Newton, El-Biruni putforward his first ideas on the theory of
gravity, which Newton mathematically proved. 600 years before Galileo, El-Biruni
*
defended the ldea that the woıld was ıeturning.

El-Biruni died at the age of 75. He became a source of inspiration for scientists
like Newton, Torri(elli, Copernicus, and Galileo.The UNESco Courier magazine de-
scribed El-Birunias"the universalgenius that lived in centralAsia a thousand years
ago." AccoRDlNG
ELEMENTs ToDAY,s VALUE5
To HAzlNl
8ooKs Gold 19.26 19.26

Among the dozens of books of Biruni, the most well knAown ones are as fol- Ruby I
3.7 5 3.52
lows:
Copper 8.92 8.85
1. El-Asar'il-Bakiye an'il-Kurüni'i-H6li-ye
Emerald 2.73 2.73
2. El-Kanün'ülMes'üdi
İron 7.82 7.79
3. Kitab,üt-Tahkik Ma li,|-Hind
4. Tahdid'ü Niheyeti'lEm6kin li Tas-hih-i Mesafet'il-Mes6kin Quartz 2.53
t 2.58
5. Kitabü'|-cemehir fi Me'rifet-i ceva-hir
Lead
,l
1 .4o 11.35
6. Kitibüt-Tefhim fi Evaili 5ıbaatit-Tenclm
Pearl 2.73 2.75
7. Kitabü's-5aydele fi Tlp
 READ|NG TEXT

Abdurrahman El-Hazini (1 100-1 160 estlmated)

Abdurrahman el-Mansur el -Hazini was born and bred in the city Mery Turk-
menistan in the end of 'l lth century and was mostly known as el-Hazinı. He is one
ofthe well known physicists lived in the 12th century. El Hazini was a genuine sci-
entist who gave much importance to observation and experiments. ln addition,
he cared about the work ofthe scientists before him and he was especially influ-
enced by the work of lbn-i Heysem and Biruni. He became one ofthe worthy sci-
entists of his own age and especially worked on scales,gravity, density and specıfic
gravity. H!s work"Kitabü'lMazinu'l Hikme"(The Scale of Wise) consist of ınformation
on hydrostatic and scales-

Hazini has found densities of many solids and liquids very sensitive and c|ose
to todayl results. some examples of objects from which the Hazini determined
the densities and their comparison with today's known Values are as shown below.
L
The inventor of the princiPle of gravity, el-Hazini set forth the Prin(iple of t,
gravity between masses at those times. ln all his experiments, he concluded that
all matters are gravitated to the centre ofthe sphere and stated that this force de-
pends on the distance between falling matter and the centre of gravitation. For
v \j,

that reason, not NeMon but el-Hazini, who lived500 years before, had discovered \,
the gravity. Afteİ that, thi5 law was stated as the laws ofgravity between two mass-
es by Newton.

ln western world, mostly known as Ebu'Feth el Kuzini, el-Hazini wa5 appreci-

ated greatly by the authorities ofthe history ofscience. Rhe western scientists who
AccoRDlNG ToDAY,s
examined his works couldn't stop confessing their admiration for him. His works ELEMENTs
To HAzlNl VALUE5
were translated into western languages.
Gold 19.05 19.26

Mercury 13.56 13.59

BooKs
copper 8.66 8.85
1 . Mizanü'|-Hikme, is the most important work of him. lt includes the con-
8.40
Bras5 8.57
struction, use, theoretical bas|s and other related topics ofthe hydrostatic
lron 7.74 7.79
balance.
İn 7.32 ] 7.29
2. Ez-zacul-mu'teberu!-5enceri es-suhani. ln this work, Hazinı compares the
Lead
,l ,1.32 l ı,1.35
observable and calculated states of the planets and identifies noncon-
forming points between them

3. Risale fi'|-Alat is a treatise on astronomy instruments.

 9.2.1.2. Density in Daily Life

READING TEXT

Eureka Eureka

The King of the land wanted to wear a Golden Crown. He gave some

gold to a goldsmith to make a suitable crown. After few days, the goldsmith
brought the finished crown to the Kin9. The crown was weighed.The weight of
the crown was equal to the gold given to the goldsmith by the King. The King
looked at the color of the crown. He had a suspicion. The goldsmith could have
stolen some gold from the gold given to him. The King wanted to find out the
truth. He asked his court scientist Archimedes to find out. The King said, "Find
out how much gold had been stolen?"

How to find out the truth? Archimedes thought about the problem day
ı-/
and night. one day he was about to have his bath, but he was busy thinking.
He did not notice the bathtub.The water in the bathtub was already full to the
brim. He slid into the bathtub. lmmedıately a large quantity of water flowed
over the brim ofthe bath tub. He noticed this suddenly. His brain wave worked
suddenly. He jumped out of the bathtub, shouting, "Eureka! Eureka!" Eureka in
-
Greek means'l have found itl
He knew that since he could measure the crown's volume, all he had to

do was discover its weight in order to calculate its density and hence its purity

oifferent metals of the same Volume have different weights (density). ob-
Archimedes (287 Bc - 212 Bc)
jects, put in wateı will displace water. The displaced water will be equal to their
volume.

For example, an iron cube weighing a kilogram will disperse some water. But an aluminums Cube of the same weight will dis-
place more water than the iron cube.

Archimedes knew all these theories. Using thi5 as the basic knowledge Archimedes worked out a p|an to find out the purity of
the crown.

Archimedes took two bowls. He filled them with water to the brim. Then he placed each bowl separately in the middıe of the
large vessels. He placed the crown in one bowl. Water overflowed. lt Collected at the bottom of the outer vessel.Then he took a cube
of pure gold.This cube of gold was equal in weight to the crown. He kePt this gold cube in the middle ofthe second bowl. Here also
water overflowed. water got collected at the bottom of the outer bowl.

Archimedes then measured the quantity of water in the two Vessels. He found out the difference in the water overflow. The
crown had sent out more wateİ. The cube of gold had sent out less water. But both the crown and the gold cube were of the same
weight. 50, they should have sent out the same quantity of water. Therefore, the crown had some other metals mixed in it. These met-
als took up more space in the water than pure gold.

Archimedes reported this finding to the King.The King demanded the truth from the 9oldsmath. The 90ldsmith then confessed.
He had stolen some gold. He had added some other metals-
 Archimedes has benefited from the gold's density to find out if it is pure gold.
The jeweler did not know that the volume would change even though the mass
remained the same when the different materials were mixed into the crown. He
could not imagine that the mass of crown he made would be different from that
of gold.
q
Today, as in the above example, the densities of materials are used in jewelery.
Gold, silveı metals commonly used in jewelery can be distinguished precisely only
with the help of these materials' densities. lf the mass and volume of a suspected
sample is measuıed and density is cal(ulated, it is understood that this sample is
real or fake.

The materials called kaolen, quartz and feldspar which are used in making
porcelain are mixed at appropriate proPortions and ground and the powder is
brought up.Then porcelain clay is obtained and mold is poured into desired shaPe.
The material's density used in making quality porcelain is in a certain range.5peci
mens outside these limits are considered poor quality. The staining resistance of
polished porcelain materials can be controlled by the density and microstructure
proPerties. The Archimedes principle is used to determine the densities of cooked
samples.

Even though the method explained in Experiment 9 is Very useful, it is not

always easy to measure the mass and volume of the liquids. For example, in ac-
cumulator of cars, a solution of sulfuric acid is used as electro|yte. As the battery is
used the density ofthe solution changes.The density ofthe acid solution should be
measuıed to checkthe battery. Howeveı it is not practicalto measure the mass and
volume of the liquid in a service station. Hydrometers are used to make this meas-

r_]
C urement. A hydrometer |s a narrow tube with a weight at the bottom as shown in
the figure. The tube floats upright when it is placed into the liquid. The density of
the liquid is read from the calibrations on the narrow tube.
ı pure water salt solution A weighted test tube can be used as a hydrometer as shown in the figure on
the left. The test tube floats higher in a salt solution than in pure water, Therefore
A hydrometer
the density of salt solution is greater than that of pure water.
Using a weighted test tube as o hydrometer
while the lifting forces of the liquids are calcu|ated, the materiall density is
used. swimmin9 and sinking are related to the materiall densities. Milkman meas-
ures the density of the milk to understand whether water is mixed into the milk
when it collects milk from the farms or whether the milk oil has been removed. A
hydrometer is used for this.
REsEARcH ) when the mixture is being formed, the densities of the mixed materials are
utilized. The exact amount of metal to be used for the production of the coins is
The iron nails sink into the woter, ond the
measured precisely. Mixtures are also used in steel production. Metals such as chro-
ships made of iron are swimming in the wo-
mium and aluminum which are incorporated into iron are produced with steel with
ter. lnvestigate the couse of this event.
different density. For example, steel made of iron and aluminum mixture is used in
rims that form the wheels of veh icles and aircraft bodies. Because the density is

b
smaller. Today, the use of Carbon fiber materials that are much smaller in density is
becoming widespread, while being more resistant to steel.

ı
-
E
= 1

1 E

one of the benefited areas that are density used in the daily life is the art of
ebru. Ebru, one of the traditional Turkish arts, is de6ned as dancing of colors with
water and harmony of colors.The water used in making the ebru should have a cer-
tain density and should be kept on 5pecially prepared paint. Ebru cannot be made
with any water. The name of the material that gives this property to the water of ı.*-
the ebru is the kitre. Kitre i5 a wild spike (geven) that 9rows in the countryside in the §-
southern and southeastern regions of Turkey. While the water of the ebru is pre-
pared, put 5ome amount of kitre into the pure water. After the water has reached a
sufficient density, the ebru water is thoroughly filtered to separate the remaining
undissolved remnants.

LOOK AT LİNKS

To reinforcethe concept of density,you can followthe simulotion ot thefollowing public networkaddress.

h ftpt /p h e t. co l o ro d o. ed u/ e n / s i m u l at i o n / l eg a cy/ d e n si ty

ExERcısE

1. Give examples of materials that are mass-measured and sold. What mass
units are used during the purchase ofthese materials? Give an example of
the transformation between units.

2. Give examples of the substances measured and sold for volume. What vol
ume units are used during the purchase ofthese materials? Give an exam-
ple ofthe transformation between units.

3. When buying milk and honey, what is the situation that we should pay
attention to the density? Give examples where densıty we encounter in
everyday life is important.

o
 9.2.2. sotıDs
At the beginning of the unit, we have seen how we caıculate the Volumes of
regular geometric objects. ln this section, besides the volumes of some geometric
objects, we will also learn the calculation ofcross-sectional area. we will try to inter-
pret how the changes we make in the dimension of a solid body affect the volume
and the area and how the proportions ofthe Values change between each other.

You must have seen the ants and sPiders ten times bigger than humans and
gorillas at the size of fiVe or ten storey building in the movies.

J
#
ü
}
\
\
İ
L
These cleatures, su.h as iİ a magnifyirıg gloss to efilarye

Did there actually use to be gorillas at that size in the past? After we have
learnt the relation between the several characteristics of the living things and their
body structures, we will understand if creatures like these are real or not through
scientifrc approach.

The formulas for the cfoss-sectional areas of cube, rectangular prism, cylinder
and 5phere are given in the following table.

Cube Rectangulaİ prism Cylinder 5phere

C I
Geometrical h
I

objects a

a
b
a

cross-sectional
area
a2 a.b n.? ıı -l
clors-secıiorıaı area of cube, rectangular prisrtl, cylinder and sphere

7a
 How Do Changes in Size Affect Cross-Se(tional Area and Volume
The changes done comparatively to the dimensions ofthe 5ubstances, cause
changes in the characteristics of the substances like mass, volume and cross-sec-
tional area.The area chosen parallel to the area that an object stands upon is called
cross-sectional area and the sum of the areas of all surfaces is called surface area.
Let's double the edge length of a cube of which edge is a and examine how the
cross-sectional area and volume change in this case.

2a
a

Cross-sectional area = a2 cross-sectional area = 4a2

Volume -- a3 Volume = 8a3

when we check the results, we see that the cross-sectional area of the ob-
ject is four times and the Volume of the same object is eight times larger. 5o, dou-
bling in the dimensions doesn't mean doubling in the area and Volume. "n" times
increase in dimensions causes "n2" in area size and "n3" in volume size.

Cıoss-Se<tional Area / Volume

Let's see how"Cross-sectiona| a rea/Volume" proportion change when we dou-
ble the radius ofthe circle below.

2r

Cross-sectional area nl= A cross-sectional are a 4nİ= 4A

Volume = a3
Volume=
natio =
}n.eP=aV
f,
Ratio=#=+

When we look at the proponions above, we see that doubling of the dimen-
sions causes the reduction ofthe proportion of"cross-sectional area/Volume". This
condition is not only peculiar to circle. These changes happen in the same way in
all living and nonliving things.

79
 tr
r
E- I

ri
ı_

a. SingleJayet rcpe can be easy to pull off. b. The two-story rope i5 ,nore difrcult to püll of.

ln the 69ure a above, you can see a person pulling off a rope with a certain
force.when the same person tries to pulloffthe rope doubling it a5 in the figure b,
he has to do it with greater force. lf the is folded 3 - 4... times,itwill hardly break
off or will not. By foldin9 the rope, it is made thicker. lt may be easy to pull off a
single layer rope.To pulloffa double layer rope is more difficult.

we have learnt before that the proportion of Cross-sectional area of a sub-

stance to its Volume decreases when its mass i5 increased at a certain rate. Do you
wonder ifthere is a relation between these proportions and the body structures of
the livin9 thin9s?

9.2.2.1 strength
The division of the force applied to a substance to its cross-sectional area is
the pressure. Against it, tension occurs in the material. Tension is the internal reac-
tive force of the material. The occurrence of tension is connected to the character-
istic of the material. A critical limit in the tension causes a break or deformation in
the material. There is a relation between the force on the cross-sectional area and
the strength ofthe materials.

when the subject is a specific structure, the force on it is its weight. The
condition in which the force aPplied and the tension force are balanced is called
stıength. strength, also known as structural strength, is the resistance shown by
the mafter against the force applied. Experimental studies 5how that there is a reıa-
tion between cross-sectional area and strength;

D=kA

Here, D is strength, k is a constant whi(h is peculiar to the matter and A is the

cross-sectional area of the material. so, strength is proportional to cross-sectionaI
area. strength i5 distinctiveness for substances.

8o
 The wei9ht is directly proportional to the volume and tension is inversely pro-
portionalto the cross-sectional area in substances so cross-sectional area / Volume
proportion is a measure for the tension of the material. To break a thick piece of
wood is harder than to break a thin piece ofwood.

+ +
-l

The hanging object bftak off the rope Two objects hanğng on the thick rope connol
breok off the rope.

iI

A bridge may be made more durable by enlarging the cfoss-sectionııl areas of its legs.

An object can only break off the thin rope as shown in the figure. The rope
does not break off when the thickness ofthe rope becomes twice and the weight is
doubled. This indicates that the increase ın strength of the rope is greater than the
increase in rope thickness.

As a consequence, as the cross-sectional area becomes smaller, the strength

of the mater|al reduces. lf a particular material is to be made larger in volume and
its cross-sectional area is also made larger respe(tively, the strength of the mate-
riaı may be preserved. The relation between cross-sectional area and volume of a
material or structure i5 an important Value in this regard.

( REsEARCH
ExAMPLE
Which geometric object is the smallest surfa-
Letl examine the Values of changes in cross-sectional area, volume and cross-
ce oreo of o unit moss? Research ond discuss
sectional area/Volume when we increase the height of a cylinder of which radius is
with your friends in class you found.
l0 cm, height is 20 cm, by '10 cm.

81
 A=n?
Ainıtiuı = 3 x 102 = 3OO cm2

Annaı = 3OO cm2

V.r1;6", = ılh
Vı.t"ı =3 x 102x 20=6000cm3
Vnnaı = 3x'l02x 30 = 9OOOcm3
t
4;6;161/V;1;61 = 300/6000 = l/2O cm
,l/3O
46631/y'6n61 = 3OO/90O0 = cm-r
5trength decreases.

Weight is proportional to the Volume 50 there has become a 50% increase

in the amount of the load on the same cross-sectional area. The increase in the
amountofthe load on the cross-se(tional area mean5 the decrease ofthe strength
accordin9 to the initial state.

@Eil
Compare the strength ofa cube X, a cylinderY and a sphere Z all made ofthe
same material.

XYz

r
o r

@
For the cube X.

D1
A *1
V13
For the cylinderY
A=n}
Dy
A r|ll
V=(nl).h=nf fll,

For the sphere z

fl? 3
+
y Lnr' DX=DY>Dz
1
D7
A 4 (
nr3
3 3

a2
 ExERclsE
compare the strength ofcylinders X, Y and z all made ofthe same material.

r/2

2l
2r

X Y z

ffiEil t
The diameters of the ropes K L
made fıom the same material are
r and 2r.
r 2l
what is the ratio of weight
of loads G^/G" that ropes Can
ca.ry without bİeaking?

EE@. 1

The amount of the load§ that the roPes can carry depends on their cro55-
sectional areas. cross section areas ofthe ropes K and L are,

Sx=nl
Sı_=n,(2r)2

Ratio of loads carried by ropes is ?="4=+

G8 n,4t 4 a
The weight of a living thing is proportional to its volume. The relation be-
tween the strength and the weight ofa livin9 thing is like the relation between the
Afi ant corl carıy a load ,nuch heavıer thafi its
strength ofthe bones and muscles (cross-sectional area) and the weight (volume).
weight. An elephant can't achieve the peıformance
ln other words, it can be stated that the strength of living things is the cross-sec- that an ant can.
tional area per Unit Volume.

t-
83
 lt can be understood from the statement above that as the characteristic
hei9ht h ofthe livin9 thin9 increases, its stıength will decrease.

You must have seen the tallest man in the world hardly standing on his feet
on TV. LiVing things and creatures in different sizes are depicted in Various tales
and movies.

Now let's imagıne

9iant ten times bi99er than a human.The body structufe
a

of a giant i5 the same as humanl so its every length i5 ten times bigger than a
human's. The strength of its skeleton and muscles are proportional to its sections.
Because of that the strength of its bones will be '|02 = 1OO times better than the
strength of a humanl. His weight will be proportional to its Volume so giant's Vol-
ume will be t 03 =
'l
ooo times larger than a human!. ln that case, the strength ofthe
giant will be 1/'l 0 of ours. Therefore the giant cannot carry itself.

lrish author J. D. swift wrote a novel named Gulliver's Travels. ln this novel,
dream traveler Lemuel Gulliver travelled to Kingdom of Lilliput where there are
creatures

1 rı
,,
1 t
l
L
l-J
ı t
7 }-}
ı
l

Aı inaease in the height in huüans afects the stfength adveriely. Kingdo oJ Lilliput isthe place whete creatwes that ore 1/I0 sıze of the real people live.

'1l'10 the size of the humans and Brobdingnag where there are creatures 12 times
bigger than human5. ln each kingdom, daily life is like ours. But Galileo Galilei lived
long before Swift, stated that a living thing formed by enlarging the sizes of the
people in the world with the same proportions (provided that other charaCteristic5
don't change) cannot live haVing the 5ame quality of life.

Galileo found that in order not to have a troublesome life, the width of the
carrier skeleton (bone5) mu5t be bigger than other 5ize5 and he draw their shapes.
ln hi5 works, Galileo stated that there cannot be a 9iant w|th a human's arm and leg
proportion, ifthere can be, then the bone struCture ofthe giant must be made ofa
substance which is stronger than the normal human's bone. Do you wonder if the
bones of giants were made of a stronger substance, could they stand on their feet
like Galileo said?

84
 As stated above, stİength depends on the type of the material, its thickness
and the proportion of its cross-sectional area to its Volume. Therefore if we make
a livin9 thing bigger at the same proportion, its strength will decrease. strength DrscussroN
in big creatures is achieved with thickeı bones not with stlonger ones as Galileo
stated. The cot and the lion ore membersofthe same
biological family. Discuıs their strength by
9.2.3. LıQuıDs comporing how their bone strudures ore.

9.2.3.1 . Cohesion, Adhesion, Surfa<e Tension and Capillary

Action

il
d
:

3
^{
t, /
\
/
ıa

J r (o
rcT*
(o) The body of a man ltotn the seo becotnes wet, (b) Painy weather, the rain drops Jalling on the glass oJ our house adhered n the glas. (c) Sorrretirfies we
take the tea cup tea plote moves with the cuP. Q) Spoon dipped in honey in the rcugh honey stick.

cohesion and Adhesion

The situations seen in the figures above frequently encountered in daily life
events. Molecules in liquid state experience stron9 intermolecular attractive forces.
When those forces are between like molecules, they are referred to as cohesive
forces. For example, the molecules ofa water droplet are held together by cohesive
forces.

when the attractive forces are between unlike molecules, they are said to be
adhesive forces.

The attraCtive forces between molecules in a liquid can be viewed as residual

electrostatic forces and are sometimes called van der waals forces or van der waals
bonds.

The difference in strength between cohesive forces and adhesive forces de-
termine the behavior of a liquid in contact with a solid surface.
. water does not wet waxed surface because the cohesive forces within the
drops are stronger than the adhesive forces between the drops and the wax.
. waterwets glass and spreads out on it because the adhesiveforces between
the liquid and the 9lass are stronger than the cohesive forces within the water.

Formation of a Meniscus
cohesion is the property of like molecules (of the same substance) to stick
to each other due to mutual attraction. Adhesion is the property of different mol-
ecules or surfaces to cling to each other.

85

When liqııid waler is confned iı a tube, its suıfaa
(menbcus) hos a concave shape because woter wetı
the sulfa.ı and creePs up the side.
lFr
Metcury does fiot l,,/et glass - the cohesive fotes
,ithin the &ops afe strongü tha the adhesire
Iorces between the ılroPs and glass. whe liqüid
mercury is confned in a tube, its suda.e (menk-
cus) ha conveı shape because the cohesive Jorces
a
in liquid meıcury tend to draı, it into a droP.
DlDYoU KNow?
The ottraction force between different mole-
cules is caıled adhesion.
cohesion is the ottraction force thot allows
liquid particles of the some species to stoy
together.
I ı{;
water molecules stick to each other to form a sphere. This is the result of co-
hesive forces. When contained in a tube, the water molecules touching the surface
ofthe container are at a higher level.This i5 due to the adhesive force between the
water moIecules and the molecules ofthe container.
concave aıd conveı Menisaus. 'Ihe meniscus is concave ı,,/hen adhesive force' ore stfunger than
cohesive forces. e-g. wateı. lt is conveİ when cohasion is stronger. e.g. mercury.
The curved surface of a liquid inside a container is the meniscus.
. when the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are greater than
the adhesive forces between the liquid and the walls of the container, the surface
ofthe liquid is convex. For example, mercury in a container.
. when the cohesive forces between the liquid are less than the adhesive
forces between the liquid and the container, the surface curves up. For example,
water in a 9lass container.
. when both adhesive and cohesive forces equal, the surface is horizontal.
For example, distilled water in a 5ilver Vessel.
why is water stiCky?
water is highly cohesive. water is sti<ky and clumps together into drops be-
cause of its cohesive properties.
Applications
Adhesion the proper fUnctionin9 of 9lue, paint, tar, cement, ink etc.
is used for
Adhesive and cohesive forces together induce capillary action which is the Princi-
ple used in lamp wicks. synthetiC fibers use wicking to remove sweat from the skin.
 Surfa<e Tension

surface tension is measured a5 the energy required to in(rease the surface

area of a liquid by a unit of area. The surface tension of a liquid results from an im-
balance of intermolecular attractive forces, the cohesiveforces between molecules:

' A molecule in bulk liquid experiences cohesive forces with other molecules
in all direction5.

' A molecule at the surface of a liquid experiences only net inward cohesive
forces.

The unbalanced attraction of molecules atthe 5urface of a liquid tendsto pull

the molecules back into the bulk liquid leaving the minimum number of molecuIes
on the surface. lt required energy to increase the surface area of a liquid because a
larger surface area contains more molecules in the unbalanced situation. -=,Şj
-{__
The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the phe-
(a)
nomenon known as surface tension.The molecuies at the surface do not have oth-
er like molecules on all sides of them and consequently they cohere more strongly
to those directly associated wlth them on the surface. This forms a "film" which ş
makes it more difficult to move an object through the surface. ^<

air
(o) Mğly an stay on the water ,,ııthoüt siıking
liq u id and gettitlg,ıfet. Becaııse it h very small and liglx.

"9;
a) Some lizards, runs on watet

\
T ,/
(-
-+
\
ı

The molecules at the surfaceofthis somple of liquid water are not surrounded by other DİDYOU KNOW?
water molecules.The molecules insidethe sample ore surrounded by other molecules.
Due to the cohesive force between the liquid
molecules, the tensile force at the surfoce of
The cohesive forces between molecules down into a liquid are shared with all the liquid occurs. The tensile force duetothe
neighboring atoms. Those on the surface have no neighborin9 atoms above, and oıtractive force between the porticles on the
exhibit stronger attractive forces upon their nearest neighbors on the 5urface. This liquid surfaces iscalled the surfocetension,
enhancement of the intermolecular attractive forces at the surface is called surface
tension.

87
 5urfa<e Tension of Water

Surface tension is measured in Sl units of N/m (newton per mete .rhe sur

-aJ
-1r- l, '= ı
face ten5ion of water decreases significantly with temperature. The surface tension
arises from the polar nature ofthe water molecule.
ı Hot water is a better Cleaning agent because the lower 5urface tension makes

t it better "wetting agent" to get into pores and fissures rather than bridging them
with surface tension. soaps and detergents further lower the surface tension. The
dissolution of ionic 5alts in water increases the surface tension.

Examples of 5uıface Tension

D.ops of wate.. when using a water dropper, the water does not flow in a
continuous stream, but rather in a series of drops. The shape of the drop§ is caused
by the surface tension of the water. The only reason the drop of water isn't com-
pletely spherical is because of the force of gravity pulling down on it. ln the ab-
sence of gravity, the drop would minimize the surface area in order to minimize
tension, which would result in a perfectly 5pherical 5hape.

lnsects walking on wateL several insects are able to walk on water, such
as the water strider. Their legs are formed to distribute their weight, causing the
surface of the liquid to become depressed, minimizin9 the potential energy to cre-
ate a balance of forces 5o that the strider can move across the surface of the water
without breaking through the surface. This is similar in concept to wearing snow
shoes to walk acro5s deep snowdrifts without your feet sinking.

N€edle (o] paPeİ (lip) floating on wateİ. EVen thou9h the density ofthese
objects are 9reater than water, the 5urface ten5ion aIong the depression is enough
to counteract the force of gravity pulling down on the metal object. click on the
picture to the rı9ht, then click "Nexti'to view a force diagram of this situation or try
out the Floatinq Needle trick for yourself

ExERclsE
ı |E=
ln which factor that increase or decrease the surface tension of water, are
salt, sugar, soap,9lyserin and oil?Tickthem in the table below.
İ
sustance ln<reaset oecreaıes
salt

soap

Glycerol

sugar

oil

tlll
 Capillary Action
capil|ary action is the rise of a liquid that wets a tube up the inside of a small
diameter tube (i.e., a capillary) immersed in the liquid. sc,ENcE ExHlBlTloN
scientific principles have the knack of explaining abnormalevents that occur Find some photographs that can be used
around us. A Iiquid, like water, ascending up a narrow tube naturally is not consid- as examples of phenomena of surface ten-
ered as a typical occurrence. since, water and other liquids in general flows with sion of water in everyday life. Exhibit these
the gravitational forces, it requires specific c|rcumstances and physical effect to photographs in your class panel.
flow against the forces of9ravity.This scientific phenomenon is called capillary ac-
tion. The transponation of water from the roots to leaves of the tree happens due
to the underlying principles of cohesion and transpiration.

Capillary action can be defined as the ascension of liquids through slim tube,
cylinder or permeable substance due to adhesive and cohesive forces interacting
between the liquid and the surface. Wetting of a paper towel, water flowing up

a
from the roots to the tip of a plant are a few examples of ca pillary action.

When intermolecular bonding of a liquid itself is substantiaIly inferior to a

substances' surface is interacting, capillarity occurs. Also, the diameter of the con-
DlDYoU KNow?
tainer a5 well as the gravitational forces will determine amount of liquid raised.The
The fluids spontoneously rise and fall from a
smaller the diameter ofthe tube, the higher the liquid rises. while, water possesses
very thin chonnel, colled copillority.
this unique property, a liquid like mercury will not display the 5ame attributes due
to the fact that it has higher cohesive force than adhesive force.

I
I

- a,-
\
ı
(b) i{ l

(a) sugaf gets vretting cofiPletely, (b) Alcohol nses in wicl<" (c) Acid rıs?s in litmüs paper

For<es in Capillaıy Action

Three main variables that determine whether a liquid possesses capillary ac-
tion are:

1 , cohesive force: lt is the intermole(ular bonding of a sUbstance where its

mutual attractiveness forces them to maintain a certain shape ofthe liquid.

89
 2.5urface tension:This occur5 as a result of like molecules, cohesive forces,
banding together to form a somewhat impenetrable surface on the body ofwater.
The 5urface tension is measured in neMon/meter.

3. Adhesive force: when forces ofattraction between unlike molecules occur,

it is called adhesive forces.

capillary action only occurs when the adhesive forces are stronger than the
cohesive forces, which invariably becomes 5urface tension, in the llquid.

A good way to remember the difference between adhesive and cohesive

forces is that with adhesive forces you add anothef set of molecules, the molecules
of the surface, for the liquid to bond with. with cohesive forces, the molecules of
the liquid will only cooperate with their own kind. Decreased surface tension also
increases capillary action. This is because decreased surface ten5ion means that the
intermolecular forces are decreased, thus decreasing cohesive forces. As a result
capillary action will be even greater.

capillary
tubes

capillary capillary
lepulsion

Mercury

lt is possible to see that in water, the strength ofthe cohesion forces are larger
than the strength of the adhesion forces. This results in the concave formation of
water in the capillary tube. This is known as capillary attraction. AlternatiVely, the
adhesion forces are evidently stronger than the cohesion forces which allows the
mercury to bend in a convex formation away from the walls of the capillary tube.
This is known as capillary repulsion.

9o
 ExPERlMENT 1o

on whatTeİms does the Amount of water lncİease in capillaİy PiPe DePend?

Equipment

1. capillary tube ( two pieces at the same thickness)

2. Table salt

3. Pure water

4. water

5. Hot water (8G10o 'c)

6. Beaker (ıı0o mL; 2 Pieces)

The imPlementation of the experiment

1. Put pure water into one of the b€akers and saline solution in the other

beaker.
2.5ubmerge one ofthe capillary tubes which have the same thickness ınto
the container fu|lofpure water and the other one into the containerfull puıe water
of saline solution.
3. Wait for some time and observe the amounts of liquid increase in the
tubes.
4. comPare the amounts of pure water and saline solution increase in the
capillary tubes which have the same thickness.

End ofthe Experiment Evaluation Questions

1. which Iiquid increased higher in the capillary tube?

2. which characterista( of the water increased higher was effective in this
situation?

Part 2

1. Put taP water into one ofthe beakers and hot water into the other one.
2. 5ubmerge one ofthe capillary tubes which have thğ same thickness into
the container full oftap water and the other one into the container full
of hot water.
3.wait for some time and observe the amounts of liquad increase.
salt solution
End of tha Experiment Evaluation Questions

l.Which one ofthe hot and cold water increased higher? Why?

91
 The increase of the liquids in capillary tubes takes place by the capillarity.
How much a liquid increases or decreases in capillary pipes i5 directly proportional
to the coefficient of the surface tension of the liquid and inversely proportional to
density ofthe liquid, the cross-sectional area ofthe capillary tube and the accelera-
tion of the gravity. ln the activity we did, pure water increased higher than saline
solution in the cap|llary tube. The reason is that the density of saline solution is
higher. ln the second Part of the actiVity, hot water increased less. what can be the
reason of this?

F
\
,-: h. _<
..,

Scenano: wo open ended tubes, one vith

T
Sceııario: Toke a cleon piece oJ gloss. Spreod oil

arF, r =a.
capillory adion is evident in nature all
around us. The properties allow the woter to
be transpied by the xylem in the plant. The
water starts in the roots and proceeds up-
ward to the highest branches of the plant
over the lef hof of the gloss, afid leave the right side
clean. Now, add water to the glass. oh the leff side,
cohesive |otces between ,noleaules are stronget thafi
that of the adhesive forces, so the l44tet beads. ()n
the right side, the odhesi ve forces betweefi the ı9a-
tef afid glass afe stfohget thafi the cohesile lorces
betıeen the wotef fiolecules, so the water spreads
evenly across the sı/tface.
a large and one with a smoll diameter ore
placed in a glass box flled with water. Wa-
ter ises in both due to capillafy actio , büt
fises highef ifi the srnaııer tube bec-ause oJ
adhesive Jorces.
(Note: IJ this i,erc to be done with fiercüy,
the ıeyel ınside the tubes would be beloı the
level in the box oJ ünerclüly.)

Applications
Practical use of capillary action |s evident in all forms of our daily lives. lt
DlscUssloN ]
makes performing our ta5k5 efficiently and effectiVely. some applications of this
unique property include:
Discuss the problems that adhesion, cohesr
. Ther fundamental properties are used to absorb water by u5ing paper tow-
on, sulfoce tension and capillarity con cou-
se in everyday life, ond the advantages they els. The cohesive and adhesive properties draw the fluid into the paper

can provide. towe|.The liquid flows into the paper towel at a certain rate.
. A technique called thin layer chromatography capillary act|on in which a
layer of liquid is used to separate mixtures from substances.
. capillary action helps us naturally by pumpin9 out tear fluid in the eye. This
process cleanses the eye and clears all of the dust and particles that are
LOOK AT LINKS around the ducts ofthe eye.
You con wotch the video ot the following ge- . To generate energy: A possible use for capillary action is as a source of re-
neral web oddress for the subject related to
newable energy. By allowing water to climb through capillaries, evaporate
physical states of moıter.
once it reaches the top, the condensate and drop back down to the bot-
htt p3 : //www.y outu be.com/ tom sPinnan9 a turbine on its way to create the energy, capillary action can
wdtch?v=okv'l lkdHlkQ make electricity! Although this idea is still in the works, it goes to show the
potential that capillary action holds and how important it i5.

92
 CHECKYOURSELF
A. Tıue and False

write "T" near each one of the statements if it is t.ue or"F" if it is false.

1. ( ) The volume ofthe liquids is measured by equal arm ba|ance.

2 ) Density is a distinguishing property for solids, Iiquids and gases.

3 ( ) Solids cannot be compressed.

4 ( ) The cross-sectional area ofa sphere is circular.

5 ( ) The strength ofan object of which the dimensions are increased at the same propoİtion increase.

6 ( ) The rise of water from roots to the leaves of a plant is a result of only cohesion forces.

7 ( ) The cohesion of wet hairs with each other is a result ofsurface tension.

8 ( )The attractive forces between Iike molecules are called adhesive forces.

9 ( ) Water molecules stick to each other to form a sphere.

1o. ( ) Soaps and detergents further lower the surface tension.

B. Fill in the Blanks.

Fill in the blanks with the words 9ivenin the box.

cohesion decreases c. shape common temperature adhesion canillarity

I
| ,olrr"
clos§-sectional area |. lncreases j. reverse k matter density liter

1. Liquids have no specific

2. Mass is a characteristic propeny for sUbstances

3. The mass of a unit volume of a pure substance i5 called

4. ls a volume unit

5. Everythin9 occupying space, having mass and inertia is called

6. The cleaning agents the surface tension ofthe liquids.

7. The surface tension ofthe liquids is to temperature.

8. The absorption of water by a paper towel i5 the consequence of eVent.

9. The condition that water wets the surface of a substance is being less than ,......,..,............--_.,.,.,. of ............................,......,..,

10. strength is proportional to

93
 C. Problem About Matter

1. The triongle ABc is tumed oround the 5. A sphere is placed into acubewhoseone side is ıOcm.The sphe-

A
axis Ac. re touches all faces ofthe cube.
']0
Cm
what are the name and vo|ume of what is the volume of the aiı space that İemains betwe-
the geometıicaı object foİmed? en the cube and sPheıe? (n=3)
(n=j)
B c (50o cm')
(cone,250 cm')

2.

h h
6. The mass of '|
cm3 of lead is 1 1.3 g. A man can carry a mass of
6'l k9.
2l

How many of the lead baİs with the dimensions 3 cm

The height ofthe cylinder given in the figure equols one side of x 3 Cm x 40 Cm Can be Caİİied by the man?

the cube. And the diameter of the cylinder equals the diogonol (15)
of one foce of the cube.

what is the ratio of the volum. of the (ylindeİ to the volu-

me of the cube? (,ı = 3J
(3/2)

7
3. The width, length and volume of o book are 20 cm, 25 cm ond
2l
l500 cm3 rcspectively.The thicknesses of the front ond back co-
vers aıe 2 mm each ond thot of one sheet is 0.1 mm.
sphere cylinder
what is the numbeı ofthe pages in the book?
(4oo) what is the ]atio between the masses of the sphere and
the (yllnde] giyen in the figure if they a]e made of the
same material?
(2/3)

4, The height of the cone given in the fıgu-

re is 30 cm. lt is filled with watel running ']0 cm
through a tap which delivers equal vo-
lumes of water in equol time inteNals,
10 cm

lfthe taP fılls the height of the fi.st l0 cm 8. when a metal spheİe was heated, its Voıume increased ı0%.
to cm in ı minute, how long does
it take to fill the Gone Gompletely. what was the <hange in its density?
(27 min) (1 o/1 c'6 dQcrcases)
'

94
9 1 3. The mass of a plastic balloon is measured before and after
inflated, and they are found to be 300 mg and 820 mg. The
density ofthe air is 1.3 9/L.

what is the volume of the inflated baıloon?

(- o.4 L)
Figure l Figuİe ll

The total ma55 of the liquid and the containeİ in Figure] is

200 9, and the density ofthe liquid is '1.5
g/cm]. An object of
100 9 is placed into the container. After the overflown liquid l4. You bought a golden ring whose mass is 9.5 9 from a jewel-
is taken away the total mass in Figurell is found to be 225 9.
check whether it i5 pure or not, you measure its vol-
ler. To
ume by placing it into a graduated cylinder which has some
what is the density of the obje(t? watet And its volume is found to be 3 cm3. you know that
(2 9/.m1) the density ofgold is 19.3 g/cm3.

What do you think youı ıing is made of pure gold oı

not?
(Not)
10. When an object of 300 g is placed into a container which
is filled with a liquid of 1.2 g/cm], it sinks and 120 g of the
liquid overflows.

what is the density of the object?

l5. A bottle hasa mass of 40g when empty,80 9 when fullof water,
and 10O g when full ofanother liquid.
(3 g/cm')

what is th€ density of the liquid?

(1,5 g/m')

11 . An empty cylinder which has a height of 20 cm and a base

area of 6 cm'weighs 240 9.
l6. The bottle i5 'l00 9 when empry 200 9 when filled with wa-
lf the half of the cylindeı is filled with al(ohol whose teı 220 g when filled wıth another liquid.
density is 0.8 g/cm!, what will be the total mass?
(288 g) what is the density of the liquid?
(1.2 g/.m3)

1 2. A container of 'l50 Cmr contains lı0 cm3 of a liquid with a 17. The mass of a bottle increases 40 9 when it is filled with a
density of 0.9 9/cmr. when an object with a mass of 360 9 is liquid of 0.8 g/cm].
put into the container 'l0 cm] of liquid overflows.
what wil| be the İnc]ea§e in the mass of the bottle if it is
what i5 the density of the obje(t? filled with nitİi( a(id whose density i5 1.63 gkm!?
(3 g/cm') (81.5 9)

95
18. When a bottle is completely filıed with the liquid X, its mass 23. 100 cmr of a l|quid with a density of '1.5 g/cmr and 100 cm3
increases 48 9. lf 1/3 of the same bottle is filled with the liq- of water with a density of l g/cm3 are mixed.
uid X, and the rest with the liquid Y, the mass of the bottle
increases 64 g. How many 9ram3 of wateı aİe theİe in 50 9 of this mix-
tuİe?
what i5the ratio between the densities of the liquids x (2o g)

and l d,/d,?
(2/3)

'l 9 . The mass of a metal cylinder of 80 cm] is 450 g.

24, Mass (9) X
lf the density of the metal is 6 g/cm3, what is the volume
30 Y
ofthe empty space in the Cylinder?
(5 cm'1
,l5

Volume (cm3)
5
20. When a liquid with a density of d fills a bottle, the mass of
the bottle becomes 410 9. When the bottle i5 filled with
another liquid whose density is (3/2)d, the mass is found to The figure shows the mass-volume graphs ofthe substanc-

be 490 g. es X and Y at a certain temperature.

what is the mass of the empty bottle? what is the density of the homogeneous mixture pre-
(250 g) pared by using 50 9 x and 15 g Y?
(5 g/<m')

21 . When 'll3 of a bottle is filled with a liquid of density d, and

the rest with a liquid of density 2d, the mass ofthe bottle in-
creases 600 g.
25. Mass (9)
lf 1/3 of the same bottle is fill€d with the liquid of den- X
sity 2d, and the rest of the bottle with the liquid of den- 6
sity d, how many grams will its mass incıease?
Y
(48o 9)
3

Volume (cm])
24
22. 2 volumes of the liquid X and 3 volumes of the liquid Y are
mixed and the density of the mixture is found to be twice The figure shows the mass-volume graphs of two miscible
the density of X. liquids X and Y.

what is the İatio betwQen the densities of x and y lf 1o cml of x and 40 (m3 of Y are mixed, what will be the
dı / dY? density of the mixture?
(3/8) o.2 g/cm')

,96
26. Two liquids A and B with the densities of '1.5 and 2 g/cmr are 29. When 1o cm3 of the liquid X and 20 cm3 of the liquid Y are
mixed. lf the density of the mixture is 1.8 g/cmr, put in a bottlq its mass in(reases 32 9. lf 20 cm] of X and t 0
cm]ofY are put in the same bottle, its mass in(reases 28 g.
a.what i3 the peİCentage ofA in th€ mixture by volume?
b. what is the Per<entage of B in the mixtur€ by mass? what is the density of the liquid x?
(o,8 9/.m')
(o.40%, b.66.6%l

30. m(9)
27. When equal volumes of water and a miscible liquid are X
'1.2 3m
mixed, the density of the mixture i5 found to be 9/cm3. Y

2m
what is the density of the lİquid? (dwate, = l g/cm3)
(1.4 g/cm3)

v2v V(cm3)

The figure shows the mass-volume graphs ofthe liquids X and

Y The density of Y is 0.5 g/cm3.

What will b€ the density of the mixture lf €qual volumes of

x and yaıe mixed?
(l g/cm3l
2a. m(g) X
Y
3

V(cm3)
23
The mass versus volume graphs of the liquids X and Y are
given. 31. 40 9 of the liquid X with a density of 0.8 g/cm] and 180 g of
the liquid Y with a density of '1.2 g/cm3 are mixed.
lf equal masses of x and Y are mixed, what will be the
density of the mixture? what is the density of the mixtuİe?
(1.2 g/<m1l (1.1 g/<m3)

s7
32. The mass of a wooden block is 1200 g. A cavity of600 cm3 is A 2]6 g sample of so|id with a density of 2.7 g/cmr is added
formed in the block and is filled with mercury. to a container which is completely filled with water.

what is the in(rease in the mass of the wooden blo<k? what will the increase in the mass of the Gontaineı and
(d* = 9.6 n7..', d.*.ry = i3.6 g/cml) its Contents be?
(78oo g) (136 g)

The volume of a lead block is 100 cm]. A cavity of 20 cmr is

33. An insoluble solid with a mass of '|20 9 is placed into a bottle
formed in the block and is filled with mercury.
which is completely filled with a Iiqu id whose density is
3 9/cm3. The increase in the mass ofthe vessel is found to be
what is the İatio between the initial and final masses of
30 g after the overflown liquid is taken away. ,l3.6
the block? (d,""o = l 1.3 9/cm3, d.".,, = g/cm])

calCulate the density of the solid. (565/588)

(4g/cm')

34. A 200 mL sample of liquid with a density of '1.75 g/ml is lı lf 100 cmr of glycerin and 50 cm3 ofalcoholare poured into

mixed with a 250 9 sample of another liquid which has a a bottle, the mass of the bottle increases 165 9. lf 50 cm] of

density of 1.25 g/mL. glycerin and 100 cm3 of alcohol are poured into the same
bottle, then the mass ofthe bottle increases '!42.5 9.
what is the density of the mixture obtained?
(ı,5g/mL) Find the density of glycerin and alcohol?
(d",n,,,"= 1.25 g/<m' , d"fu^.l= 0.a g/<m]l

35. How many milliliteıs of a liquid with a densıty of

1.25 g/ml should be mixed with 320 9 of anotheı |iquld
with a densityof o.8 g/mLto obtain a mixtuİe whi(h has
a density of o.95 9/Cm3? what are the faGtors affecting the surface tension ofthe
(2oo mL) liquids?

9a
 D. Multiple Choice

1 m(9) 4. A cube-shaped solid has a mass of 8OO g in air and a den-

sity of 8 g/cm3. When this substance is immersed into water
X
60 completly, l25 cm3of water i5 overflown.

lfthe substan(e is insoluble in water what percent of the

cube is emPty?

V(cm3)
30 60 A) 10 B) 20 c) 25 D) 30 E)40

The mass Versus Volume graphs of the liquids X and Y

aro given above.

lf 10 cm3o' x and 20 cm3 ot Y are mixed, what is the

mass o' 15 cm3of mixtuİe obtained?

A) 10g B) 209 c)309 D)409 E) 509

5. some amount of ice at o'c is changed into water at o"c

ln this phase changc which of the following quantities

change(s)?
2. A bottle has a mass of 'loo g when empty,200 g when full of
water and 220 9 when full ofanother liquid.
|. Mass ll. Density
what is the density of the liquid İn g/mL? lll. Volume lV Kinetic energy

1.8 ,I.5 .2 1.0

A) B) c\ 1 D) E) 0.6 A) land ll B) lland ll| C) 11,1lland lV
D) ll and lV E) |, ll, llland lV

3 m(s)

X
4m

Y
2m

V(cm3)
20 30
6. Which is Go].ect foİ the volume, mass and density of a
substan(e whose tempeİatuİe is incİeased?
The mass-volume graphs ofthe substances x and Yare giVen
in the figure.
Volume MaJ3 Density
A) increases no change increases
lf the density of x is 3 9/cm3, what is the density of Y in B) no change increases increases
g/Gm3? c) increases increases increase5
O) increases decreases increases
A) 0.5 B) 0.75 c)
,ı
D) 1.2 E) 1.5 E) increases no change decreases

99
 0- Which of the following questions
-]
7. m(9) i3 answered in terms
X of vector quantİty?
4o

30 A) what is the speed ofthe car in m/sec?

Y
B) what i5 the potential energy of the apple in the tree in J?
20
C) What is the density of water in g/cm3?
]0 what is the child's mass in kg?
D)
V(cm]) How many meters has the car displaced?
l0 20 30
E)
40

Equal masses of the liquids X and Y whose mass-volume

graphs are given, are mixed.
l1. The radius and the height of the cylinder
in the figure are made threefold.
Which is the density of the homogeneous mixtuıe
formed in g/cm'? Therefore,

o)+ B)+ o+ o)+ E\; l.The cross-sectional area becomes times.

ll. The Volume becomes times.
lll. The strength becomes times.

8. which judgment oı the judgments above aıe tıue?

A) only l 8) land ll C) l and lll

D) ll and lll E) |, lland lll

lll

The Cross-se(tional areas of which geometİical shapes 12.

above are circulaı?
L
A) Only l B) only lI c) land ll
D) ll and lll E) |, ll and lll

Glass tubes of which radii are the same are submerged in K,

9. when the radius of the spheıe in the L and M liquids.
figure is ıeduced in ha|f, what is Dl/
D2, the f]st and the last stİength pro- The heights of the liquids in the tubes aİe as in the 69-
portions? ure, so which one/ones of the liquids wet the glass tube
the most?

A) Only K B) Only L C) Only M

o)+ ,)+ c) ı D) 4 E) 5 D) K and M LandM

rc
E)
 Fr n ıT!
,

ı! ı-..:ı
ı
-\

Aa j

,-/ }
ü \a ^_i

i\
\

uNıT 3

MOTİON AND FORCE

9.3.1. MoTıoı{
9.3.1.1. The Motion of an Object According to Different Reference Points
9.3.1.2. Types of Motion in Daily Life
9.3.1.3. Position, Displacement, Distance, Speed and Velocity
9.3.1.4. Average Velociğ and lnstantaneous Velocity
9.3.1.5. Uniform Motion (Motion with Constant Veloclty)
9.3.1.6. The Motion of Accelerating and Decelerating Objects
9.3.2. FoRcE
9.3.2.1. Force Concept
9.3.3. NEwToN,s LAws oF MoTloN
9.3.3.1 . The First Law of Motion: lnertia
9.3.3.2. Relationship between For<e, Ac<eleration and Mass-The Second Law of Motion
9.3.3.3. The Third Law of Motion: Action and Reaction
9.3.4.FRıcTıoN FoRcE
9.3.4.1. Variables Where the Fri<tion Force Depends
 9.3 MOTİON AND FORCE

9.3.r MoTloN
Almost everything in the universe is in ceaseless movement in one way or an-
other. For example, you don't seem to move at the instant you sit on your desk. But
you are on the earth, and the earth is turning around the sun. An observer in the
sun looking at the earth would see you rotating. so an object may be in a motion
or at rest depending on the place it is observed. §
!,

ı
Everything in the physical world is in the motion, from elementary particles
to the largest galaxies of stars. The flying of a plane involves definite ways of mov-
ing, A leaf fal|ing from a tree on a windy day moves in certain ways. when a stone
is droPp€d, it moves in a guick, downward motion. These are just a few examples t

of motion. All these motions can be described as a change in the position of the
ob.iect.

The first step to understand if an object moves is to observe the object from
a particular point. This point is called ,eferen(e point. To define the position of a
moving object we need to define a reference point.This reference point itself could
be attached to a movin9 object or to a stationary object. By comparing how far the
object i§ from the reference point at different times, we can understand the motion
ofthe object.

Simply if an object changes its place with respect to a reference point as time
passeı it is in motion.

a
ı
school -

400 m 500 m

park
,
shopping centre 100 m home

Park is the refeİence Point. ||l l bus stop

,ı
03
 Whenever we refer to the motion of a body, we are always referring its loca-
tion to some other body which is regarded as fiXed. ln many cases, we describe the
l motion of objects relative to the earth. When we say an object i5 at rest, we mean
it is at rest re|ative to the earth. A passenger seated in a bus travelling 90 km/h is
at rest relative to the bus and the other passengers, but they are moving 90 km/h
relative to a frxed point on the earth. But if he (or she) walks in the bus, he will be in

?\
s!
motion relative to the both other passengers and the bus.
ı
]. lf something is changing its place relative to a definite point, it is in motion.
This definite point is usually called "İeferen(e Point" or "oİigin".

Trairı Pa§§engeİs, how to detect the movement of Whenever we express the state of a body to be at rest or in motion, we are ex-
people outside? pressin9 the state with respect to (in relation to) some other body which we iden-
tify as the frame of reference.

consider two persons seated in a moving train. For each of them the other
is at rest while the train itself is in motion. Therefore, we may say that ? person

n
seated in a moving train is at rest".

But would this statement be the same when they are Viewed by a person on
the ground. A person on the ground sees the train along with all the passengers
and objects in it to be in motion. For him the two persons are in motion. Therefore,
we need to modifo this statement as? person seated in a moving train is at rest in

L relation to any other person (body) in the same traın but is in motion in relation to
any other person (body) outside the train]'
How do üe observers in vehicles detect üe move-
ment of each other?
A person on the platform is at rest with reference to any other person on the
platform and is in motion with reference to a person viewing him from a moving

I
DlDYoU KNow? train.

A person, sitting inside o moving bus, is
ot rest with respect to the person sitting
next to him os he is not chonging his po-
sition
The following are the terms that should be studied before dealing with mo-
tion:
Rest: When the body does not change its position with ıespect to the sur-
roundings, the body is said to be at rest.
Motion: when the body changes its Position with respect to the surround-
ings, the body is said to be in motion.

The minimum distance between two points is called displacement while the
DİDYOU KNOW?
ı actual path covered is called di§tance.The displacement is a Vector term and dis-
tance i5 scalar term. Distance and displacement both have 5l unit as meter.
Considering Sun as reference point, plon-
ets chonge their positions, so, planets ore
9.3.1.2.Types of Motion in Daily Life
in motion,
When we observe our surroundings, we can see many physical interactions
ı taking place around us like a book falling, an ear drum vibrating, bus moving, nu-
clear reaction5 etc.

lf an object i5 moving, we would be curious to know what are the things hap-

1o4
penIn9 that make a body move, how long will a body move and many other thing5.

The speed cannot be zero since distance cannot be zero while the Velocity
can be zero as displacement can be zero. The types of motion are:

. uniform motion
. Non uniform motion

a} Unifo]m motion:when equaldistance is covered in equaI intervaloftime,

the motion is said to be in uniform motion.

The bodies moving with constant speed or Velocity have uniform motion or
increase at the uniform rate.

b) on unifo]m motlon: When unequal distances are covered in equal inter-

Val of time, the motion is said to be in non uniform motion. The bodies executing
non uniform motion have varyin9 speed or Velocity.

we can even classifo motion into three tyPes:

Tİanslational motion: ln translatory motion the particle moves from one

point in space to another. The motion of an object is said to be trans|atory if the
position of the object is changing with respect to a fixed point or object. All the
particles of a body executing translatory motion move in the same direction tra-
versing parallel paths.

The path traversed by the body in executing translatory motion may be either
linear, circula, curve or any irregular shape. The motion will result in a change in
location unless in the case where the body returns to its original location.

l r
ı

t
-a
/
h r
]
8 ğ 6 a
The mother and bağ stroller has disPlaced in the same direction by translational motion.

105
ı

DİD YOU KNOW?
The motion of a solid substance around
a certain oxis is cdlled o rotatory motion
or o circular motion.
Rotational motion:The motion ofan object |s said to be rotatory ifthe mo-
tion of all the panicles of body is circular (i.e. along a cir(ular path) with respect to
an imaginary line called the axis of rotation. This happens when an object spins.
The axis of rotation may be internal or external to the body.
The center of the circular path that each particle traces lies on the "axis of
rotation"_

7,

ı / J
/
l ü
]

l
-1

fu
.1 \ \./
.'ıI _
-
_,_Ll ı, I
,l

some ofthe İotational movement ofobjects

vibrational motion (oscİllatory Motion): ln Vibratory motion the particles

move to and fro about a fixed point.

oscillatory motion is repetitive and fluctuates between two locations. The to

and fro motion ofan object about a fixed point is called oscillatory motion or Vibra-
tory motion.

-
İ / a
r
ı_.
--ç1
-,
.{ <}

I
-,]
-l
ı"
L,.
.L
;Err-' --
swing, massa8e chai. aıd üe phone makes the movement ofvibration.

Bodles executıng two o, moİe types of motıon

some of the bodies in motion may be executin9 two or more types of motion
at the same time.

105
 Eg: (1) A running vehicle executes both translatory as well as rotatory motion.
The wheels of the vehicle execute rotatory motion, the axis of rotation being the
axelof the whee.The Vehicle itself executes tran5latory motion in moving from one
place to anotheı

Eg: (2) A spinning billiards ball executes both translatory as well as rotatory
motion. ln spinning it is executing rotatory motion and in moving from its ori9inal
location it is executing translatory motion.

9.3.'l .3. Position, Di5Pla(ement, Distance, speed and Velo(ity

The path that is followed by an object during its motion is called the orbit of
the motion. lf the orbit of the motion is a line, it is a linear motion. when an object
moves along a line, its dastance from the startıng point (origin) changes as tame
progresses.The posıtion ofan ob.iect is defined as the distance between a chosen REsEARcH
origin and the location ofthe object with its direction. since it has a direction, it is a
Vector quantity. lt is usually measured in terms of meters (m) in 5l. our position on the world is found with
the help of Global Positioning System
The position of a moving object on straight line can be shown by drawing
(GPS).
a line and specirying an origin on the line. The displacements on one side of the
Research how the GPS system works and
origin are called positive displacements and those on the other 5ide negative di5-
share it with your friends in the closs-
placements. or the position of any point on the line can be shown by positive or
room.
negative numbers. Usually the positions on the right hand-side of the origin are
expressed by positiVe numbers.

nogdİ,rE dbphcerruıt podüw dbflrcerrant

-10 -9 € -7 6€ -4 € -2 -l Ö +1 +2 +3 +ıl +5 *.6 +7 +€ +9 +l0

Oıın orı9İn lİırç
r. a a
ı
Xı0
origİn
(+ı}
tx) -7m ıE, ı ı5ırı
Aılı,
\r ı+4m ıİ113rtm +ltm
I

§ı,tt

ln the figure given above; x=0 is chosen as the origin. with respect to this
origin; Nilay is 4 m in front and ozan is 5 m in behind the origin.50 his position i5
-5 m to the origin that he is in behind the origin, Merve is 8m in front the origin.

1(J7
 Dİsplacement is the difference between the final position, Xf, and the initial
position, xi of a moving object. ln other words displacement is how far the object
i5 from its starting point. Displacement is also a vedoİ quantity and measured in
terms of meters in sl. The displacement of an object i5 5imply:

orIgln Afx=xt;naı-xınitıa|

a
e
e
.--- --.
x=0 xi Ax=xf-xi Xf

A displacement to the right will be a positive displacement.That is, x > 0 since

xı <xr,

For example, starting with xi = 60 m and ending at x, = 150 m, the displace-

ment isx=xf -xi = 150 m -60 m =90 m

origin AI x = ç,nu1- x,n,,,", = 150- 60= 90 m

(ı
e
o

x=0 xi=60m Ax = xf-xi =90 m xı=l50m

A displacement to the left will be a negative displacement. That is, X < 0

since Xi> xf

For example, starting with xi = 150 m and ending at x, = 60 m, the displace-

ment is x =\-xi =60 m - 150 m =-90 m

orl9ln

lğ

x=O xi=60m A(=xf-xi=90m \=150m

1
ı
 Positions to the ri9ht ofthe origin are positiVe.
Positions to the left ofthe origin are negatıVe.

ori9in

x=-2Om
ı
lı x=+80m x=+l50m
ı
--. -l-- /I
x=0

Distance is the absolute value ofthe displacement. Distance is always positive DlDYoU KNow?
and tells how far something is from something else but does not tell us whether it
is to the right or to the left. The distonce to the starting point of
movement is colled the position.Thevec-
ln the laboratory, we will usually measure distance or displacement in units of
tor plotted from the starting point is also
meters (m). Distance or displa(ement could al5o be measured in centimeters (cm)
the position vector.
or kilometers (km).

EtrEEIil ,
Mustafa begins its motion from point A. The path followed by Mustafa is given in c
the figure. 40m
l5 m
a. What is the distance travelıed by Mustafa?
25m D
b. what is the displacement of Mustafa? B
,...H
12m 16m
c. Draw the displacement vector of Mustafa.
'l0 m
E l0 m
F
G 30m

E@, c
40m
15 m

A 25m
a. The sum of distances travelled is: 25 +'l 5 + lıo + l6 + ı0 + 30 + 10 = 146 m D
B
12 m
b.x=ı2m l6m
C. A Vector pointing H from A is the displacement vector. ]0m E 10m
F
G 30m

109
 VeIocity and Speed
ı ln sports, if runner A covers a certain distance in a shoner time than runner

r,
8, we say that runner A i5 moving faster than runner 8. As happened in sports, we
ı frequently want to learn the distances covered by moving objects per unit time. ln
\J science, distance travelled by an object per unıt time is called sp€ed.

SO€
. distance
' €d=- tlme

velocity is the displacement covered by unit time. lt is a Vector quantity.

a }, disolacement
\ velociW=---j-
' time

ln everyday |ife, "velocity" and "speed" mean the same thing. But in physics,
the two have a distinctly d ifferent meanings.The ba5ic distinction between the two
is that speed is a scalar quantity whereas Velocity is a Vector quantity.

For example, if we specify that a car is moving at 20 km/h northward, we have

specified the Velocity, which is a Vector quantity. on the other hand, if alı we tell
you about the car is that it is travelling at 20 km/h, we have spec|fied the speed,
which is the magnitude ofthe Vector without regard to its direction.

;- AX _ Xfinaı - Xınitiaı
' At hnal- tinitia|

Velocity has units of distance divided by time. Velocity is measured in terms of

m/5 (meters per second) or km/h (kilometers per hour)

20m

,.ı
./

lf a motorcycle travels 20 m in 2 s, then its Velocity is

uNiT5
symbol Quantity Unit
di5placement
Ax 20m
AX meter (m)
v",n = = ,, = lOm/s
time interval second (s)
^ ^t
Velocity m/s

,l1
 SPEED OF SOME ANlMALS
Animal Speed (km/h)
Peregrine falcon 322+
ı/ ı cheetah l13
,l
45m Sailfish 10

Lion 80
Quarter horse 76

cape hunting dog 72

lf an antique car travels 45 km in 3 h, then its velocity i5 Rabbit (domestic) 56
Reindeer 52
*,=*=tP=15km/h cat (domestic) 48
Human 45
Ve|ocity is positive ıf an object is moving to the right and it is negative if an
Great blue 5hark 43
object i5 moving to the left.
Elephant 4o
Black mamba snake 32
EXAMPLE
Chicken 14
Do the following conversions ,l3
House mouse

a.90 k m/ h .......... m/s spider 1 .88

b. 10 .... km/h Giant tortoıse 0.27
c. 60 km/min = m/s Garden snail 0.05

@
100 m 1h
a. eo kmih = SO.
f; 1km 3600 s
=25m/s

b. 't
0 m/s = ]0
m
s 1000 m
lkm
jff =ıoı,.zt

b.6okm/min=60.
km . l000m. l'in
man 1km 605
=ıooo./,

9.3.1 .4. Average Velocity and lnstantaneous velocity

You want to go lstanbul from İzmir. Because of traffrc condition, sometimes
you will slow down, sometimes speed-up. suppose that the distance between
İstanbul and İzmir is 650 km, and you finished your trip in 'lO hours. During this
trip your average speed is 65 km/h. But it does not mean that during this trip you
always travel at 65 km/h. Your speed can be from ı 0 km/h to 'l20 km/h and some-
times you can be in a restaurant for eating and resting.

During yourtrlp from lstanbul to lzmir by caç the values ofthe readings on the
speedometer ofthe car a|ways changes.This leads us to define an average value for

111
 the speed of your trip. Basically the average speed of your trip is the sum of your
speeds divided by the number of readings. BUt this is a hard way to calculate the
average speed since the Values shown by the speedometer continuously chan9e5.
LOOK AT LINKS
An easier way to find the average speed of your travel is simply finding the ratio of

You con wotch the video at the following ge- the total distance by total time ofthe trip.

neral network addre\s for the topic explonati-

total distance
on and somple solutions about overoge velo- totaltime
city.
Likewise the average Velocity ofyour trip is:

https!/goo,gl/ddpl73 total disDlacement

totaltime

Average Velocity is the same as the Velocity travelled by someone who travels
the entire distance at a constant Velocity. The average Velocity of an object can be
either positive or negative, depending on the sign ofthe displacement.

ü@ = ı lnstantaneous Velocity
{+
4 Let us consıderthe a cy(list ridin9, his Veıocities varies continuously depend-
ing on time, distance etc. At any particular instant if we want to find his velocity its
nothing but instantaneous velocity.

Suppose the ve|ocity of the car is varying, because for example, you're |n a
speedometer
tramc jam.You look at the speedometer and it's varying a lot, allthe way from zero

t] to 60 km/h. what is the instantaneous Velocity?lt is, more or less, what you read on
the speedometer.

lnstantaneous velocity is the Velocity at a specific instant in time.ThIs can be

different to the average Velocity ifthe velocity isn't constant.

Look at the photographs of the sprinters in a race. Their Velocity ı5 different

as they take off and as they end. Their average velocity for the race doesn't change
but their instantaneous Velocity, as captured in the"snaPshots"ofan instant in time

sprinters takin8 off does change. Their Velocity in the photograph would be an instantaneous Velocity.

Instantaneou5 Velocity (V) i5 the change in position over the change in a very
small time interval (At=o). lt is a Vector. lnstantaneous speed (V) ıs the magnitude of

,*y l
instantaneous Velocity. lt has the same value but is not a Vector so it has no direc-
tion.

working Prin<iPle of Green Wave system in TİaffiC

4, lf you drive in a major city, you probably exp€rience it every once in a while:
Traffic isn't too heavy, you're driving at a comfortable speed, and you just happen
t to hit a series of green lights. You blissfully cruise through severa| intefsections
without stoPping. lt's a nice feeling when it happens-but itt also makes for a more
sPrinte.s 6ıishin8 race
efficient and cleaner city. smoothly flowing traffic means less pollution, less con-
gestion, and less time wasted.

112
 Green wave i5 an intentionally induced phenomenon in which a series oftraf-
fic lıghts (usually three or more) are coordinated to allow continuous traffic flow
ü
over several intersections in one main direction.
;ı
Any vehicle travelling along with the green wave (at an approximate speed

l
decided upon by the traffic engineers) will see a progressive cascade of green
lights, and not have to stop at intersections. This allows higher traffic loads, and
reduces noise and energy use (because less acceleration and braking is needed). ln E
practical use, only a group of cars can use the green wave before the tim€ band is
interrupted to 9ive way to other traffic flows.
Green wave svstem
Any large citie5 around the world, esPecially in Europe and the USA synchro,
nize traffic lights on the busiest streets to create green waves. When a green wave
Works as intended, all vehicles within the wave can drive through a sequence of
green traffrc lights at a certain speed without having to stop at the 5ignal5. The tim DİDYOU KNOW? ı
ing ofthe lights can be controlled either by sensors or timers, and can be set up for
The green wave system is a system devel-
trafhc in one direction or both directions. Green waves have several benefits, such
as allowin9 for hi9her traffrc loads, reducing traffiC jams, controlling traffic speed,
oped with the aim of avoiding the loss of
time and fuel by standing in the red light
reducing fuel consumption and emissions, and facilitating bicycle and pedestrian
continuously atthe junctions thot follow.
traffrc.

The biggest disadvantage of green waves is that, when the wave is disturbed,
the disturbance can cause traffic problems that can be exacerbated by the syn-
chronization.

t
-!
/
.i
_]

Average o
speed llı
check

ı
 ffiEil

(-x) (x)

x2"r", = -7 m x = 0 (origin) xMehmet=1'!m

Figure l

(-x) (x)

+
xr"6.", = -5 m X = 0 (origin) Xz"yn"p = 9 h
Figure ll

The initial and final positions of Mehmet and Zeynep are given above. Mehmet
ecompletes his motion in 0.5 minutes and Zeynep completes her motion in '1.5

Vı'a+..u'
minutes. Find the ratio of average Velocities of Mehmet and zeyneP; .
VZ"yn"p

@-
Axy"6r",=-5_,|| =_lğ6 Ax."rn"o=9-(-7)= 16

Atı,ı.ı,-* = 0,5 x 60 = 30 s Atz"yn"p = 1.5 x 60 = 90 s

&M"h.o ı6
AtM"hr", -
VMehmet
_ lO __ lO,
_ ,!6 gO
__a
Vz"yn"p &r*", 30 ,16

&.r*, 90

Minu5 5ign in the result shows us that the average Velocities are in opposite direc-
tions.

11
@Er
A car travels at 36 km/h for 15 min, at 54 km/h for the next 0.5 h, and at 72 km/h for
the next 0.70 h.

what i5 the average velo<ity du]İn9 this tİip?

@_-
x] +x2+x3
ave t] +t2+t3

x] =vl .t] =36x0.25=9km

x2 = V2. t2 = 54 x 0.50 = 27 km
x3 = V3. t3 = 72 x 0.7O = 50.4 km

.. - 9+27+50.4- 86.4
'ave 6ı15 * 15 a 117 lli
Vave = 59,58 km/h

9.3.1.5. Uniform Motion (Motıon wİth constant VeloCıty)

Let3 analrze the motor ofan object moving along a straight line,

,-
ıooK^7 t,fvKs ,)
__, B
You con watch the video of the following ge-
X
nerol web addıessfor subject uniform motion.

Markers A and B are located a short distance apart, and the distance x https:ilEodqılhürvs
between them is measured with a meter stick. The car is started, and as it passes
marker A, the clock is started; as it passes marker B, the clock i5 stopped. The time t
in s, as read on the clock, is then recorded.This procedure should be repeated with
the markers farther and farther apart and, the data recorded in a table.

Drawing a graPh of position Versus time is a useful method to analyze the

motion of an object. Let's use the Values ofthe table given below to draw a position
Versus time graph for the motion ofthe car.

According to the graph given on the next page, as time increases, dis-
placement al50 increases.The position ver5u5 time graph ofan object movin9 with
a constant velocity is a strai9ht Iine.The slope ofthis line giVes the constant Veloc-
ity. The slope of the line has a constant Value. This constant Value is equal to the
Velocity of the car.

AX
slope=tana=
At

,l15
 po5ition posltion

Time posltion 5x 5x

0 0

t X
3x 3X
2l 2x

2x 2x
3t 3X

4t 4x

5t 5X At=4t-t=3t
tame time
t 2l 3t 4t 5t t2t3t4t5t
position and time table for the car
in figure above. Position versu§ time 8raPh sloPe ofa position versus time 8raPh

The Velocity Versus time graph of an object moving with constant Velocity is a
straight line parallel to time axis. since the slope ofa line is a constant value, Veloc-
ity is the same for all times.

VeloCity velocity

AREA

time time
İ 2t 3t 4l 5t t2t3t4t5t
velocity versus time graPh Aİea ofa v€locity vcrsu§ time graPh

The area of under the Velocity Versus time graph gives the displacement of
the movin9 object.
REsARcH
Area=v.At=Ax
Research how the cruise control system

used in cors works. share the informa-
tion you have leorned with your friends
in class.
.
EtrEEEil-
The distance between two cars which are moving with constant Velocities
decreases by 20 m in each second when the cars are moving in the same direc-
tion. when the cars are moving in opposite direction to each other, the distance
between them increases by 40 m in each second.

Find the velocities ofthe cars.

116
iıJı"sriıı ı

DİD YOU KNOW?

Lets take At = 'l s. Then for xı = vı . ] = vı and for x, = v,
same direction Ax = Xl - x2 = vl - v2 = 20 The oreo betvveen the velocity oxis and the
opposite direction Ax = xl + x2 = v1 + V2 = «) time axis in the velocity-time graph gives
2v, = 66 the displocement. Velocity values are found
Vı = 30 m/s using the slope of the position-time groph.
Vt -V2=20 then V2=30-20=10m/s

ExAMPLE

D|splacement Versus x (m)

timegraph of a uniformlymov- ,o
ing object is given in the figure.

l0 ,|2
0 t (5)
24 6

-l5
_30

a. what is the direction of motion of the object for each time interval?
b. what is the displacement of the object for each time interval?
C. what is the Velocity ofthe object for each time interval?
d. Find the displacement ofthe object?
e. what is the average velocity ofthe object?
f. Draw velocity versus time 9raph of the object.

ı!]||JJIl

a b t
Ti me Dire<tion
Displacement (m) Velocity (m/s}
interval (s) of motion

o-2 +x Ax=O-(-3O)=30m vı=ıt= 30

^x ı = l5mıs

2-4 +x Ax=30-0=30m ,,=ff=}=ıs.ı,

4-6 No motion 0 0

6- 10 -x Ax=0-30=-30m Ax 30
m/s
= -7 .5
^t4
,l0_
12 -x Ax=-15-0=-'l5m

117
 d. Ax = xı-xi= -1 5 - (-lO1 = 15rn
Total disola.ement Ax ]5 5
12 4 ""-
i,
-"avr =................Totaltime
a
At

V (m/s)
İ.

15

6 10 ,l2
0 t (5)
2 4

EtrEEEIE -
A car moves along a straight portion ofway according to the
graph shown aside.

a. Find the average velocity for the totaltriP.

b. Draw a Velocity-time qraph for the motion of this car.

x (m)

30

20

10
6
0 t (s)
1234 5678 9 ı0 11
_10

_2o

_30

_40

@.
a. Total displacement of this car is 10 m

Velocity=*}=1.^.

18
 To get any Velocity - time graph from po5ition time 9raph, first, we get slopes in
-

every time interval.The 5lope i5 9iven as velocity at that time interval

,,=rT =10m/s, v2=o, n=_r?l =_7omıs, vo=59In =19675

v (m/s)

]0
0 tG)
123 5 6 7 a 9 10 1l

_7o

EEEEE .
V (m/s)

40

20
Ar
0 t (s)
A2 4 5 7 9
_20 T5

_40

Draw position-time graph from velocity-time graph of a moving object given

above.

1ı]ır.jııı

The shaded area under each velocity is given a5 the displacement of the object aC-
cording to initial position.

A1 =20X2=40m Aa=40x2=80m
A2=-20X1=-20m 45=-40X2=-80m
Aı=0

a ,l19
 x (m)

100

80

40

20

0 t (5)
2 4 6 8

The displacement between 0 - 2 seconds i5 40 m. From the origin. Between 2 - 3

seconds object covers 20 m toward the origin. Because it has negative Velocity.
After 3 seconds object i5 40 - 20 = 20 m far away from the origin. Between 3 - 4
seconds object has no Velocity. There i5 no dispıacement. That i, after 4 seconds,
object is again 20 m far away from the origin. Between 4 - 6 seconds, the displace-
ment is 80 m,

The position ofthe obje(tafter6 s, is 20 + 80 = l00 m from the origin. Between 6-8
seconds, object has negatiVe Velocity. lt is moving toward the origin. Displacement
is 80 m. After 8 seconds object |s 'l00 - 80 = 20 m far from the origin.

9. 3.1 .6 The Motion of Accel€rating and Decelerating Objects

During any trip. we do not normally travel long distances at constant ve|ocity.
when we step on the gas, the Velocity of car will increase and when we apply the
brakes the Velocity of our car will slow down, or when we round a curve, because of
change in the direction, its velocity will change.

often the Velocity of a moving object changes either in magnitude, in direc-

tion, or both a5 motion proceeds. The object is then said to have an acceleration.

car 5hown in the figure made accelerated motion by takin9 the x and 3x ways
velocities ofvehicles in traffic are constantly changiıg.
in equal time intervals. The Velocity of the car was v while passing point L whereas
it wa5 2V at point M. lts velocity increased.

Vo=0 vr= 2v

C r
X 3X

K L
Atr =t Atr=1

12g
 car shown in the figure below reduced its Velocity by taking 3x and x ways in
equal time intervals. And it was stopped finalIy at point M. lts motion is called as
decelerated motion.

Vo=2V vı=0

- -
--. --.
3x x --------------- i

K L
At, =1 Atr=1

The rate ofchange ofvelocity ofan object is called acceleİation. lf an object

is increasing its Velocity in unit time intervals, the object is said to be accele]atİng
(speedin9 up). lf the object is decreasin9 its Velocity in unit time intervals, then the
object is said to be decelerating (slowing down).

Ul{lT5
Symbol Quantity Unit
DİDYOU KNOW?
Av change in Velocity meter (m/5)
]_ Ai_- ün"' -İn,,,",
time interval second (s) "- At t,n",-t,n,,,", lncreosing or decreosing velocity of moving
^t objects over time causes occeleration.
(ı acceleration m/s2
A1celerotion is defined os the chonge in velo-
city at the unit time of motion.

@Er }

The Velocity - time data of a car is given in the table. Draw velocity - time and ac-
ce|eration - time graphs ofthe car.

velocity (m/s) 0 6 12 ]8 24

time (s) 0 2 4 6 8
Velocity (m/s)

24

@-, 18

First we draw Velocity - time graph by using the data given. 12

The slope ofthe line in Velocity - time graph gives acceleration. 6

slope=tano=
+ =+ =' a=3m/s2 0
2468
Time (s)

or we can find the acceleration by using the data.

121
 -Av
At
LOOK AT LINKS
o - 2 s time interval ;3=!:9 3 675u
You can watch the video ot the following ge-
2-0 =
nerol network address fol the topic explonati- 2-45time interval: a= ]2-6 =3rn/rz
4_2
on about occeleration ond deceleration. and so on.

https!/goo.glzxwBgQ
A(celeration (m/52)

REsEARcH

lnvestigate whot causes the occelero-

tion to occur. Share the results of your Time (s)
0
2468
reseorch With your friends in the closs-
room. Uniform or constant acceleration i5 a type of motion in which the velocity of
an object changes by an equal amount in every equal time Period as given in the
previous example.
a 1m/s2)
A5 mentioned in the previou5 example, the data table show a car changing its
2
Velocity by 6 m/5 in each consecutive two se(onds.This is referred to as a constant
acceleration since the Velocity is changing by a constant amount each second. An
object with a constant acceleration should not be confused with an object with a
0
1234 t (s) constant velocity. Don't be fooled! lf an object is chan9ing its Velocity-whether by

_1
a constant amount or a varying amount-then it i5 an accelerating obje(t. And an
object with a constant Velocity is not acceleratin9.
-2 When an object i5 slowing down, the acceleration is in the oppo5ite direction
_3 as the Velocity. Thus, this object ha5 a negative acceleration (deceleration). Decel-
eration-time 9raph ofan object is shown aside.

ExERcısE
1 , Describe a case in which is an example to relative motion in daily |ife.
2. Give examples oftfanslatory, rotationary and vibratory motions from daily life.
3. The position Values of a runner according to time are as shown in the following table

position (m) 6 12 22 36 50 63 7o 80 90 100

time (s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 l0
Find the speed at which the runner is in the fastest range and the average speed during the rac€.

4. Draw position-time and Velocity-time graphs by creatin9 position-time data of a train with uniform motion.
5. Give examples for the objects which make accelerated or decelerated motion in daily life.

1 22
-
 9.3.2 FoRcE
9.3.2.1. Force Concept
ln physics, a force is any influence that causes an object to undergo a certain
change, either concernin9 its movement, direction, or geometrical construction. ln DlDYoU KNoW?
other word, a force can cause an object with mass to change its Velocity (which
includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to acce|erate, or a flexible object An affect that can move a standing object
to deform, or both. Force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push and chonge the speed, direction and shape
or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making ıt a Vector quantity.lt is of obkcts, stop on object in motion is colled
measured in the 5l unit of neMons (N) and represented by the symbol F. force, The forces are divided into two polts:
contoct forces ond non-contad forces.
A force is a push or pull acting upon an object as a result of its interaction
with another object. There are a Variety oftypes offorces. Previously in this lesson,
a variety of force types were placed into two broad category headings on the basis
of whether the force resu lted from the contact or non-contact of the two interact-
ing objects.

a. conta(t and non-contact ForCe5

Contact force is the force in which an object comes in contact with another
object. contact forces are ubiquitou5 and are responsible for most visible interac-
tions b€tween macroscopic collections of matter. Pu5hing a car up a hill or kicking
a ball or pushing a desk across a room are some of the everyday examples where
contact forces are at work. certain contact forces describe specific phenomena and
are important enough to have been given unique names. The most common
in stances of this include friction, normal force, and tension. According to forces,
contact force may also be described as the push experienced when two objects are
pressed together.

a 1 \

f\t !.
ı D !' -!
E
t 1>
l)

Mother is aPPlying a force üıough contact to baby caİriage. A contact foİce required to
remove üe barbell.

A non-contact force is any force applied to an object by another body that is

not in direct contact with it. The most common example of a non-contact force is
gravity. A non-contact force is different from a contact force, which is a force ap-
plied to a body by another body that is in contact with it. However it is to be noted
that the origin of all contact forces can be traced to non-contact forces. Gravity,
electricity and magnetic forces are non-contact forces.

o
 \
ı-.]
,T- ,
l
r
\

Some examples of non-contact foıces.

b. Four Fundamental Forces

All four known fundamental interactions (9ravity, electromagnetism, stron9-
nuclear force and weak nuclear force) are non-contact forces.

lerı
A force which can hold a nucleus together against the enormous forces of
repulsion of the protons is strong indeed. This force is responsible for binding

3 )
of nuclei. lt i5 the dom inant one in reactions a nd decays of most of the fundamen-
tal particles. This force is so strong that it binds and stabilize the protons of 5ımilar
charges within a nucleus. However, it is Very 5hort ran9e. lt acts only over ranges of
order '10-,l3 centimeters. lt is basically attractiVe, but can be effectively repulsive in

o
some cir.l lm<tan.A<

n
a

l-/ + l rfr +-
3
\t

o
/r
Yukawa modeled the strong force as an exchange force in which the ex-
change particles are pions and other heavier particles. The range of a particle ex-
change force is limited by the uncertainty principle. lt is the strongest of the four
fundamentalforces

Ihe Weak Nucleaı For<e

The weak nuclear force is responsible for radioactiVe decay and neutrino in-
teractions. lt mediates beta decay what happens when a neutron break5 down into
a proton and an electron or positron. lt has a Very short range and, a5 its name

124
indicates, it is very weak. The weak interaction is the on|y process in which a quark
can change to another quark, or lepton to another lepton.

CO ıi
i

ı,/
a
a

The discowery of the W and Z particles in 1983 was hailed as a confirmation

ofthe theories which connect the weak force to the electromagnetic force in elec-
troweak unification.

The weak interaction changes one flavoİ of quark into anotheİ. lt is (ru-
cial to the stıucture of the universe in that

1. The sun would not burn without it since the weak interaction causes the
transmutation p+n 5o that deuterium can form and deuterium fusion can
take place.
2. lt is necessary for the buildup of heavy nuclei.

iii. The ElĞ<tİomagnetic ForCĞ

The electromagnetic forc€ holds atoms and molecules together. Electroma9-

netism is the interaction of particles with an electrical charge. Charged particles at
rest interact throu9h electrostatic forces, while in motion they interact throu9h
both electrical and magnetic forces. The electromagnetic force causes electric and
magnetic effects such as the repulsion between like electrical charges or the inter-
action of bar magnets. lt i5 long-ranged, but much weaker than the strong force.
lt can be attractive or repulsive, and acts only between pieces of matter carrying
electrical charge.

The force is long ran9e, in principle extending over infinite distance. However,
the strength can qui(kly diminish due to shielding effect. Many everyday experi-
ences such a5 friction and air resistance are due to this force. Thi5 is also the resist-
ant force that we feel, for examPle, when pressing our palm against a wall. This is
originated from the fact that no two atoms can occupy the same 5pace.

For a long time. the electric and magnetic forces were considered to be dif-
ferent forces, but they were finally unified by James Clerk Maxwell in 1865, under
Maxwell'5 equation5. ln the 1940s, quantum electrodynamics consolidated electro-
magneti5m with quantum physics.

Electromagnetism is perhaps the most obviously prevalent force in our world,

as it can affect thing5 at a reasonable distance and with a fair amount offorce.

125
 iv. The Gravitational Force

This is the force that holds us onto the Earth. lt could be important in our
daily life, but on the scale of atomic world it i5 of negligible or no importance at all.
Gravitational force is cumulative and extended to ınfinity. lt exists whenever there
|s mattet Your body is experiencing a gravitational pull with, say, your computer
(or anything close to you or as far away as stars and galaxies) but the effect is so
small you will never sense it. Howeveı you can sense the gravitational pull with
the Earth (that is, your weight) due to the cumulative effect of billions of billions of
the atoms made up your body with those atoms ofthe Eanh. This means that the
larger the body (contain more matter), the stronger the force. But on the sca|e of
individual particles, the force is extremely small, only in order of '|0-38 times that
ofthe strong force.
you will notice that of all the four fundamental forces two of them can be
exeperinced in our daily life. They are also called the familiar forces which are the
ele(tromagnetic and 9ravitational forces.5imilarly, the strong force and the weak
force are called the unfamiliar forces.

Comparison of fundamentol forces of noture.

ınteraction RelatiVe strength Range Mediating Particle

strong Nuclear hort Gluon
,|
5

Electromagnetic 0.0073 Long Photon

weak Nuclear 1o-9 Very short W, z bosons

Gravitational 1o-]8 Long Graviton

stren9th Range (m) Particle

Force which 1o-]3 gluons.

5trong holds nucleus (diameter of a p(nuleons)
1
togeher medium sized nucleus)

Electromagnetic photon
1
infinite mass = 0
37 spin = '|

tr
Intermedıate

\_ffi o-ı8
l vector bosons
Week of diameter w*,W,zü
10-6 (0.'|0/6
mass > 80 GeV
of a proton)
spin = '|

9raviton?
GraVity 6 x 10-39 infinite mass = 0
spin - 2

Fundamental Forces

128
 (. Vaİiable5 wher. the Gravitational Force is Dependent
lsaac Newton compared the acceleration of the moon to the acceleration
of objects on earth. Believing that gravitational forces were responsible for D,5cuss,oN
each, Newton was able to draw an important conclusion about the depend-
ence of gravity upon distance. This comparison led him to conclude that the lnvestigate obseNoble effects of force. Dis-
force of gravitational attraction between the Earth and other objects is inverse- cuss with your clossmotes the different cha-
ly proportional to the distance separating the earth's center from the object's rocteristics of force by taking these influen-
center. But distance is not the onıy Variable affecting the magnitude of a gravi- ces.
tational force.

Newton knew that the force that caused the apple's acceleration (9ravity)
must be dependent upon the mass of the apple. And since the for(e acting to
cause the apple's downward acceleration also causes the earth's upward ac-
celeration (Newton's third law), that force must also depend upon the mass of
the earth. 5o for Newton, the force of gravity actin9 between the earth and any
other object i§ directly proportional to the mass of the earth, directly propor-
tional to the mass of the object, and inVersely proportional to the square of the
distance that separates the center5 of the earth and the object.

But Newton's law of universal gravitation extends gravity beyond earth.

Newton's law of universal gravitation is about the universality of gravity. All ob-
jects attract each other with a for(e of gravitational attraction. Gravity i5 universal.
Newtonl conclusion about the magnitude of gravitational forces is summarized
symbolically as

ffiı ,Dz
Fg.r, C
d,

where Fglav represents the force ofgravity between two objects

Cr means "proportional to"
m] represents the mass of object 1

m2 represents the mass ofobject 2

d represents the distance separating the objects'centers

The proportionalities expressed by Newton's universal law of gravitation are

represented graphically by the following illustration. observe how the force of
9ravity is directly proportional to the product ofthe two masses and inversely pro-
portional to the square of the distance of separation.

ö
.-j,.-

127
 Effect of Mass on F grav Effed of Distan(e on F
9rav

attract with a M F M M F M attract with a

force of
force of
d

1
attract with a
2F 2M M 4
I l attract with
force of a force of
2d
d

attract with 2M 4F 2M M
e 4F

L J
attract with
a force of
a force of
1
d d
2

2M
attract with M 3F 3M F
,-* attract with
a force of a force of

d
----l 2d

d. Balanced and Unbalanced Foıces

To determine if the forces acting upon an object are balanced or unbalanced,

an analysis must first be conducted to determine what forces are acting upon the
object and in what diİection. two individual forces are of equal magnitude and
lf
opposite direction, then the forces are said to be balanced. An object is said to
be acted upon by an unbalanced force only when there is an individua| force
that is not being balanced by a force of equal magnitude and in the opPosite
direction. Balınced foİCes

when two forces acting on an object equal in size but act in opposite di-
rection5, we say that they are balanced forces.

lf the forces on an object are balanced (or if there are no forces acting on
it) this is what happens;

. an object that is not moving stays still

. an object that is moving continues to move at the same speed and in the
same direction

so notice that an object can be moving even if there are no forces acting
on it.
. an object that is moving continues to move at the same speed and in the
same direction

so notice that an object can be moving even if there are no forces acting
on it.

,ı
28
EtrEE!il - ı

t
Here are some examples of balanced forces.
Pull ofthe rope

Hanging obje<ts
The forces on this hanging crate are equal in size but act in opposite direc-
tions. The weight pulls down and the tension in the rope pulls up.

Rope
Floating in wateı
objects float in water when their weight is balanced by the upthrust from
the water. The object will sink until the weıght of the water it pushes out of the
way i5 the same as the weight of the object.

t
crate
Upth.un ofwater

ı
- weight of the crate

ü Ihe forccs on üis haıgiıg cıate ate balaıced_

weaghtofboat

A boat Roats because it§ weight is balanced by the uPthİust

from üe $rater

Standing on the ground

When an object rests on a surface such as the ground, its weight is ba|-
anced by the reaction force from the ground. The ground Pushes up against the
object. The reaction force is what you fee| in your feet as you stand still. without
this balancing force you would sink into the ground.

t
Reaction folce ofthe table

The weight ofa book lying on a table is balanced by the reaction force from the table ıop.

129
 A foıce is a push or a pull. A force can give energy to an object causing the
ob.ject to start moving, stop movin9, or chan9e its motion

.Forces occur in pairs and can be either balanced or unbalanced. Balanced

forces do not cause a change in motion. They are equal in size and opposite in
d irectio n.

Have you ever had an arm wrestling Compet|tion with someone? lf you
compete a9ainst someone who is just about a5 strong a5 you are, there will
probably be a time when both of you are pushing as hard as you can, but your
arms stay in the 5ame place. This is an example of balanced forces. The force
exerted by each person is equal, but they are pushing in opposite directions, in
this case together. lt would look something like this.

7NL J
I
Because the force that each of you is exerting i5 equal, the two forces can-
İ
J ı l.
ı
I cel each other out and the resulting force is zero. Therefore, there is no change
in motion.

Another great place to see balanced forces in action is in a tug of war. This
is similar to an arm wrestling match, only in this case the forces are moving away
from each otheı Just like in arm wrestlin9, if the two teams have equal strength, or
force, the rope will stay pretty much in the same pla(e. lt would look like this.
Tug of waı

ı Again the resulting force is zero and there i5 no change in motion. when two
forces acting on an object are not equal in s|ze, we say that they are unbalanced
forces. lf the forces on an object are unbalanced this is what happ€ns:
,|5
15N N
. an obiect that is not moving starts to move
. an object that is moving changes speed or direction

when two unbalanced forces are exerted in opposite directions, their com-
A §ationary object remains stationary if balanced bined force is equal to the difference between the two forces and is exerted in the
forces aPpııed on it.
direction of the larger force.

TruCk 5peeds up in this direction

100 N
a
Bigger force

{
-
Lrnbalanced foraۤ
t
smaller foıce

60N

Unbalanced forces make the truck speed up

130
 Re9uıtant foİ<e5
The size of the overall force acting on an object is called the ıetultant
force. lfthe forces are balanced, this is zero. ln the example above, the resultant
force is the difference between the two forces, which is 100 - 60 = 40 N.

FoİCe diagİam§

We can show the forces acting on an object using a force diagram. ln a

force diagram, each force is shown as a force arrow. An arrow shows:

. the size of the force (the longer the arrow the bigger the force)

. the direction in which the force acts.

The arrow is usually labelled with the name ofthe force and its size in new-
tons. Text books often show a force with a thick coloured arrow but it i§ best if
you just use a pencil and ruler to draw an arrow with a single line.

Think again about the arm wrestling match. only this time imagine that
you are competing agaınst a world famous body builder. chances are that his
force will be much greater than yours. Your arms will move in the direction he
is pushing with a force that is equal to his force minus your force. lt wi|l look

*F +
like this.

or imagine that you and your friends are having a tug of war. Again their
force will probably be a little larger than yours. You will move in the direction
they are pulling with a force that is equal to their force minus your force. lt will

+
look like this.

Unbalanced forces can also be exerted in the same direction. For example,
imagine that your family's car breaks down on the road and you have ıo push
it into a parking lot. lf you and your brother or sister both push on the car, the
resulting force on the car will be the sum of your forces and of course be in
the direction that you are applying the force. The figure below shows how this

+
would work.

Two important things to remember when working with balanced and un-
balanced forces are 'l
) forces in the same direction combine by addition, and 2)
forces in opposite direction5 combine by subtraction.

131
 ExAMPLE

Fı=8N
Fz='|2N Fı=25N

ln the above,
a. what is the net force acting on the body?
b. What is the direction and magnitude ofthe force that will balance the body?

',
ı.ıJ,: ,,i:,, ı l

LOOK AT LİNKS
a. To find the net force, the sum of the forces to the left must be subtracted from
you con wotch the videos at the follo-
the sum ofthe forces to the right.
wing general web oddress for bolonced and
Fn", = 25 - ('|] a $) = 5 N (to the rlght)-
unbolanced forces,
b. The balancing force is equal to the net force in magnitude but in opposite direc-
https qoo.guuipEtr
tion. Fd = 5 N, should be to the left.

ı EXERclsE

Trythese problems to test your knowledge about balanced and unbalanced foİces.

1 . Two tugboats are moving a barge. Tugboat A exerts a force of 3000 N on the barge. Tugboat B exerts a force of 5OO0 N |n the
same direction. what is the combined force on the barge?
2. Draw arrows showing the individual and combined forces of the tugboats ın #1.
3. Now supPose that Tugboat A exerts a force of 2ooo N on the barge and Tugboat B exerts a force of ıl00O N in the opPosite
direction. what is the combined force on the barge?
4. Draw arrows showing the individual and combined forces ofthe tugboats in *3.
5. could there ever be a case whenTugboat A andTugboat 8 are both exening a force on the baİge but the barge doesnt move?
Draw arrows showing the individual and combined forces in such a situatİon.
6
Ir.=u*
+,
Fz=6N K Fı=14N Fz=6N Fı=l4N

Figure-l Figure-2

The objects K and L in Figures 'l and 2 are influenced by forces F,, F,, F, in a frictionless surface.

Find the ratıo ofthe magnitudes ofthe balancing forces that hold the objects in ba|ance.

132
 9.3.3. NEwToN,s LAws oF MoTıoN
A force alters the state of rest or motion of an object. The object may be
set into motıon from rest, may be made to move with a 9reater Velocity, may
be made to move with a lesser velocity or may be made to rest. An object may
have severa| different forces acting on it, which can have different strengths
and direction5. But they can be added together to give the resultant force. This
is a single force that has the same effect on the object as all the individual
forces actin9 together.

9.3.3.1. The First Law of Motion: lnertia

lsaac Newton (a '|7th century scientist) put forth a variety of laws that
explain why ob.iects move (or don't move) as they do. These three laws have
become known as Newton's three law'5 of motion. Newton's first law of motion
(sometimes referred to as the law of inertia) is often stated as: An object at rest
stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and
in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

There are two parts to thi5 statement-one that predicts the behavior of
stationary objects and the other that predicts the behavior of moving objects.
The two parts are summarized in the following diagram.

Forces are Balanced

objects at Rest objects in Motion

(v = 0 m/s) (V * 0 m/s)

a=Om/s2 a=Om/s2

stay at Rest stay in Motion

(5ame 5peed and direction) .I
The behavior of all objects can be described by saying that objects tend The smooth tıack can quickly be moved §o a§ not
to "keep on doing what they're doing" (unless acted upon by an unbalanced to set the car in motion.

force). lf at rest, they will continue in this same state of rest. lf in motion with
an eastward Velocity of 5 m/s, they will continue in this time state of motion
(5 m/s, East). lf in motion with a leftward velocity of 2 m/5, they will continue
in this same state of motion (2 m/s, left). The state of motion of an object i5
maintained as long as the object is not acted upon by an unbalanced force. lf
friction could be entirely eliminated, the inertia of the body would keep it mov-
ing indefinitely with constant velocity. A|l ob,iects resist changes in their state
of motion-they tend to "keep on doing what they're doing."
tn the fi8ure the card moves aıüay, but the coin
droPs into the glass. In figure if the track is
jerked quickly to right or to left, the wheels of
the car will turn, but the car itse]f will tend to
remain at lest.

133
 ıa o
İ

J
, ı

When the card is moved quickly the coin drops into the glass.

The law of inertia is most commonly experienced when riding in cars and
trucks. ln fact, the tendency of movin9 objects to continue in motion is a com-
mon cau5e of a Variety of transportation injuries-of both small and large mag-
nitudes. consider for instance the unfortunate collision of a car with a wall.
Upon contact with the wall, an unbalanced force acts uPon the car to abruPtly
decelerate it to rest, Any passen9ers in the car will also be decelerated to rest if

a
they are strapped to the car by seat belts. Being strapped tightly to the car, the
l,İ: passengers share the same state of motion a5 the car. As the car accelerates, the
}
passengers accelerate with it; as the car decelerates, the passengers decelerate
with it; and as the car maintains a constant speed, the passengers maintain a
-)

constant speed as well.

r -a
l
But what would happen if the passen9ers were not wearing the seat belt?
What motion wouId the passengers undergo if theyfailed to usetheir seat belts
and the car were brought to a sudden and abrupt halt by a collision with a wall?
were this scenario to occur, the passengers would no longer share the same
I
__: _-*şıı. il state of motion as the car. The use of the seat belt assures that the forces nec-
essary for accelerated and decelerated motion exist. Yet, if the seat belt is not
used, the passengers are more likely to maintain its state of motion.

Now perhaps you will be convince of the need to wear your seat belt. Re-

t
^, member it is the law-the law of motıon.

The "forever" part is difficult to swallow sometimes. But imagine that you
have three ramps set up as shown below. Also imagine that the ramps are in-
finitely long and infinitely smooth. You let a marble roll down the first ramp,
which is set at a slight incline. The marble speeds up on its way down the ramp.
Now, you will give a gentle push to the marble going uphill on the second
ramp. lt slows down as it goes up. Finally, you push a marble on a ramp that
represents the middle state-between the fir5t two-in other words, a ramp that
is perfectly horizontal. ln this case, the marble will neither slow down nor speed
up. ln fact, it should keep rolling forever.

134
 Newlon's lows ol Molion
Foıce

lıırıA
L-

Foıce
ı
bu,i
=ş--3 ı
ı
ıg ioııo tp

J
DlscussıoN
Accordin8 to Newton's frrst law, the maı,ble on that bottom ramp shoııld just keep going. And
going.
lnvestigate the purpose of using the
seot belts in vehicles. Discuss the results of
your work in the classroom by investigating
Physicists use the term inertia to describe this tendency ofan object to resist
the use of safety belt with Newton's Low of
a Change in its motion.
lnertia.
lnterestin9ly, Newton was not the first scientist to come up with the law of in-
ertia.That honorgoes to Galileo and Rene Descartes. ln fact, the marble- and-ramp
thought experiment described previously is credited to Galileo. NeMon owed
much to events and people who preceded him.

Every kind of matter has inertia.The inertia of a body may be defined as that
property ofa body which tends to resist a change in its state of rest or motion. The LaOK AT LİNKS
inertia ofan object is directly proportional to its mass. Mass is defined as a quanti-
you can wotch the videos ot the follo-
tative measure of inertia_
wing general web oddress for inenio.

C
hftps 9oo.9l/8N2Bbp

Force İ* ı>V
m

a
 READiNGTEXT

K
lbn-i Sina
lbn-i slna who born in the present Bukhara city of Uzbekistan, has disti
guished himself in various fields of knowledge and skill such as philosophy, math-
ematics, astronomy, physic, chemistry, medi(ine and music.

lbn-i sina, who is also commonly referred to as Avicenna, is arguably one of

the most well recognized, revered, and influential scientist, philosopher.and phy- I
sician of not only his time but rather throughout history. He is wide|y İe(ognized
for his vast achievements and contributions in the fields of medicine, but is con-
sidered a polymath who similarly revolutionized the global understanding of the
sciences of metaphysics, philosophy, astronomy, and physics among others. Many 7,
of th'Ö modern day concepts of physics have a direct or indirect relationship to the

L
discoveries of lbn-i sina.These include kinematics in one or more dimensions, vec-
tor' dynamics, Newton's laws of motion, circular motion, gravitation, work energy, ( 7
linear momentum. and rotational motion. lı ,
Specifically in physics, one oflbn-isina! most influentialtheories involves the
concepts of mechanacs and projectile motion. His theory most resembles Newton!
first law of motion which states that an object in motion will remain in motion un-
less acted on by an outside force. lbn-i sina theorized that an object would only
have motion if a force is apPlied onto the object. Also, he differentiated between
the afftnity ofan object to remain in motion and the force applied.This is consistent
with the concept of inertia which will always remain with an object unless an out-
side force acts on the object to either increase or decrease its motion. Additionally,
lbn sina stated that in an environment without air resistance or friction, an object
in motion would always remain in motion due to its inertia.

other observations that were initially discovered by lbn-i 5ina in the field of
physics include the notion that movement and motion wathin an object, such as
the motion of atoms and molecules, is a form of thermal energy that produces
heat. This concept has great rğlevance on the |aws of thermodynamics, enthalpy,
entropy, and chemlcal reactions. Additionally, lbn-i Sina was a pioneer in his use of
the air thermometer for his experiments. He stated that the speed oflight is not in-
frnite and can thus have a measureable value. He stated thi5 with the evidence that
light is emitted in the form of particles that travel thİough space. Therefore, similar
to other objects travelling through space, light must have a finite speed. lbn-i 5ina
also commented on the dispersion and refraction of light.
 9.3.3.2. Relationship between Force, Acceleration and Mass-
The Second Law of Motion
Newton! first law tells us what happens when the net force acting on an ob-
ject is zero. The object is either remains at rest if it is already at rest, or it moves with
a constant Velocity if it is in motion. But what happens if the net force on an object
is not zero? How willthe object move if one or more forces were acting on it? New-
ton's answer to this that the object is accelerated.The relationship between force,
mass, and acceleration was summarized in his second |aw of motion.

According to Newton, an object will only accelerate if there is a net or unbal-

anced force acting upon it. The presence of an unbalanced force will accelerate an
object-changin9 its speed, its direction, or both its sp€ed and direction.

Forces are unbalanced

There is an accleration

The acceleration The acceleration

depends directly tepends inversely
uPon the upon the
"net force" object's ma5s.

ExPERlMENT 1

Fınding the relationship between foİGe. accel€İation and ma5§ of an objeCt

EquiPment
Dynamometer
ı. Dynamometer 1kg
2. Two bodies of 3 kg and l kg mass
3. 1 kg test Vehicle
4. Rope
5. Pulley
3kg
6. Marble surface table
7. Roller stabilizer

procedure

1. create groups according to class and material condition. Make a duty division among group members.
2. connect the rope to each ofthe two ends ofthe dynamometer. Attach the 3 kg mass body to the free end of one of the
ropes as well as the 1 kg mass of body to the free end of the other rope.
3. secure the pulley to the edge of the table and hang 3 kg of mass as shown.

137
 4. Release the system and record the readin9 on the dynamometer while the test car is moving.
5. Repeat the experiment by adding a mass of 1 kg mass onto the test car of 1 k9 mass.
6. ln both cases, calculate the F / m ratio by keeping the reading on the dynamometer.

Questions
1. ls the Value you read on the dynamometer equalto the weight ofthe suspended object?
2. ls the value you read on the dynamometer be the net force for a '| kg mass object?
3. Depending on the value you are reading on the dynamometer, how many newton should the net force acting on the
mass with 3 kg be?
4. compare the masses' accelerations.

The Second Law is concerned with relating acceleration to mass and net
force.This law of motion exp|ains how an object will change Velo(ity if it i5 pushed
or pulled upon.

Firstly, this law states that if you do place a force on an object, it will accelerate
(change its Velocity), and it will change its Velocity in the direction ofthe force. 5o,
a force aimed in a positive direction willcreate a positive change in Velocity (a posi-
tive acceleration). And a force aimed in a negative direction will create a negative
change in Velocity (a negative acceleration).

secondly, this acceleration is dir€ctly proportional to the force. For example, if

you are pushing on an object, causing it to accelerate, and then you push, say, three
times harder, the aCCeleration will be three times greater.

v(
t
8
"l"
6
2

t (s) a (m/r2)
0 0
2 3 7a 3a

velocity - time graph ofaı object which Folce - accele.ation gıaph of aı object wiü
is moving under the influence ofa con-
stant foıce.

F 2F

IncIeasing the force applied on an object increases the acceleration

1
 Thirdly, this acceleration is inverse|y proportional to the ma55 of the object.
For example, if you are pushing equally on two objects, and one ofthe objects has
five times more mass than the other, it will accelerate at one fifth the acceleration
ofthe other.

t
h
!}

\
=
t
4
E -
il
ı}

Increasin8 the force aPPlied oı an obiecl increases the acceleration

Newton's second law of motion can be formally as follows:The acceleration of

an object as produced by a net force i5 directly proportional to the magnitude of
the net force, in the same direction a5 the net force, and inversely proportional to
V
the mass of the ob.iect.
* +
This verbal statement can be expressed in equation form as follows: m
F

To move a stationary obiect force is needed.

The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as shown be-
low.The net force is equated to the product ofthe mass times the acceleration.

Fn",=m.a
ln this entire discussion, the emphasis has been on the net force. The accel-
erat|on is directly proportional to the net force; the net force equals ma55 times ac-
celeration; the acceleration in the same direction as the net force; an acceleration is
produced by a net force. Acceleration and force are Vectors; in thi5 law the direction
ofthe force vector is the same as the direction ofthe acceleration vector

consistent with the above equation, a unit of force is equal to a unit of mass
times a unit of acceleration. By substituting standard metric units for force, mass,
and acceleration into the above equation, the followin9 unit equivalency can be
written. t Newton = 1kg.m/s2.

The defrnition ofthe standard metric unit of force is stated by the a bove equa-
tion. one newton is defined as the amount of force required to give a 1 k9 mass an
acceleration of 1 m/s2.

139
,
 LOOK AT L|NKS ?N + 'l000 k9
0-05 m/s2
,:*
To rcinforce the concepts of net force, friction
force ond accelerotion, you con follow the sr
mulotion ot the following generol network
address.
D
hıtp!/phet.coıorodo.edu/en/ simulaİion /
fo r ces-a nd -rnot ion ba si cs

Ahmetl car with a mass of 1,000 kg, is out of gas. Ahmet is trying to push the
car to a gas station, and h€ makes the car go o.o5 m/s2. Using Newton! Second law,
you can compute how much force Ahmet is applyin9 to the car

@Eil
A race car with a mass of 500 kg can accelerate from 'l0 m/s to 40 m/s in 4 5. How
much force is required to cause this acce|eration?

',r]\ Lj,I )

We will use the equation, F = ma. The acceleration is calculated according to the
de6nition of acceleration as

^-
"
change in Velocity
tirne

a=
40_,l0 _-
1_5 mls,
4

-=
substituting into Newton's second law: F=500x7.5=3750N

ExAMPLE

lmagine that you had a stone with a ma55 of 500 g and threw it with a force of
l00 N. what would be its acceleration while the force was acting on it?

tJ]lilİl|]tı-
ln this case, we are asked to solve for acceleration. NeMonl second law is used as

a= F l00
=299.7rz
m = 0.5
EXAMPLE

A force of 24 N is applied to a 6 kg block that is at rest on smooth (friction-free)

levelsurface. Find
a.The acceleration ofthe block.
b. The Velocity of the block after 'lo s of the app|ication ofthe force.

@
a.F=24N, m=6kg, a=?

F=mxa ora= F
m6= 4 =4Nlkg=Amtsz

b. An acceleration of 4 m/s2 means the velocity ofthe block increases by 4 m,/s in

every second, in ten seconds the Velocity increases by 4 x 10 = 40 m/s. Because
the initial velocity ofthe block is zero, (it is at rest) its final velocity is 40 m/s.

or we may be Use the formula a = 4!

t
AV= a x t ==> AV = 4x 10 =40 m/s
AV=Vf -Vi or vf = Vi +AV= 0+40=40m/s

ExERcl5E

A block, initially at rest on a friction-free horizontal plane is acted on bya horizontal force of40 N. lf the Velocity of the block
reaches 20 m/s durin9 5 s find (a) the acceleration ofthe block. (b) the mass ofthe block.

fu.4m/İ; b.10 kg)

ExAMPLE }
The force F accelerates the ob.ject K by 4 m/s2 whereas the same force accelerates
the ob.ject L by 20 m/s2.

what will the ac(ele]ation ofthe system be ifthe objects weİe moving togeth-
e] under the influence of the same force?

@
lf F=m.a then;
F = mx.4 mK=.4=mL.20
F=Mr.20 mK = 5mL

For the system:

141
 Fno F F 20mt 10 ,7
-'Ynem htotal mK+mL smt+mL 6a1 3 ""'

EEEEIil .
A force of 20 N is applied to a 5 kg block that i5 at rest on a perfectly smooth, level
surface. Find the speed of the block and how far it has gone after 8 s.

EEl@,
we start with the second law of motion to find the acceleration of the block.

F20
a= =- =4mls,
-m5 V(m/s)
The velocity is
32
v=at=4x8=32mls.
To find the distance taken by the block, let's
draw Velocity-time 9raph ofthe block.

The area of the (v - t) graph is equal to the

t(5)
distance taken by the block. 0 8

32x8
area=x=-=|2öm
2

EtrEE,
The force-acceleration graphs of F(N)

two objects given on the right.

30
Find the masses of objects.

]0

2ı
0 3 5

E@-
The slopes of lines give the masses ofthe ob.iects.

,n,=*=i9 =10ks and r,=*=* =r*n

1
EtrEEE .
The force-time graph of a 4 k9 object, along a smooth and friction|ess surface (ini-
tially the object is at rest) is given below.

a. Plot acceleration-time 9raph

b. Plot Velocity time graph.

F(N)

,l5

10

0 t(s)
123 5678
_5

_l0
_l5

@-.
a.a=-mF
F(N )

'. =* =s^l" between o and 2s

=
! 10

5
=-+=-7,5m/s2 between 2 and 4s,
",=*
0
2 4 6 8 t(5)
a3 =!m =6 6"1*""n 4 and 6s. -5
:

-7.5
,m
F
=
J9 =5 p75z between 6 and 8 s.
2

Lett plot these VaIue5 on the graph.

b.The area ofthe (a - t) graph is equal to the change of the Velocity ofthe object
AVl =5x2= 10m/s

vl =AV1 +Vo= ı0+0= 10m/s

AV2=-7.5x2=_15m/s
v2 =AV2 +Vl = _l5 + 10=-5 m/s

143
 Avr=9
Vı = -5 m/s
AVa=5x2=10m/s
vo=Avo+vr=l0-5=5m/s
we can also plot these values on the graph as in the figure below.

v(m/s)

,l0

0 (s)
123 456 78
_5

ExERcı5E

Find the net force necessary to slow a 'l600 kg car down from 72 km/h to 18 km/h in 3 s.

(8ooo N)

ExERcısE
V (m/s)

12

9
r2

Fı=6N Fı=12N

0 t(s)
3

Figu]e ı Figuİe 2

ln Figure '1, Velocity-time graph of 4 kg object is 9iven in the frictionless horizontal surface. The forces in Figure 2 are applied to
this object in the same surface. Find the value of F, in newtons.

(10 N)
 Free Body Force Diagrams

Free body diagrams, often abbreviated "FBD" are a tool for solving problems
with multaPle for(es acting on a 5ingle body. The methods developed here can also Lift

be used for the summation of force fields. The purpose of a free body diagram is
to reduce the complexity of situation for easy analysis. The diagram is used as a Drag <- Thru5t
stanin9 point to develop a mathematical model ofthe forces actin9 on an object.

ın oıdeİ to eİfectively use free body diagıam to analyıe a bodyt motİon L

you must be accomplish four skills. ,

Weight
ı. ldentiry the force acting on a body

2. ldentify the direction of each acting force and draw Vectors representing
the forces

3. create a pair of equations from a free body

4. Do the math. This usually involves system5 of equations.

Below is a picture ofa flying jet.

A free body diagram is a picture showing the forces that act on a body. Most
imPortantly it shows the forces'directions without the clutter of drawing the body.

The word "body" is used to describe any object. But physicists and engineers
likes to simplify the drawing of the object by drawing a dot instead of a detailed
picture. occasionally some simple details are added to create further clarify the
situation. Below i5 an example of a "body."

o
A free body diagram of the jet might look like the one below.

Lift

Drag Thrust

weight

Some examples for fıee body diagıams:

1. An object is at rest on a tabletop. A free-body diagram for this situation

looks like shown on the next page.

145
 \ Fno,

l F,

2. An obje(t is supported by two ropes that attach to the ceiling. A free-body

diagram for this situataon looks like this:

F,"n,

H:
3, An object is free-falling from a high buildin9. Neglect air resistance. A free-
body diagram for this 5ituation look5 like this:

T
4. A rightward force is applied to an object in order to move it across a plane
surface with a rightward acceleration. Consider frictional forces. Neglect air resist-
ance. A free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:

Ffri., F"ro

F glav

1
 5. A skydiver is descending with a constant Velocity. consider air resistance. A
free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:

t ]
lr 9rav

6. The force exerted by the object X which is in the horizontal plane without
friction, on the Y is N, the reaction force developed by Y on the object X i5 Ni

X
Y

The ACceleİation of Gravity

Most offorces which act on a body are Caused by other bodies in contactwith
it. other force, such as fundamental forces, may act on a body without being in
actual Physical contact with it, For example the gravitational force causes bodies to
faıl toward the eanh. we measure it when we find the weight ofan object

y{ vacuum ln a|r
v=0

ıl
J
a

ğ c.--
Fıeely falling

147
 An object falling in the sole influence of 9ravity Is said to be free-fa|ling. since
all objects fall at the same rate in the absence of other forces, objects and people
will experience weightlessne55 in these situation5.

A free-falling object has an acceleration of 9.8 m/s2, downward (on Earth).

Gıavitational Acceleration of Different
This numerical value for the acceleration of a free-falling object is such an impor-
Planets:
tant Value that it is given a special name. ıt is known as the acceleration ofgravity
- the acceleration for any object movin9 under the sole influence ofgravity. A mat-
Planet Gravity (m/s2}
ter of fact, this quantity known as the acceleration of gravity is such an important
Earth 9.81
quantity that physicists have a special symbol to denote it - the symbol 9.
Jupiter 26.0
The numerical value for the acceleration of gravlty is most accurately known as
Mars 3.7 5
9.8 m/s2. There are slight variations in this numerical va|ue (to the second deci-
Mercury 3.6 ]
ma! place) that are dependent primarily upon on altitude. We will occasionally use
Neptune ı 3.3 the approximated value of l0 m/s2 in order to reduce the comp|exity of the many
Pluto 0.61 mathematical tasks that we Will perform with this number

saturn 11.2 g = 9.8 m/s2, downward

[J ra nUs 10.5 ( - 1o m/s2, downward)

Venu5 8.8
The value of the acceleration of gravity (g) is different in different gravita-
tional environments.

The weight of an object is the force of gravity on the object and may be de-
fined as the mass times the acceleration of gravity, w = mg. since the weight is a
force, its 5l unit is the newton.

For an object in free fall, so that gravity is the only force acting on it, then the
eXpression for weight follows from Newton! second law.

\ry = m9 applies at all times, even

when the object is not acceleratin9

Acceleration
weight Force Ma55
of graVity

W F net = m X 9
external
lf the object is in free
falI with no other force
other than 9ravity actin9.

148
 2kg 2kg 2kg
r ı ll
lı t]

Earth: 19.6 N Deep spa(e: 0 !ıl

You might well ask, as many do, "Why do you multiply the ma55 times the
freefall acceleration of gravity when the mass is sitting at rest on the table?'i The
value of g allows you to determine the net gravity force if it were in freefall, and
that net gravity force is the weight. Another approach is to consider "g" to be the
measure ofthe intensity ofthe gravity field in newtons/kg at your location. You can
View the weight as a measure of the mass in kg times the intensity of the gravity
field, 9.8 newtons/kg under standard conditions.

W mg
Weight object = massofobject x accelerdtioı] ofgravity

EIEEEa -
The strength of gravity on the Earth's surface i5 1O newtons per kilogram (m/s2)
calculate the weight of a car with a mass of 'l500 kg.

E@- r
The formula is;

weight=MassXGravity
Weight = l500 x 'l0 = 15000 N

weight i5 measured in newtons.

EEtril
The strength ofgravity on the Moon is 1.6 new-
ton5 per kilogram. lf an astronaut has a ma5s of )
80 kg on Earth, what is the astronaut's mass on
the Moon?

--j

149
l-
 Mass is independent of location, so the astronaut's mas5 on the Moon is the same
a5 the astronautl mas5 on the Earth.
Astronaut's mass on the Moon = Astronautl mass on the Earth m = 80 kg
Mass is measured in kilogıams.

ExERclsE

The surface gravity of Jupiter is about 26 newtons per kilogram. what would be the weight of a Probe of mass 50 kg at Jupiter!
surface?
(1300'

J
N (reaction) 9.3.3.3. The Third Law of Motion: Action and Reaction
Basıcally, what NeMon discovered and Presented with hi§ statement of the
third law of motions the fact that forces always occur in pairs.There is no such thing
ı
as a single, isolated force. When discussing these force pairs, Newton chose to call
one of them the action and the other the reaction. There is no real significance in
these names.
As an example, suppose you are watching two boxers go At each other in the

G (action) ring. one of them exerts a force of 'l0 N on the chin of his opponent. The action
is the force that the fist exerts on the chin. The reaction i5 the force that the chin
Action aıd reaction fo.ces actin8 a box
exerts on the fist.

Action-reaction pairs have three characteristics.

1.The forces are equal in magnitude.

2.They act in opposite direction5.

3. The forces act on different objects: one was on the fist, the other on the
chin.

According to Newtonl third law of motion, when one object exerts a force on
another object, the second object aıso exerts a force on the first object. The force
exerted by the second object is equal to the first force, but is opposite in direction.
Notice that the forces are exerted on different objects.

A Variety ofaction-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. consider the pro-
pulsion of a fish through the water. A fish uses its 6n5 to push water backwards. But
a push on the water wıll only serve to accelerate the water. 5ince forces result from
mutual interactions, the water must al5o be pu5hing the fish forwards, propelling
the fish through the water. The size of the force on the water equals the size ofthe
force on the fish; the direction ofthe force on the water (backwards) is opposite the
direction of the force on the fish (forwards). For every action, there is an equa| (in
size) and opposite (in direction) reaction force. Action-rea(tion force pairs make it
possib|e for fish to swim.

consider the flying motion of birds. A bird flies by use of its wings.The wings
of a bird push air downwards. since forces result from mutual interactİons, the air
must also be pushing the bird upwards. The size of the force on the air equals the
size ofthe force on the bird; the direction ofthe force on the air (downwards) is op-
posite the direction ofthe force on the bird (upwards). For every action, there i5 an
equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make
it possible for birds to fly.

consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car is equipped with
wheels that spin. As the wheels spin, they grip the road and push the road back-
wards. 5İnce forces result from mutual interactions, lhe road must also be pushing
the wheels forward. The size ofthe force on the road equals the size ofthe force on
the wheels (or car); the direction of the force on the road (backwards) is opposite
the direction of the force on the wheels (forwards). For every action, there is an
equa| (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make
it possible for cars to move along a roadway surface.

Action Reaction

The rockett action is to push down on the ground with the force of its powerful engines, and the
reaction is that the ground pushes the rocket upwards with an equal force.

N'(reaction)

lf there i5 no other external force on the

m

body as shown, N equals G. The resultant force

is zero.
G=m9

N (action)

X
Y

/ 151
 As seen, since the weight of X and Y ob.iects is zero with the ground reaction,
the resultant force in the vertical direction becomes zero.The system is accelerated
by the force F.

N, F

The force t applied to an object Vertically downward changes the force that
acts on the ground. N = F + G. ln this case, the reaction force from the surface will
be N,= -(F + G).

J Tı

F
F

N,

As seen, the force F applied to the rope causes the force applied to the floor to
be smaller than the weight ofthe object.

The effect on horizontal space, as seen, the force F applied to the rope causes
the force applied to the floor to be smaller than the object weight.

The effect on horizontal space, lfN<G

N=G-F
ln thi5 case, surface reaction is N'= G - F

15?
 AcTıvıTY

Pull the two balls on the edges of Newton's cradle and leave them at the same
height and at the 5ame time. observe the movement ofthe balls.
|- ,ffir
Tie two dynamometers together. Read the Values on dynamometers while pulling
the dynamometers at the 5ame time.
ffi ı

EXAMPLE

F=40N K
L
5k9
3k

what is the reaction force applied by L on K according to the figure given above on
a friction|ess surface?

@ }

The force 40 N pushes 8 kg mass totally. The acceleration of the objects are the
same. The reaction is that the object L pushes the object K.

40
=q + FK='|5N
FK3

ExERclsE ı

A force of 20 N is exerted horizontally against a I0 kg mass, which is turns

pushes a 2.5 kg mass as in the figure on the right. lf the blocks are on a fric-
x
tionless 5urface, what folce does one block exert on the other? F=20N
10 k9 Y
(4 N)
2.5 k9

153
 9.3.4. FRıcTıoN FoRcE
Friction is Very common force. whenever one object slides over another ob-

r q ject, friction tries to stop the movement. Friction always opposes the movement of
an object.
,,ı
lf there were no friction a movin9 body will continue moving with the same

Ft,'oon
-- speed. Friction is probably one of the most familiar forces in your every day life. lt
is friction, more than any other force, that makes a rolling ball slow and stop. lt is
The frictional force and üe force applied aıe in op-
posite ditection. friction that makes it hard for you to pulı a sled on bare ground.

9.3.4.1 Variables Wheıe the Friction Force Depends

Experiments show u5 a few things about friction.

1. Friction acts parallel to the surface which are sliding over one another, and
in the direction opposite to that of the motion.
2. Frictional force depends upon the material and the character of the rub-
bing surfaces. When the rubbing surfaces are smooth the friction small, when the
ı._,! _ rubbing surfaces are rough the friction is large.
i5

Frictiona! force dePends on üe materia.l of rub-

bing §urface§. 3. Frictional force depends on the weight of the rubbing objects. Heavier
bodies produce larger frictional force, when rubbed together.

ıl
N

.-

T
?

N=G G N=2G 2G

4. Frictional force does not depend much on the size of the rubbing areas as
long as the weights remain the same.

Suppose a heavy box resting on a horizontal surface. lf no horizontal force is

exerted on the box no friction acts on the box. But if you try to pull the box, it does
not move although you are exerting a horizontalforce on it.

When we apply a horizontal force F, as shown in the figure to the block, the
block will remain stationary if F is not too large. The force that keeps the block from
moving is called the frictional force, f. As long as the block is not moving f > F. since
the block is stationary. we call this frictional force as the force of static friction, f,.

154
 static friction refers to a force paralle| to the two surfaces that can arise when
they are not 5liding.

lf we increase the magnitude of F enou9h, the block will eventually 5lip. When
the block is on the verge of slipping, f, is maximum. When F exceeds fr,.",, , the
ı_İ+
block moves and accelerates. when the block is in motion, the retarding frictional
force becomes less than fs(max). When an object slides along a rough surface the
force of kinetic friction, fk acts on the object, in the opposite to direction of the
object's Velocity.
Ff

N
I F =0
object moves at constant velocity.
Pulling a heaıy box

l->
F
F
İ

w=m9
F

-
ıf F = fk, the object moves with constant velocity.

The force of friction is written as F=k.N

where, f is the force of friction, k is the coefficient of friction, and N is the

normal force.

The constant'k'depends on the kind ofthe kind of the two surfaces. Accord-
in9 to equation given above, coefficient friction is the ratio of two forces; friction
force and the normal force. since k is the ratio of the two quantities of the same
unit, it does not have a unit.
DlD YoU KNow?
F
ks + F.=k,N ana l<*=} + Fk=kkN
N Friction forces between two objects come
into Play os the objects touching each other
Friction force (N)
slide over each othel.

The frictional force is caused by intermolecu-

lar forces thot conüct the bodies.

The fricİion force is directly proporİionol to

the reoctıon force.

The mathemotical model of the friaion for-

5TATlc KlNETlc
ce, Fs= k. N is expressed.
FRlcTloN FRlcTloN
0 Applied force (N) For objects, the stotic fridion coeffıcient is
no motion sliding ----------> grcater than the kinetic friction coefficient.

Friction force versus applied force graph.

,ı
55
 EXPERİMENT 2

change of static Fİiction Foİ<e

1kg
Equipment

A mass of 1 kg object
Mass of250 grams (5 pieces).
Pulley
Rope
250 9
ı
Table
The surface is rough board ı

procedure ı ı
1. Placethe rough long board on the table.
2, Attach a mass of 1 kg mass to a rope that you will pass through the pulley by fixing the pulley to the table. Place the mass
of ı kg mass on the board.
3. Attach the mass ofthe 250 9 mass to the other end ofthe rope and observe if it starts moving. lfthe movement did not
start, how many neMons should the frictional force affect the mass of 1 k9 on the table? (9 = 1o m/52 is taken.)
4. Repeat the experiment until the beginning of the movement, attaching a second one under the mass of 250 9.

Note how many newtons the ma9nitude of the frictional force on the table before the movement of the mass you attach
move is.

Questions
1. ln thIs experiment, the weight of 250 g (0.25 kg) masses suspended when the friction of the pulley and the weight ofthe
rope are neglected determines the magnitude ofthe friction force.

weiqht ofeach object is

G=mg
G=025x1O
G=2.5N.
According to tha,

1. What is the friction force when the first object with a mass of 25o grams han9s on the end of the rope?
2. How many newton is the frictional force when the second mass is connected to the first one?
3. How did the static friction force chan9e as the weight ofthe suspended masses increased?

I 156
 static and kinetic coeflicient offriction for somesurfaces.

Materials in contact coefficient of static friction coefficient of kinetic friction

Glass on g|ass 0.95 0.40
steel on steel (lubrıcated) 0.15 0.09
stell on steel (unlubricated) 0.70 0.60
wood on wood 0.50 0.30
wood on stone 0.50 0.30
Rubber tire on dry concrete 1 .00 0.70
Rubber tire on wet concrete 0.70 0.50
Leather on wood 0.50 0.40
Teflon on steel 0.04 0.04
copper on steel 0.53 0.36
lce on ice 0.] 0 0.03
synoVialjoints (in human limbs) 0.0l 0.01

Lubricated ball bearing < 0.0,| < 0.01

EXAMPLE }
A wooden Crate is pulled with l 2F and 3F forces, as shown in the figure. compare
the magnitude5 ofthe frictional forces, since they do not move in three cases.

-------+ F 2F ü3F

(a) (b) (c}

@
Since the crates do not move, in all three cases the friction force is equal to the
magnitude ofthe pulling force.
F,u = F, Fr5 = 2F, Fr. = 3F

Correct comparison offriction forces is, Fsc>Fsb>Fsa

ı EXERclsE
F
The friction forces Ft, F2 and F3 affect the
bodies of identical m masse, which are Q
moved by forces in the magnitude F on m F m m

horizontal surfaces where the friction co-

eff cient is the same. comPare the magni- F
tudes ofthe forces F,, F, and Fr.

157
 some advantages and harms offrictions

REsEARcH
,.* .iE -.-ğı=
lnvestigate the daily life odvantages and .,-:,
disadvontages of friction force. Make ı
your research results a poster presenta-

l
tion. Hongyour poster on the closs ponel.
ıı 7

Friction force is required for many actiütic§.

J
hfu
Although it is often a nulsance, friction is also very useful. Our lives depend on

f, the friction at the brakes and tyres of cars and bicyc{es. A car will not go easily on
the street ifthere were no friction between the tyre and the street. The car will skid
\ this way and that way all the time. on icy roads if no chains are put on the tyres the
car 5kid5 all the time.

snow tyres are used or chains are put on the tyres to increase the friction, and
preVent 5kidding.

Air friction slows the parachute of a falling man so that he can land safely.
'! ı

r
J
ı
,\ı
.l
)
) r ]

l \
l
E
,-
Grea§e or machine oil is applied to üe sliding
\ §
l
Parts of machinery
\ı
\ )

cars can easily slide on icy İoads. caİ tiİe chains installed to increase friction only.

LOOK AT LıNKS
To reinforce the concept of friaion force, you
can follow the simulation ot the following net-
work oddress.
You are able to walk only because offriction with the floor (try walklng on wet
ice!). Knots in string and the threads in your clothes are held together by friction.
Nails and screws are held in wood by friction. what thin9s do you think would hap-
pen if there was suddenly no frictaon at all in this room.

the httpt/phet.colorado.edu/en/simulotlon/ Friction i5 harmful in many machines. while a machine is working parts rub
fuldlon again5t each other. continuos rubbing wears out the parts, also some ofthe force
we put to make the machine work is used up to overcome the friction.

158
 CHECKYOURSELF

A. True and False

w.ite"T" neaİ ea(h one ofthe ctatements if it is true oİ"F" if lt is false.

1. ( ) ln physics, ve|ocity and speed mean the same thlng.

2.( ) The position versus time graph ofan object movin9 with constant Velocity is a straight line.

3.( ) The rate of change of speed of an object is called acceleration.

4.( ) The fundamental forces are gravity, the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force and frictional force.

5.( ) lf the Velocity ofa car is increasing by 5 m/s in each second, then we can say that its acceleration ıs 5 m/s'.

6.( ) Force is a vector quantity.

7.( ) Newton is the unit of displacement.

8.( ) The strong nuclear force is responsible for binding of nuclei.

9.( ) The acceleration of a system is directly proportional to the force applied and to the total mass of the system

10. ( ) You are able to walk because offriction with the floor.

B. Fill in the Blanks.

Fill in the blanks with the woıds given in the box.

a. opposes b. acceleration c. reference d. speed e. displacement f. inertia g. velocity

h. dynamometer i.9ravitational j. different k. acceleration l. directly m. freely falling n. foıce

'ı . ...,......,....,............,.......... i5 how far the obje(t is from its startin9 point.

2 can be defined as the rate at which an object covers distance

3. The unit of is m,/s'.

4 is used for measurinq force

5. The ,.,,....,.,..,....,....,.,.......,...., force is a weak, but Very long ranged force

6. An object falling in the sole influence ofgravity i5 said to be

7. Newton's first law of motion states that objects tend to keep their state of motion.This law is sometimes named

8. lf a net ...........-..........,.........,...... acts on a n object, it will cause an .,....,.......,......,....,.,.......... of the object.

9. Action-reaction forces act on substances.

10. Friction always the movement of an object.

159
 C. Pıoblem About Matteı

] . Under what Conditions will the magnitude of the dis- tİyto drive a laıge nail into haİd wood ü.rith
lf you were to
Pla(€ment foİ a moving object be the same as the dis- a light hammeı, the hamme] would bounce up at each
tance it tıayels? blow. Explain this in terms of N€wton's third law.

7. How do the forces of an action and ]ea(tion Compare?

2. A person holds a textbook at a]m's length. ldentify al| the

foıCes acting.

8. whi(h law of motion is illustİated by each of the follo-

wing?

a. A person jumps to a dock from boat. The boat moves

away from the dock.
3. A t]affic light is supported by two (ables. ldentify all th€ b. A galloping horse comes to a sudden stop. lts rider i5
forces acting on the light. thrown over the head of the horse and lands on the
ground.
c. A ping-pong ball can be accelerated faster than a golf ball
when hit with the same force.

4. ls an object'sinertia mo]e (lo§ely İelated to its mass oİ to

its weight? Explain.
9. An ant moves a distance of 36.5 cm in 7.3 5 what i5
its speed?
(5 cm/s)

5. You can remove the dust fİom a (oat by shaking it. could 10. What is the velocity of an airPlane that expe]iences a

you shake out the dust in free spa<e in the absence of displacement of 58o m in 2.5 s?
gİavity? Explain.
(232 m/s)

1
11. 1 3. Dıaw a position - time gİaPh fo] a runn€İ who moves at
5 m/5 fo] 10 s, then at 2 m/s for 20 s, then at -9 m/s foİ
B c D E 10 s.

The car in the figure moves between points AD with a con-

stant Velocity of 15 m/5 and between points DE with a con-
stant Velocity of 5 m/s.

what is thĞ average Yelocİty of the car? (Distances

between points are equal to x.)
14. A <aı has a velo<i§ of 105 km/h. what is its displa<e-
(rom/s)
ment if it tİavels at this velo(ity for 2.5 h?

(262.5 km)

'l 2. The following position - time gİaph depi(ts th€ motion

of a joggeı moving along a stİaight path.

x (m)
15. A car moves along a straight road at a constant velocity of
75 km/h for 4 h, stops for 2 h, and then drives in the reverse
c
750 direction at the original speed for 3 h.
B

500 a. Plot a Velocity time graph for the car.

D
b. Find the area under the curve for the first 4 h. what this
250 represent?
c. Explain how to use the graph to find the distan(e the car
time (§) is from its starting Point at the end of 9 h.
100 2oo 300 400 500

Eıamine the gİaph to answe] the following questlons.

a. when was thejogger running the faster? 16. x (m)
b. What was the fanhest point reached by the jogger?
c
c. When, if ever, did thejogger rest? ]0 B

d. state thejoggert displacement for the folllowing time

intervals.
i. 0 to 200 s. 5
ii. l00 s to 300 s.

iii.300 s to 500 s.

iV_ 0 to 5oo s tame (s)

e. Find the Velocity for each ofthe lettered sections A, B. c
0
2 4 6 a 1o 12

and D.
f. What was the totaI distance trave|led by thejogger? This position- time gİaph shows the positions ofseveİal

İunneİs at various times. Deteımine the v€locity ofeach

(o. A, b.75o m, c. c, d.75o m,25o m, -75o m,0,
ofthe ıunners.
e.5 m/r,2.5 m/r, o, -3.75 m/s, f. 5oo m)
' (A: o.5 m/s,8: o.83 m/s, c:0,6 m/s)

161
 This porition - time 9raph İepresentthe motion ofa dog 20 X (m)

runni9 a|ong a İailway track.

]0
x (m) 8
6
4
6 2
t (s)
4 0
1234 5
2

0 t Position Versus time graph is given for an object.

1234567a
{5)

Find the velocity of the obje<t.

a. what is the do9l position at 4 s?
b. what is the dog's displacement between 2 s and 5 s? (1.6 m/5)

c. What is the velocity ofthe doq?

(o.4 m, b,3 m, c, l m/s)

,l8. x (km)

140
120
100
80
60 The velocity of an automobile changes over an 8 s time peri-
40 od a5 shown in the table.
20
0 t(h)
0.5 ı.5 2 Time (s) Velocity (m/s) Time (5) Velocity (m/s)
-2o 1

40 0 0 5 20
1 4 6 20
2 8 7 20
The position time graph above represents the motion of a
car along a section of straight highway. The car starts south 3 12 8 20
of a town at a marker labeled 40 km [5]. Two hours |ater it i5 4 16
located at a marker north of town marked 'l20 km [Nl.

a. what is the displacement of the car during the 2 h a. Plot the Velo(ity - time graph of the motion.
period?
b. Determine the diplacent of the car during the first 2 s.
b. What is the velocity of the car for the 2 h interval?
(. what dIsplacement does the car have during the first 4
(. At what t|me does the car pass the 0 marker?
5.

(d. 60 km, b. ao km/h c. o.5 h)

d. What displacement does the car have during the entire 8
' s?

e. Find the slope ofthe line between

, what velo(ity is İequİred foİ a truck moving along the
t = 0 s and t = 4 s. what does this slope represent?
highway to expeıience a displacement of 400 m in a
time of 20 s. Expİess your answer in meters per se<ond
f. Find the slope of the line between t = 5 s and t = 7 s. what
does this slope indicate?
and in kilom.tr€s per houı.

(20 m/s, 72 km/h) (b.8 m,..32 m, d, 1ı0 m, e.4, ac., ı. o, dcc = o)

162
22. what is the acceleİation of a o.25 kg ball that is kİCked Deteİmine the acceleıations which result when a 18 N
with a fo]Ce of 100 N? net force is applied to a 6 k9 objed and then to a 9 k9

(4oom/s') object.
(6kg
- q= j 115ı,9 kg r a=2 m/s')

23. A mass of4 kg is accelerated by a force of 20 N.

what is the a((ele]ation if there is no fıi<tion? lf a f]icti-

onal foıce of 8 N is acting, what is the acceleration?
15 m/s', 3 m/s')

28. A net force of 25 N is exerted on a box to cause it to accele-

rate at a rate of 5 m/s2.

Deteımine the mass of the box.

24. A force of 40 N accelerates a 5 kg blo(k at 6 m/s' along a
(5 ks)
horizontal surface.

How la19€ i3 the frictional foı<e?

(1o N)

A sled ofweight 98 N is pulled across an icy, frictionless lawn

25. A 8 k9 object is moving across a friction-free surface with a by a boy who pulls with a force of 5 N on the sled.
constant velocity of 2 m/s.
what is a((eleİation of the sled? (g = 9.8 N/kg)

what is the horizontal for(€ ne(essa]y to maintain this (o,5 m/5')

state of motion?
(o)

30. A bicyclist can accelerate from 0 km/h to l0 km/h in 2 s.

26, A foıce acts on a 10 kg mass and reduces İts veloci§
fİom 16 m/s to 12 m/s İn ıOs.FindtheforceİnN.
(4
similarly, an automobile can accelerate from 80 km/h to
90 km/h in 2 s.
N) Which vehicle is a(Celeİating at a fasteİ rate? ExPlaın.
3l. Suppose that a sled is accelerating at a rate of 4 m/s2. 35. A track of mass 2000 k9 is b]aked to a stop in 20 m fıom
an |nitial velo<i§ of 36 km/h. How much fo]ce was İe-
quired?
lf the net foıc€ is tripled and the mass is doubled, then
what is the new a(celeıation of the sled? (5ooo N)

(6 m/s')

32. A 2oo0 k9 ca. is sPeeding at 72 km/h. Determine the re-

tarding force of bıakes required to stop it in 30o m on a 36. A for(e of 8ooo N ads for 15 s on a mass of 50 kg.
level ıoad.

(1333 N) a. what is the acceleration?

b. what i5 the Velocıty at the end of 'l5 s?

(a. 16 mB, b.24o m/s)

33. The strength of the Earth's gravity Varies slightly over the
Earth from 9.8'l N/kg at the poles to 9.78 N/kg at the equa-
tor.

What would be the Ghange in weight of a person of mass

60 kg who went fİom the equator to the Noİth Pole? 37. A person has a mass of 60 k9. How much do they weigh
on Earth, if the gİavitational field stİength is 1o ı{/k9?
(1.8 N)
(600 N)

34. ln a physics lab, two students aPply a 45 N rightward force

to a 3 k9 cart to accelerate it across a horizontal surface at a
rate of 4 m/s'.

38. How much would the same peİlon weigh on the Moon. if
Determine th€ fİi(tion force acting upon the cart. the gravitational field strength is 1.6 N/kg?
(33 N) (96 N)

164
t D. Multiple Choi<e
' The motion of a (aİ ıs plotted on a distan(e - time graph, 5. An emPty truck whose mags is 3ooo kg has a maximum
the hoİizontal st]ai9ht line means. ac(eleration of 4 m/s'. what is its maximum acceleİation
when it is caırying a 5O0O kg load?

A)The car is movin9 at constant speed.

A) 1 .5 m/s' 8\ 2.4 m/s' c) 3 m/s'
B)The car is moving at constant Velocity.
D) 6.6 m/s' E)7 m/s'
c)The car is at rest.
D)The car is movin9 at constant acceleration
E)The car is in steady motion.

6. As an object freely falls, its

A) Velocity increases
f . on a distance - time graPh, a straight |ine sloping down- B) acceleration increases
ward to the İight means C) Velocity decreases
D) acceleration decreases

A)The speed of car is decreasin9 at constant rate.

E) Velocity doesn't change.

B) The Velocity of car is decreasing at constant rate.

c)The car is in steady motion.

D)The car is movin9 at constant deceleration.
E) The car is moving at changing deceleration.

7. A heavy object & a light object are dropped at the same time
from rest in Vacuum.

]. on a speed - time gİaPh, a straİght line sloping upward to

The heavier obiect .eaches the gİound
the ]ıght means
A) sooner than the lighter object.
A) The car is in steady motion. B) later than the lighter object.
C) at the same time as the lighter object.
B)The car moves at constant sPeed.
D) doesn't fall in Vacuum.
c) The car is s|owing down. E) none of these.
D)The car moves at constant acceleration.

E) The car is moving at changing acceleration.

4. A tİuck tıavels 24 km in 15 mın. what is its aveıage spe-

ed? 8. How long does a Car with an a(C€|eration of 4 m/sı take
from 36 km/h to 72 km/h?
24/15 km/h B) 24 km/h C) 48 km/h
^)
D) 96 km/h E) 6 km/h A) 2.5s B)6s c) 9s D)12s E)l8s
165
a,
i. Which one of the following is the gıaph of a unifoımly ac- An object i5 propelled along a straight line path by a force.
celerated motion?

A) a B) a |fthe net foİ(e we]e doubled, its ac(eleration would

A) quadruple B) halve c) stay the same

D) double E) none of these
t t

c) a D) a

lf the mass of an object does not Change, a <onstant net

force on the obje(t PİoduCes Constant
t t

A)Velocity B) acceleration c) displacement

E) a D) speed E) all of these.

An obje(t following a strai9ht line at a (onstant speed

1 0. ln which gıaph, the objed is the neaİest dirtance to the
startin9 point?
A) has zero acceleration
A) v (m/s) B) v (m/s)
B) has a net force acting upon it in the direction of motion
c) must be moving in a va(uum in the absence of air drag.
4 D) has no force acting on it.
4
E) has a constant Velocity.
(, t(s)

c) v (m/s) D) v (m/s)

4 4
l 14. A raindrop falling through air reaches a terminal velocity
before hitting the ground.

,l 23 4
t(S)
123 (,
At terminal velocity, the fİictional force on the İaindrop
E) v (m/s) ls

A) zero.
B) |ess than the weight of the raindrop.
t(s) c) greater than the weight of the raindrop.
D) equal to the weight of the raindrop.
E) not enough information is given
4
166
15. x (m) ı6. V (m/s)

20 40

20

10 t (s)
0
2 4 6 8l0 12

t (s)
] 2 3 4 velocity - time gİaph of a moving object is §hown in the
figure. what is the distance which is covered by this ob-
jed after 12 5?
Displacement - time 9raph of a car is shown in Figure.

A) 220 m B) 240 m c) 260 m D) 280 m E) 340 m

whİGh one of the following graphs shows YĞlocity - time
graph ofthis car?

A) V (m/5) B) V (m/5)

,|5
15
,i0
10 T--l
|,
5
li 5
0 0
_5
,l
2 34 t s) _5
2 4 t (s)

-10 -10
-]5 -15

c) v (m/s) D) V (m/s)

15 15 17 V (m/s)

10 10
4 L
5 5
3
0 0
4 t 4 t
,|

(s 2 3 (s 2
_5 _5 N
,l

-10 _10
_l5 0
-15 24 6 8 ,l0 t (s)

E) v (m/s)
Velocity - time graph ofthree object i5 shown in fi9ure.

15

10 Which one of the followign is true, for the diplacement3

5
ofthe obje<ts?
0
_5 A)\>xt>x^, B)x.=x*=x* C)xr=1>o
_,l0
D)xL>xM>XN E)xM>xı>xL
_l5

167
18. The Velocity-time graph of a moving object is shown in the 20. The velocity-time graphs Velocity
fi9ure. of the vehicles k and L
2v K
v (m/s) which are moving on lin-
ear path and side by side
at t = 0 are given in the
69ure.
0 Time
t (s)
Accordingly, in the 0-t
L
time anterval

l. K and L Vehicles are moving away from each other.

Which one of the following i5 the acceleration - time ll. A constant net force effects on L.
gıaPh of the object? lll. The direction of the net force which effects on k ıs the
A) a B) a 5ame as the direction of movement ofthe vehicle.

whiCh of the statements given above is/aİe tİue?

t t
A) Only l B) only ll c) l and lll
D) ll and lll E) |, ll and lll

c) D) a

t t

21. Velocity - time graph of an objectwhich movesonalinear

path is shown on the figure.
E) a
Velocity (m/5)

t 2v

0 T]me (s)
2t 4t
19. Which one of the following is a (orrect definition of dis-
pla(.ment?
Accordingly, how is the relationship between th. mag-
A) distance from a fixed point
nitudes at, a2 and a3 of a(Cele.ations of the object in o-t,
t-2t and 2t-4t time inteİvals?
B) distance moved from a fixed point
c) distance from a fixed Point in a given direction
A)ar >a2>a3 B)a2>a' >a3 C)a' >a2,a3=0
D) distance moved in a given direction
E) distance from the origin D)a, >ar,ar=0 E)ar>ar>a,

1
 kı

l
\
7
\ı

n
EıtLpĞ
Z l,
.L
I
l

\ "?ft# [- ıl7,

UN|T4
 \

ı ,l

ffi
]
E !
T ü J .)
*-- T-'-
\--_} .-.->. ---r_--r-_
'\ ->- -<

9.4.1. woRıç ENERGY AND PowER

9.4.1.1. The ReIation between Work, Energy and Power Concepts
9.4.1.2. Cal<ulation of Mechanical Work and Me<hanical Power
9.4.2. MEGHANıcAt ENERGY
9.4.2.1 . The variables of which the Kinetic Energy of the Displacement, the Potential
Energy of Gravity and the Potential Energy of Elasticity are Dependent
9.4.3. coNsERvATıoN AND TRANSFoRMATıoN oF ENERGY
4.3.3.1. Energy is Conserved While lt Transforms from One Form to Another.
9.4.3.2. Where Our Body Spends Energy
9.4.4. EFFıcıENcY
9.4.4.1 . Efficiency Concept
9.4.4.2. Suggestions to lmprove Effi<iency
9.4.5. ENERGY souRcEs
9.4.5.1. Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Sources
 9-4-1 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

9.4.1.1 The Relatİon between Worh Energy and Power

Concepts

ı
I

( ,

The people who work in different ways

How much work can you do in a day? You may think you know how to answer
this question, but your answer is not likely to satisfo a scientist. ln everyday lan-
guage the word work is used to describe any activity in which muscular or mentaı
effort is exerted.

lmagine holding a heavy bucket ofwater straight out from your body at arm's
length for a couple of hours. You will be probably be quite tired at the end and you
willthink that you have done a lot ofwork. Even though yourtired muscles indicate
a lot of work has been done. We shall shortly see that according to the physic5 defi-
nition ofwork, you have not done any at all.

G
Force t ı
+V
m

Ifa force is applied on an object in üe direction of disPlacement work is done.

work in the scientific sense involves motion. A force must be exerted on an

object, causing the ob.ject to move in direction of the force. work is done when a
force acts on matter and changes its motion.

lf the man in the figure is moving the box we say he is doing work. He is do-
ing work only if there is movement again5t an opposing force. The opposing is the
often friction or gravity. The man can only do this work if he has some energy.

@
 Where there is no motion there i5 no work.To the scienti5t, holding up a book
i5 not work because the book is not moved but only supported.Work is done when
a force causes a body to move. or, stated another way, work is done when a force is
exerted through a distance.

woRK
is done on an for constant force
object when in the direction of motion

For(e W=Fx
acts on it in the for constant force with a
component in direction
direction of motion t> is NoT done of motion
when there is
E-

n
Fü no motion
!Y=FCos()x
ı
or has a component d or when the force
in the direction of is perpendicular
motion to the motion ı
d ,
F <_ d -----+
q

d
t
REoulR€s REo E
F EFFoRT auT CF T
No woRX A}lo Rx

5itting and looking at computer screen is not work. Tapping on key board and
making the keys move is work. Your fingers are applyin9 a force and moving the
keys. Drivin9 to your job is not work because you just sit, but the energy your car

f *l
ı t
Jı,İa

tr: 4
t-._J
7s- ,

/
D
a
t,-
ry
§

7r ı[

A sfudent sfudying on the table is not doing work but young people plrying volleyball aıe doin8 work in Physics
n İ

@
engine uses to move the car does work. you have to exert a force and move some-
thing to qualify as doin9 work.

lmagine that you are holding a brick above the ground. Your arm is straight
out in front of you and it's pretty tough to hold. slowly, your arm gets tired, the
brick feels heavier and heavier, and you finally have to stop to let your arm rest.
Even though you put forth a lot of effort to hold the brick up, did you do any work
on the brick? Nope.The brick again after your arm had rested, that would be work.

Tran sfer of Energy

work transfers energy from one object to another. We have already talked
about moving objects. what else? work also linked to the expansion and compres-
sion ofgases.When a gas tries to expand, it exerts an inCreasing force on the surfac-
es ofa containeı and may make those surfaces move.The gas would then be doing
work and transferring energy to the container. lf you heat a balloon (carefully), the
molecules of air in the balloon gain energy and strike the inner wal|s ofthe balloon
with greater force. Because the inner surface ofthe balloon is flexible, that surface
move outward. The air does work, and transfers energy to the balloon. lf you com-
press a balloon, you do work, and transfer energy to the air inside the balloon.
ln the case of a constant force, work is a scalar product of the force acting on
an object and the displacement caused by that force. Though both force and dis-
placement are ve(tor quantities, work ha5 no direction due to the nature of a scalar
product (or dot product) in Vector mathematics.

T
_l
\____] 7,
F
L_J F

Ax

The displacement of the car undeı the influence of force

Direction ofthe motion

.',*

F K :+ F

Ax

@
 A horizontal force F is applied on a box as shown in the figure on the previous
page. The box is displaced by Ax which is paral|el to the force applied. The work
done on the box by F is,

W= F. Ax
|fthe force is in neMon, and the distance is in meter then the work is meas-
ured in joule, often written J.
'l J is the work done when a force of 1 N moves through 1 m.

The area under the line in force-displacement 9raph 9ives the work done by
the force.

Units Force (N)

Symbol Quantity unit

F force applied newton (N)

Area = work
displacement meter (m)
^X
joule (J)
work
-.. Nxm=J Ax (m)

lf motion with force acting on the body is in the same direction, work done
is positive.

A box in frictional surface

on the frictional surface, the force F and the frictional force work on a box
drawn with the force F. when the box receives the x path, the work done by the
for(e F is computed by the relation, w = F.x. The work done by the friction foİce is
calculated by the following relation.

W Fs .x
sınce the friction force is opposite to the direction of motion, the work offric-
tion force is negative. The work done by the net force on the box is calculated by
the following relation.

W=(F-Fr).x

@
 woİk done to lift an object with a mass of m in a place where gravity is 9 can
be calculated by the following İelation.

ı-]ı-
W=m.9 h
t1) ı
lf the force acting on an object does not cause the displacement of the ob-
ject, it does not do the work.

Direction of the motion

................._
F F

Raising a caı from gıound up

The force peıpendicular to the road, does not do work.

F 7t"
F F
t

rl

Ax

While the person is carrying the handbag, the force F applied perpendicular
to the road does not do work.

A force applied in the Vertical direction does works if it causes the object to
travel in the same direction.
LOOK
ı AT LİNKS ı
K
You can follow the videos on the folıowing ge-
neral network for the subjed expression about
wolk concept in physics.
The forces F and G woık in h
h https!/qr.9uqa55db
F

175
 Energy

is the capacity
for doing
ENERGY appears in

is constrained by
Woık the fundamental Multipıe
principle Foİms
which for objects
in motion includes

conseıyation Eneı9y
ofenergy and is examples
Kınetıc expressed in
Ene]9y
which
and may appears in iiuhiple
include units
Many guises
potential
Ene]gy inClud ing
the mechanical

due to due to

work - Eneİgy
PrinciPle
Elastic
Gİavity for<es

What i5 energy? When you have a lot of energy you can run farther or faster;
you can jump higher. objects, as well as people, can have energy. A stone falling
of a high ledge has enough energy to damage a car roof. one way to summarize
İ the examples of energy given above that an object has energy if it can produce a
F ı change in itself or in its surrounding

No machine can operate without fuel. Just as gasoline i5 the fuel foı auto-
mobi|es, food is the fuel for the human body. Food gives you ability to do work; it
gives you energy. Energy is the ability to do work. To do work, energy is needed. lt is
needed to move a car, to lift a skier up a slope, or to push a car up a hill. ln science,
work and energy have precise meanings, which must not be confused with their
Food gives you energy.
everyday meanings.

suppose that you do some work on a large rock, by liftin9 it straight up into
the air You have used some of your energy supply. But that energy has not van-
i5hed.lt ha5 not been"used up'; but transferred (most ofit) to the rock. And the rock
can now do something it could not do before. lf you let go of it, it willfall back to its
original position, and, as it fall5, it can do work. lt mi9ht be made to push down on

@
a lever, lift|ng another object or pull it along the ground. Each time work is done,
energy is transferred from the object doing the work to the object being worked §)'
on, work is the transfer ofenergy.

Energy is necessary for things to change. All living things require available c
energy to stay alive; humans get such energy from food, along with the oxygen
needed to metabolize the food. Human civilization requires a continual supply of
ı
B
energy to function; energy resources such as fossil fuels are a Vital topic in eco-
/
nomics and politics. Earth's climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy
J
Earth re(eiVes from the sun, and are delicately sensitive to changes in the amount
I
received.

Energy is necessary for things to change. All living things require avai|able
t r \
-/

energy to stay alive; humans get such energy from food, along with the oxygen When falling object A (girl) does work on lever
needed to metabolize the food. Human civilization requires a continual supply of B, which does work on object C (boy) , energy is
tİansfe..ed ftom A to B to c.
energy to function; energy resources such as fossil fuels are a Vital topic in eco-
nomics and politics. Earth's climate and ecosystem are driven bythe radiant energy
Earth receives from the sun, and are delicately sensitive to changes in the amount
received.

ıı

ri
,,l
-ı .,\

l
/I

The water that accumulates in the dams has Po- The car in motion has kinetic energy wind turbines generate electricity from mo-
tential energy. tion energy.

İ
I
\

]
a 7 \

7 l \
Yl
<.i ı
d
T
- a

Heat eneİgy is released by üe combustion of sub- Solar panels transfoım light energy into heat en- In filament lamps, üe electric energy tuİn§ into
itance§. ergy. heat energy and ligbt energy.

@
 n

Ja ı ıı-r- )

L---
a. /
vibration of air molecules allows the sound en- The stored chemical energy in accumula-
ergy to spread by waves. tors produces elect.icity.

All energy can be measured in'joules'l

r------E
\
r ı. 3
ü,
\
r7t /
|,.' ]
l,-
/ _

Some Types of Energy

Potcntıaı Eneıgy: The energy that an object has as a result of its position ol
state.some examples of potential energy include: chemical, elastic,9ravitational
magnetic,...

Kinetl( Encrgy: The energy that appears in form of an object's motion.

5ome examples of kinetic energy include: sound, electrical, light,...

Thermal Eneıgy: The total energy of the particles that make up a ma5s. Ther.

mal energy is an interna| energy.

HGat |t is a transfer ofenergy from one part ofa substance to another or frorr
one object to another, because ofdifference in temperature.

Electıomagnetic ]adıatıon is a form of energy.The light that we see i5 a typ(

of eIectromagnetic radiation

Chemi<al Energy: The potential energy held in covalent bonds between at

oms in a molecule. Food is essentially stored Potential energy.

Nuclea, Energy: Energy that is released when the nuclei of atoms are spli
(fission) or fused together (fusion).

Electİical Eneİgy: lt is the energy that runs our appliances etc...

@
 r rİ
ı 1 } ..;ı
.ı_ I \
i
*----
l-
i g"§ i'El ı
ı ı
Electrical energy is used in our daily lives in many aleas.

Power

is the
PowER is measured in

sound
Rate of may be lnten5ity
Doing woİk used in

or equiValently
the Mechanical ught .nd
ApPlications Viılon
Rate of using
Ene79y

since one must

use an amount of ElectriCal
ApPliCationr ElaCtrom.9n€tlc
wıve3
Eneİ9y

Heıl
equal to the
APplıcations
accomplished

Work

People usually talk about the power of man, animals and machines. ln daily
life we hear about powerful cars, nucıear power or the power of motors. so what
i5 the power? "Poİyeİ" has a special meaning in physics,like "wolk" and "eneryy'i
The following examples may be useful in understanding the meaning ofthe word
"power".

1 l|l
 uNlTs
§ symbol Quantity Unit
work J

t time 5

p power
(watt)
-a aVerage Velocity m/s

Let us suppose that we are constructing a building and there are two work-
ers to Carry up 200 bricks, which make 600 k9, to third floor of an apartment,
which is 6 m high from the ground. one of the workers can carry up the brick in
one hour, the other one in two hour5. lf we ask which of them is more powerful, the
answer will be the first one. Because he does the same work in a shorter time than
the other. ln scientific terminology, power is the work done or energy spent in a
DlD YoU KNow? unit time. lt can be stated as in the followang two equations:

Power is the work done or energy spent

_
POWer
work doneOr _
POWer =
Energy spent
in o unit time. =
Time taken Time taken
The power concept is found by the math-
emoticalmodeıP =W /t. W
in symbols, P= ----
The power unit is watt. - I

The unit of power in the Sl unit system is

_ w FAx
P=-=-=|--
_Ax
At At At
J/s.
P=F.vrr"
The 'l J enerw conversions in 1 s is called
ı watt (W).
lf work is measured in joules, and time in seconds, then the power is meas-
ured in joules per second (J/s) or watts (w). Larger powers are given in kilowatts
(kW). l kW = 1000 W

4.1.2. cal(uıatao cz
Power

ExAMPLE

A 50 N force acts on an object in the direction of motion.

what is the work done by this for<e afteİ it Covered 45 m?

ir),,ü.,irıı

W=F.Ax
W=50.45=2250J

@
ffiEr
F (N)
A Varying force acts on
object as shown in the
30
figure..
20
what is the work done ,l0
by this for(e as the ob-
6 8 ]0
je(tmovesfromx=oto 0 X (m)
24
x=10 m? _10

_20

it,J,-ııııı ı

The area under the line of force-time graph gives work done. A5 we see from the
graph, the first part of the work is positive, but second part is negatiVe. When we
add these two shaded areas, we find total work. That i5

4_
w = 30.
ta.?-] = ı2o - 1o0 = 20 J

GIIEEIEa,
A box is pushed 10 m along a horizontal floor with a force of 'l00 N against a fric-
tional force of 60 N.

How much work is done by the applied force?

How much work is done by the fİiction forc€?
How much work is done by the net force?

1,,.ıJ,-ı r-iı ı ı

Wr = F. A( = 100. l0 = 1000.J.

w2=Ff.A(=60.10=600J.
W3 = Fnet. Ax = ('l00 - 60) . 10 = 400 J

@E
A man lifts a brick of mass 5 kg from the flooı to a shelf 2 m high.

How much work is done?

1s1]
 )' j\L)rI )
I
The opposing force in this case is the weight of the brick. A mass of 5 kg weighs
50 N.

work done = Force x distance moved

w = F. = 50.2 = 100 J
^x

ExERclsE
How much work is done in pulling a wagon 50 m a|ong a leve| road by a force of 20 N applied to the handle?

(1000 J)

ExAMPLE

A horse is pulling a cart with a force of 250 N

by 20m in 50s.

Find the power ofthe ho]se.

,
?
-.r İü
.l

E@
P=W=F.x_250.20_]oow
tt50

ExAMPLE
-

Find the poweİ ofan engine capable of lifting 15oo N to a height of 5 m in 1o s.

@
x+
p=FxT 5 ojl5=75ow o,
, =75
P='|500x Z99=16o
75o
 EXERcısE )

what horsepower engine i5 required to hoist 90 000 k9 of coal per hour from a mine 60 m deep? (g = l o N/kg, 1hp = 75q \^/1

(20 hp)

ExAMPLE

motor
a

20m

A cement bag with a mass of50 kg is removed by 20 m at 4 s using the engine.

calculate

a. The work done by the motor against the gravity.

b. The power ofthe motor. (9 = ı 0 N/kg)

EE@il-'
work done against gravity,

W=m.g.h,
W = 50. 10. 20 = 10000 J.

spent powe,

p=W 10000
t4= =zsoow.

@
 9.4.2. MEcHANıcAt ENERGY
the Dis-
and the

:.,,jr]ı]i;r aa!€aa\,

The energy that an object has because of its motion is called kinetic energy.
A moving automobile, a bullet leaving the muzzle of a gun, a spinning flywheel, a
rolling ball, winds, and falIing or running water all possesses kinetic energy.

ln physics, kinetic energy of an obje(t i5 the energy which it possesses due to

its motion. lt is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass
from rest to its stated Velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration,
the body maintains thi§ kinetic energy unless its 5peed changes. The 5ame amount
ofwork is done by the body in decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest.

ln classical mechanics, the kinetic energy off a non-rotating object of mass m

traveling at a speed v is 1/2mv2.

n
a
:
,
E
J
l,
i
{b)

Runners who were standing gained kinetic eneİ8y by moving, Decfeasing velocity also decİeases the kinetic energy ofthe dog.

EXPER|MENT 1

E(ı
C\
L.
.Sea ball ı
. Basketball ball
. Footbaıl ball

1a4
t
 procedure

Let's 90 to the school garden to do the experiment.

. create groups according to class avai|abi|ity and material conditıon.

Pırt - l
. Place the football ball at a certain point. Let's find a point fiVe steps from the football.
. Let5 throw the basketball ball and then the sea ball at equal speeds towards the football so that the football ball collides.
. Lett find out wh|ch ball gives more movement to the football ball.

Paİt - ıl
. Place the basketball at a cenain point. Let's find a point fiVe steps from the basketball.
. Let the football ball slowly roll towards the basketball. Then let! throw the football ball fast.
. Let's observe the movement ofthe basketball ballthat is colliding with the football ball.

Questions

t.what is the reason for the movement ofthe balls in the 15t and 2nd part ofthe experiment?
2. what ball did the football ball move more in the t st part ofthe experiment?
3. which ballt kinetic energy is higher in the 'l
st part of the experiment?
4. ln which case did the basketball ball move more in the 2nd part ofthe experiment?
5. ln which case does the football have higher kinetic energy in the 2nd part ofthe experiment?

The mass of basketball is bigger than the mass of sea ball. As you see in ex-
periment, the kinetic energy is directly proportional to the mass of the bodies. As
you can see in the second part of the experiment, the ball with higher speed has
more kinetic energy. Measurements revealed that the kinetic energy is dire(tly pro-
portional to the square ofthe speed ofthe bodies.

Kinetic Energy =
} mv2

V
.'rr+>
m i- ]
a
o
You know it's not a good idea to step out into the road right now because of
the truck's kinetic energy. lt can do work on you as a result of thi5 "motion enerqy'i

@
 You know intuitive|y that the The KE depends upon the
KE depends upon the speed of square of the Velocity. so at
the truck. A faster truck can do twice the speed, the truck has
more work on you. 4x the energy. Why does it in-
crease by the square?

1
KE= mv 2
2
where does the factor You know intuitıvely that the
'l
/2 come from? KE depends upon the mass of
the truck. A moıe massive tıuck
could do more work on you.

The kinetic energy of an object arises from the net work done on it. This can
be seen from the example of using a constant net force to accelerate a mass from
rest to a final Velo(ity.

x=Vt=j t

vo=0
F

DlD YoU KNoW?

The kineti. energy of on objed that is in mo-
tion con be calculated by the mothemoticol u=lmt=l in the absence offriction
,-
model, KE=*mt
l
Work done on mas5 = |x = 63; = = kinetic energy
| }, =
111
}rnrİ

As the Velocitıes of objects increase, the kinetic energy magnitude Increases

in proportion to the square ofvelocity.The kinetic energy of an object that doubles
the speed comes out four times.

2v

l m .(2V)2 = 4E
E
,

@
 Kinetic Ener9y

4E

0 Velocity
2v

Kinetic eıergy-v€locity graph for an acceleİatin8 ob.iect

When a force is applied on an object wh|ch is initially at rest it begins to move

and speed up. As shown in the figure below it displaces by Ax. The work done by
the force F is transferred to the system as the k|netic energy.

Units
Vo=0
*,= mv2 Symbol Quantity Unit
+
m mass kg
F
Velocity m/s

KE kinetic energy kgm2/s2 = J

Ax B

When a force F is applied on an object which has an initial velocity it speeds

up. As shown in the figure below it displaces by Ax and gains some kinetic energy
which equal5 the work done by the force F.

Vinıt|al
-->

AX

F'Ax=
12'l 2
mvf|nal -J mvlnitiaı

' Wn", = AKE

F .Ax = KEfina| _ KEin|tia|

W-AKE

@
 This equation is an important result known as the work-energy principle. lt
states us that the net work (Wnu,) done on the object is equal to the change ın the
kinetic energy (AEK) ofthe object.

A frictional force that acts on an object slows down the body. ln this case, the
DİDYOU KNOW?
kinetic energy ofthe object i5 reduced.
The work done by the net force on the object
is equol to the chonge in the kinetic energy
W=-Fs.Ax
of the object.

Ax=O- lm.v2
Very heavy ball 2

Less heavy ball

All moving things have kinetic energy. These include Very large things, like
planets, and very small ones, like atoms. The heavier a thing and is faster it moves
the more kinetic energy it has.
You will notice that the smaller ball makes a little splash as it falls into the
bucket, The heavier ball makes a very big splash. Why?

Note the following:

l. Both balls had potential energy as they rested on the table.

Let us say boü balls will fall into üe bucket of
2. By resting up on a high table, they also had gravitational energy.

3. By moving and falling offthe table (movement), potential and gravitational

energy changed to kinetic energy. can you guess which of the balls had more ki-
netic energy?

Let's see anothe. classİC example

,*,ü'$'
lf you are in a hot room and you turn on the fan, what do you begin to feel? Air
.ı (wind).The speedy movement ofthe fan's blades has kinetic energy, which is then
transferred into air (wind) that you now feel.

Let's §e€ what is 8oing to happen

ExAMPLE ı

2m
m m
2v

When the bodies K, L and M with the masses m, 2m, m are moving at Velocitıes of
v V and 2V respectively the kineti( energies are EK, EL and EM. compare the kinetic
energies of the bodies.

@
1,.ı],-ıriııı

Lett write the mass and veloci§ values ofthe objects in the EK = 1 ml relation

-l
tx=-mv'+ tx=t l
.İ
r,=
}Zmv' - E,=ff Eıi kr,
lr= Jm(2v)' + Eıı=4E
EM>EL>EK

ExERclsE
The masses ofthe K and L objects given the Velocity-time graph in the figure
Velocity
are m and 4m respectively. Accordingly, find the ratio of the kinetic energies
K
ofthe bodies at time t. 2v

o)

0
Time

I ExERcl5E
',)
The net force-distance diagram of a sled wıth initaal speed of5 ın/s Net force (N)

i5 given above. since the total mass of the sled is 60 kg, find the
speed ofthe sled at the end of 'l2 meters.
40
f[-29 m/s)

l0 12
0 Distance (m)
4
_2o

1a9
 ı
l

l
J
A
L
f,
.ı
--t .-{-
ı
L
ı.ş- Ç
r fl
CuPs, tables and chandeliers have a certain potential energy comPaJed to their location

When an object moves in the presence ofthe earth's graviry the 9ravitational
force can do work on the object. The work done by 9ravity depends on the vertical
distance on the ob.ject moves.

Potential energy i5 the stored energy, or energy due to the position of a mass.
A car parked on top a hill ha5 potential energy. A clock sprin9 that has been wound
has potential energy. By pulling a bow you give it potential energy. Potential en-
ergy i5 measured by the amount of work that i5 available. Therefore, you can use
the same units you used in work equations.

Units

Symbol Quantity Unit

m ma5s kg

9ravitational acceleration

a
9 ms2

a h height ofthe object m

PE potential energy kgm2/s2 = J

roCk

When an object is raised steadily, the force used to move it is equal to the
weight of the object. so when the object i5 moved to a height above the ground,
work is done on the object and so energy is transferred to it.

lmagine a rock with a ma55, m, the end of along rope. The rope runs over a
pulley and the other end is tied to another object, or to a spring, or perhaps to a
wagon on a ramp.

lf you get off the rock it will fall, pulling on the rope, and do work on the ob-
ject tied to the rope.The work done by the rock depends on how far it falls.

@
 suppose that it falls a distance, Ah. Then the work done wil| be;

W= F.Ax since F=m9 (weightof the object)

PE = (m9) Ax and Ax = Ah
PE=m.9.h
This also the amount of energy that will be transferred to whatever is attached
to the other end ofthe rope.

Place, the more work it will be able to do, and the more energy wiıl be stored
in it.when the rock fall, this energy is released.

Two forms ofpotential energyto be discussed in this course-gravitational po-

tential energy and elastic potential energy.

Gravitational Potential Energy

ExPERlMENT 2

FaCtors AffeCting Gravitational Potential Energy

Equipment
. Large container
-a aı
. Wheat flour
. Plastic ball (2 pieces)
. Ruler
.lron ball

Pro<eclure

create groups according to clas5 availability and material condition.

Part - |

. Pour the flour into a large container and flatten the flour surface with a flat object.
. Leave the plastic ball and iron ball at the same height to theflour surface. Let's observethe change on the surface ofthe flour.

Part - ll
. Pour the flour into the large container in the same way and flatten the flour surface with a flat object.
. Leave one ofthe plastic balls of the same mass at a height of 20 cm and the other at a height of 50 cm from the flour surface.
Letl observe the change on the surface ofthe flour.

Questions
ı.which object in the 1st part ofthe eXperiment formed a deeper pit on the flour surface?
2.which object3 potentia| energy is greater in the ıst part ofthe exp€riment?
3.which object in the 2nd part ofthe experiment formed a deeper pit on the flour surface?
4.Which objectt potential energy is 9reater in the 2nd pan ofthe experiment?

@
 Gravitational potentialenergy is the energy stored in an object asthe result of
,^ its Vertical position or hei9ht.The energy stored as the result ofthe 9ravitational at-
--_----l m
traction of the Earth for the object. The 9ravitational potential energy of an object
is dependent on two Variables-the mass ofthe object and the height to which it is
raased as you observed in the experiment. There i5 direct relation between gravi-
F =G
tational potential energy and the mass of the object. More massive objects have
9rater 9ravitational potential energy. There is al5o a direct relation between gravi-
h tational potential energy and the height of an object. The hi9her that that an ob-
ject is elevated, the 9reater the gravitational potential energy. These relationships
are expressed by the following equation:

PEg,u,=mass.g.height

l
The object held at a height h fiom the groıınd
has Potential energy according to the gfound.
PEn,u,=m.9.h
ln the above equation, m represents the mass of the object, h represents the
heı9ht of the object and g represents the gravitational field strength (9.8 N/kg on
Earth)- sometimes referred to as the acceleration of 9ravity.

To determine the gravitational potential energy of an object, a zero height

DlDYoU KNow? must first be arbitrarily assigned. Typically, the ground is considered to be a posi-
tion ofzeİo height. But this Is merely an arbitrarily assigned Position that most peo-
The gravitational potentiol energy of an oE
ple agree upon.5ince many ofour labs are done on tabletops, it is often customary
ject is calculoted by the following mothema-
to assign the tabletop to be the zero height position. Again this is merely arbitrary.
ticol modeı.
lf the tabletop is the zero position, then the potential energy of an object is based
PE=m.g.h
upon its height relative to the tabletop.

since the gravitational potential energy of an object is directly proportional

to its height above zero position, a doublin9 of the height will result in a doubling
ofthe 9ravitational potential energy.Triplin9 of the hei9ht will resuıt in a tripling of
the 9ravitational potential energy.

Edge lengths ofthe homogeneous box K in the form of rectangular prisms are
h and 2h.when it isturned on the narrow base as shown in figure, it'sthe potential
energy increases.
PE

K
h
h
G
2

G
Increasing üe height of üe center of mass relative to the ground cau§es a Potential increa6e in
ene.gy.

@
 The first potential energy of the box K according to the ground,
G.h

lt's potentialenergy in the second position,

Potential Energy
PE2=G,h
The increase in gravitational potential energy of an object is up to the PE (joules)

amount of work done against 9ravitational force.

Accordingly, the amount of work,

W=APE=PEz-PEı
G;h
w=APE=G.h-
w=APE= Gih
A positive (+} Value of work is evidence of work done against gravity.

m
ı
mass of 9ravity hei9ht
G object (9.8 m/s2) object
(ks) raised (m)
t

K level

If üe object connected to a rope tip is released from üe horizontal position, the 8ravitational force
does worlc

The object with mass of m in the figure above has some potential energy
in the position where it is held relative to the K level. When the object is re-
leased, it starts to move because of the gravitational force. When it reaches K
level, the potential energy becomes zero according to th|s level. The first and
last potential energies of the object relative to K level:

PE, = 691

PEr=g
ın this case, the amount of work done due to the change in potentia| en-
er9y:

W=APE=O-mgt
W=APE= -mgt
A negatiVe (-) sign indicates that work is done by the gravitational force.
 EEEEIE .

Figure 1 Figure 2

The objects in the shape of a homogeneous cube, each of which has a weight P
and edge length h, are brought from the first position to the second position as
shown in the figure.

what iJ the amount of woİk done against the foıce of gİavity in teıms of P.h?

{p

Figure ı Figuıe 2

According to the position in Fig. 2, the potential energy of only one cube changed
relative to the ground. The change in potential energy of this cube is also the
change in potential energy of the system.

pı. = !:.!t
,7
pE,= l*
The amount of work done against the gravitational force is equal to the change in
the gravitational potential energy.

W=PEz-PEı

5h _9. h
22
W=2P.h

@
 ExERcıSE

The objects X, Y, z with the masses m, m, 3m were hung

from the ground to the height of h, 2h and h, respectively.
what is the relation of the magnitudes of the potential en- m

ergies of Ex, EY, Ez?

3m
(Ez> EY> ExJ m
2h

h h

ExERcıSE

---
The potential energies of the street lamps suspended from different
heights equal.
4r 3T
How far is the distance x, as the tensions on the lamp holders are as
shown in the figure?
X

(7/3) 7m

Elastic Potential Energy

The second form of potential energy that we wiIl discuss is elasti( poten-
tial eneİgy. Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in elastic materials as
the result of their stretching or compressing, Elastic potential energy can be
stored in rubber bands, bungee cords, trampolines, springs, an arrow drawn
into a bow etc. The amount of elastic potential energy stored in such a device
is related to the amount of stretch of the device-the more stretch, the more
stored energy.

springs are a special instance of device that can store elastic potential
energy due to either comPression or stretchın9. A force is required to compress
] spring; the more compression there is, the more force that is required to com-
press it further. For certain springs, the amount of force is directly proportional
to the amount of stretch or compression (x); the constant of proportionality is
(nown a5 the sprin9 constant (k).

195
 :'.J
§

E
.-
t a

I
ı"!
E İ

t-

E
Fundamental Forces

F spling =k.x

Wı
F
ı!

<- X
-____-+
Ener8y is stored in a comPressed sPring.

Slch springs are said to follow Hooke'sLaw. lf a spring is not stretched or

compressed, then there is no elasti( potential energy stored in it. The spring i5
said to be at its equilibrium position. The equilibrium position i5 the position
that the spring naturally a55umes when there is no force aPplied to it. ln terms
of potential energy, the equilibrium position could be called the zero-potential
energy position. There i5 a sPecial equation for springs that relates the amount
of elastic potential energy to the amount of stretched (or compressed) and the
sprang constant. The equation is

PE,r,,nr=1.1.,,z

where k = sprin9 constant

x = amount of compression (relative to equilibrium position)

@
ExAMPLE

A heavy block is suspended to a Vertical sprin9. The

elastic potential energy is stored in the 5pring is 2 J.

what is the spring Constant İf the elongation of

the spring is 10 cm?
k

10 cm

İ1
@ } LOOK AT LİNK'
To reinforce the concepts of kinetic energy,
PE=2J, x=l0cm=0.1 m
potential enerw, mechanicol energy, you can
follow the simuıotion ot the foııowıng general
PE.p.ing=+.k.x2
newvork oddress.

z=}.ı.o.1' + tt p:// p h et. co ıor o d o,ed u /e n/si m ol ion/ le

h u ı -
k=40ON/m
ga cy /e n e r gy ska t e po r k
-

To summar|ze, potential energy is the energy that is stored in an object

due to its position relative to some zero position. An object possesses gravi-
tational potential energy if it is positioned at height above (or below) the zero
height. An object possesses elastic potentia| energy if it is at a position on an
elastic medium other than the equilibrium position.

Mechanical Energy
ln science, mechanical energy is the sum of Potential energy and kinetic
energy. lt is the energy asso(iated with the motIon and position of an object.

Energy is a scalar quantity and the mechanical energy of a system is the

sum of the potential energy which is measured by the position of the parts of
the system, and the kinetic energy which is also called the energy of motion:

E.".1r"n,."1 =PE+KE
As discussed earlier, there are two form5 of potential energy: 9ravitational
potential energy and elastic potential energy. Given this fact, the above equa-
tion can be rewritten:

E=PEn,",+PEe|s+KE

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 9.4.3. coNsERvATıoN AND TRANSFoRMATıoN
oF ENERGY
9.4.3.1. Energy is Conserved While lt Transforms from One
Form to Another.
one reason for the importance of energy ın physics is that it i5 a con-
served quantity: the law of conservation of energy states that energy can nei-
ther be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed into different forms. The
sum of all the forms of energy inside a volume of space can only change by the
amount of energy leaving or entering the Volume. However, the amount of en-
ergy transferred to other energy forms during the energy transformations that
occur in the frictionless environment is equal to the amount of energy at the
beginning. ln a frictional environment, the entire energy cannot be converted
to work. some of the energy is converted into heat due to friction,

For example, lifting an object a9ainst 9raVity stores 9ravitational potential

?
energy in it which is converted to kineti( energy ifitfalls. specificformsof en-
ergy include the radiant energy of electroma9netic waVe5 such as li9ht, elastic
energy due to the stretching or deformation of solid objects, chemical energy
such as is released when a fuel burns, and thermal energy, the microscopic ki-
netic and potential energies of the random motions of the particles making up
B matter.
H
l' When a car coasts down a hill, its amount of potentia| energy decreases
more and more as the car gets nearer and nearer the bottom. This is not mean
h that the energy is gone. A5 the car nears the bottom of the hill, more and more
c of its potential energy is changed to kinetic energy, or energy of motion. At
the bottom of the hill, when it is goin9 fastest, all its potential energy has been
converted to kinetic energy.

The total mechanical energy ofthe body during free fall remains constant
at all positions.

A ball of mass "m" is dropped from a tower of height "H'i Let the total me-
chanical energy at the indicated heights, i.e., zero (9round level), h and H be Eo,
Eh and EH respectively.

Total mechanical energy (E) = Kinetic energy (KE) + Potential energy (PE)

At Point A: The body is at rest so,

PE = m9H and KE = 0 because velocity at A is zero.

so,Eo=0+mgH=mgH

At point c: The body hits the ground with velocity, v

a pyza6=a6yz
5o, E" =
22

@
 At Point B: The body is falling free|y with a Velocity VB,
TotaıEnergy, E=KE+PE

l--
2
mgh and KE
1
PE = m VB
=
,
So. E. = 1 mv_2+ moh
Y
26

Energy transformations can also be seen in different types of energy. For ex-
Mechanical Energy Curve
ample, electrical energy consumed in a light bulb turns into heat and light ener-
gies. Batteries used in vehicles, batteries used in calculators, radio, torches and
remote control5 convert chemical energy into electrical energy when requested.

+-

Electric circuit with battery, lamp and motor

A part of electrical energy will be converted into mechanical energy by

a motor located in an electric circuit as shown in figure above. The motor can
change the potential and kinetic energies of a load. ln addition, when the mo-
tor is running, sound energy can be generated by Vibrating the air molecules
and heat energy by changıng the temperature of the motor.

ln these transformations, all of the energy transferred is actually the chem-

ical energy of the battery. Energy transformation5 are like this,

Chemical energy * Electric energy - Heat + Light + Mechanical + sound

ıl

,ı* l }
'I

ı ı / }
a
ı 1l.
t,
l t İ
lı
wind turbines Nucleaı power plant solar batterie§

199
 ln wind turbines, the kinetic energy of the wind is converted into electric

REsEARcH energy. Energy conVersion in nuclear power plants is like thIs.

.-
Uranium core energy - Heat energy - Mechanical energy Electric energy
Research whether there is a relotionship
solar batterie5 are convertin9 solar energy into electric energy. our prima-
between the balance of heat exchange
ry source of energy is the sun. The Earth is located in the solar system and con-
and the globol warming that the wo d
stantly exchanges heat with the system it is in. The energy which comes from
hos done with the system it is in.
the sun to the Earth is transformed into different forms of energy on the Earth.
You con use the internet (public net-
work),librory and scientific articles when
you research. Present youı research re-
9.4.3.2. Where Our Body Spends Energy
suıts to your cıossmotes.
We've learned that energy exists both as potantial energy and as kinetic
energy. The foods that we eat are a source of potantial energy. Thi5 is the en-
ergy stored in the chemical bonds of food molecules, primarily carbohydrates,
proteins and fats. The potential energy contained in the chemical bonds of a
simple sugar like glucose (C6Hr206), for example, can be converted into car-
bon dioxide (co2), water (Hro) and energy as the following chemical reaction
shows:

c6H12o6 + 602 - 6co2 + 6H2o + energy

However, the body doesn't use glucose directly, intead the cells of the
body (in a process called cellular respiration) breakdown glu(ose capturing
much of the energy in the high-energy phosphate bonds of a molecule called
adeno5ine triphosphate or "ATP" for short.
The chemical energy in the structure of plants is transferred to animals
and humans a5 a result of feeding relationships. The energy values that foods
contain are said to be calorie units. 'l cal equals 4,'l84 J of energy.
The average energy values contained in grams of the basic food groups
are given in the table below.

Food group ('l 9) Amount of energy contained (kca|)

Protein aa
carbohydrate 4,o

Fat 9,0

Energy values of l gram ofProtein, carbohydİate and fat

Protein, carbohydrate, fat and other essential nutrients are found at differ-
ent rates in the structure of the foods we consume in daily life. As a result of the
researches done, how much energy the food contains is caiculated.

@
 Ğ } l ),.
l
ı,
l j

-l
ı
]
*"'
( )
7
C

Proteirı containing nutrients

a-

Caİbohydrate containin8 nutrients

oils and fats

ztl1
 You need energy to survive, all the basic functions of a human to survive
Food Energy (kcal) need energy, to maintain them from not stopping. eg breathing, your heart
white bread 347 beating, moving etc energy is needed all over the body, if you want to move
your muscles use energy, when you carry 5omething, you use energy, when you
Rice (liftle bran) 359
talk, when you look, when you do anything, your actually using energy, your
Pasta 367
body is Constantly warm because its using energy to keep it that way.
Tarhana 329

spinaCh 33
The A((urate way

Tomatoe5 25 There are three primary components that make up your bodyl energy
expenditure. Adding these three components together, basal metabolic rate,
Cucumber "l7
energy expended during physical activity, and the themal effect of food is the
Apple ol most accurate way of tetermining how many calories your body requires each
orange 49 day.

watermelon 29 Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): Most of the body's energy, about 60-70%,
9oe5 to supporting the ongoing metabolic work of the body's cells. This in-
AYeİage energy value tables provided by cludes such actiVities as heart beat, respiration and maintaining body tempera-
l00 gram§ offood
ture. To determine your BMR.

For adult males-Multiply the body weight by 'l0; add double the body
weight to this Value.

[i.e., for a 70 kg male, 700 + (2 x 70) = 840 kca|/day BMR]

For adult females-Multiply body weight by 'l0; add the body weight to thi5
value.

[i.e., for a 60 kg female, 600 + 60 = 660 kcal/day BMR]

Energy Expended Duıing Physical Actiyity: The second componens of

the equation depends upon your level of physical actiVity. Physical actiVity has
a profound effect on human energy expenditure and contributes 20-30% to
the body'5 total energy output. one ofthe most reliable methods in calculating
calories burned during physical actiVity is the Metabolic Energy (MET) Method.
This is the method we have used for the Health style Fitness Exercise calories
Expenditure calculator for 35 different aCtiVites.

Thermal Effe(t of Food: The last Component to calculate has to do with

your body's management of food. The increase in energy required to digest
food is referred to as the thermal effect of food (TEF) and it's simple to deter-
mine:

TEF = total kcals consumed x '|0%

[i.e., 2.000 kcals consumed/day x 0.10 = 200 kcals expended for TEF]

i,l li,
 The Easy Way
lf all of those calculations seem too confusing or tedious, you can roughly
estimate your daily calorie requirements using this simple formula:

For sedentary people: Weight x 'l3 = estimated kcal/dy

For moderately active people = weight x 17 = estimated kcal/day
For active people: Wei9ht x 20 = estimated kcal/day

Note: Moderately Active is defined as 3-4 aerobic and/or strength session5

per week. Active is defined as 5-7 aerobic and/or strength sessions per week.

One-hour energy
Physical activity
expenditure (kcal)

5leeping 60

Television viewing, computer 9ame playing. lntemet use,

85
music listening, speaking, eating, bathing

,l40
Making everyday household tasks, walking, shopping

Mowin9 the lawn, cycling, dancing, playing tenni5 285

swimming, playing basketball, running 400

Saıne of the energ.v values sPenı on houİ a5 a lesult ofPhysical actiütes

some activities you can do with per '| 00 kcal (= 418 kJ) of energy are given
in figure below.

lLr l)

& fr,
l
l a

* ı 2
lF İ ı
I
T
a
_İ -a ı
|- -/ l. ı l l_
I.oıing about l0 minutes Playin8 tennis about 5 minutes Eatin8 about 20 minutes crossing about 5 minutes

@
 9.4.4. EFFıcıENcY
9.4.4.1. Effi ciency Concept
We use machines to make work easier. But there is no perfect machine. ln
practice, more work is done by the effort put into a machine then produced by the
machine to move the load. Some of the enrgy is always used to overcome friction
and to move parts of the machine itself. Therefore even in the best designed ma-
chines the output is le55 than the input.

Howevel when other forms of energy are transformed to heat energy this
change is irreversible. Heat energy cannot be ea5ily recovered and converted back
to its originaI energy such as electric energy, etc. The energy isn't lost. But it i5 lost
to our use.

The following equations state efficiency in formula5;

work (energy) 9ained from the system

' work (energy)given to the system

The term efficiency usually refers to the useful work we gain from an engine
such as an automobile, engine. We can write the equation given above as

useful power output ofthe engine

' power input to the engine

and for the percentage efficiency of an engine:

Pou'
e%= x 1oo
Pin

Due to the conservation of energy. Pout can never be greater than P,n and so
the efficiency is never greater than 'l00% (and in fact must be even less at finite
temperatures).

For examp|e, if you put 100 Joules of energy into a maChine, and got 50 Joules
back out (and the other 50 Joules was wasted by the machine), you would have
50% efficiency.

So wheıe does energy go? when an object travels along, the friction or air
resistance tryin9 to slow it down changes the kinetic energy of the object into heat
energy, This becomes wasted energy. lt is lost to the surroundings and it is no long-
er useful to us. ln fact most ofthe energy that is wasted is lost as heat energy to the
surroundings.

As energy is often wasted when work is being done we need to know how
ef6cient a process is.The more efficient a proces5 is the less the amount ofwasted

,
?o4
energy. The efficiency of a machine is often given as a percentage. lf a machine
i5 75% is efficient then 25% of the energy put into it i5 wasted and only 75% is
changed into useful energy.

For example, a car that i5 70% efficient will turn 70% of its energy into move-
ment and 30% into noise and heat.

@Er
When a person climbs from the first floor to the second floor, he gains a potantial
energy of 2400 J. his body used 9600 J to climb upstairs what is the efficiency of
this action?

@,
work (energy)gained f]om the system 2400
'
ettıciencv =#=
work (eneİgy) given to the system 9600
-=o.25=25ob
@Er
A runner in a race exerts a force of60 N for a distance of 100 m, while he uses
up 30 U offood energy. Find his percentage efficiency?

@-
The energy used to do work by the runner is: w = F . AX = 60 x'] O0 = 6000 J = 6 U

e%=
Wo't
x10O=
6 x,l0O=2O%
30

ExERcIsE
A5kWloadeIevatorliftaloaduptotOmat30sinconstantspeedwithaeffrciencyof80%.
what i5 the ma55 of the load in k9? (9 = 'l0 N/kg) (12oo k9)

9.4.4.2, Su9g€stions to !mprove Efficiency

science and technology made it possible to produce high-efficient machınes.
However, since there i5 no frictionless system, the efficiency has never been 10096.
A variety of technologies are used to reduce the effect of friction on mechanical
5y5tem5.The motor oil lubricant feature you see in the figure reduces friction in the
car engine.

i |( )lı
 Air friction in air vehicles, water and air friction in sea Vehicles, air and ground

r
1l
a l friction force in land vehicles affect the efficiency. Another way to increase the ef-
ficiency of the vehicle en9ine is to design the exterior of the Vehicle. Engineers are
designing ourVehicles to redu(e the effect offriction. Research studies in this field
.-
7 i are brin9ing new discoveries day by day.

Research on the energy consumption of vehicles has always been investi-

l
gated in the historical process. scientists have even conducted studıes to make
self-employed machines. 5uch vehicles that are self-acting and claimed to produce
energy are called perpetual motion machines. Throughout history, scientists have
Motor oils are used to reduce friction on the motot developed many perpetual motion machines in thi5 way.

j
., ,l],,Tl
I --l
\
l j

The out§ide ofthe aircraft, üe speedboat and the caı are designed to reduce friction, which is caused by air, water and ground

ls it possible to have a system that can work continuously by generating a

certain amount of energy and then producing its own energy? From the 8th cen-
tury to the present time inventors have sou9ht to achieve perpetual motion by use
of wheels with shifting weights. None have worked, but that doesn't stop people
from using the same idea again and again, altering mechanical details, often with
incredibly compleX designs.

Perpetual motion wheels are invariably cyclic, that is, all motion5 of the wheel
and its parts are repeated exactly during each complete revolution. 5o if a weight
moves to a larger radius once per cycle, it must also be pulled back to the original
radius later durin9 the cycle.

A perpetuaı motion or oveİ-unity device is a device that, barring mechani-

cal breakdown, is capable of running for an arbitrarily long period of time with no
outside intervention or energy input. such a device has never been built since the
concept Violates the laws of thermodynamics. Es5entially, even in an "ideal" ma-
chine with 100yo efficiency, it is only possible to get enough power out to power
the machine itself and no more. An advanced form of a perpetual motion machine
is a device with output energy more than the input, known as an electron pump.
Howeveı in the real world there will always be some inefficiency to deal with, such
as friction and the load of the machine itse|' meaning that it is impossible to get
even t 00% efficiency.

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 conventional motion Perpetual motion

Energy in

Low energy High energy Low energy Hi9h en€rgy

state 5tate state 5tate

Ener9y out Eneİgy out

tt should be immediately obvious why PerP€fual motion doesn t work

'A perpetual motion machine i5 a kind of machine that runs without consum-
ing any son of energy or fuels, and in most cases, it is in turn believed to produce
mechanicalenergy which could then be converted into eıectrical energy, known as
PerPetual electİiGıty."
Everyone knows that the earth has only finite resources, and one day or the
otheı they are going to deplete. No one can deny thi§ fact. EVen more 5o, the ever
increasing populations coupled with numerous industrie5, that are usin9 the very
limited natural fossil fuels to propel their own 9roMh, in the mask of developing a
nation's future, will of course, never want to let us know this dreadful truth.

But, many centuries ago, even before the industrial revolution began, wise
men have already anticipated what was in store for the future generations. They
were already thinking ofthe future ahead and were determined to create machines
that wouldn't use any kind of fuel or energy to work, but in facç produce energy for
free, and that too for eternity! Thus, the idea of perpetual motion machine (PMM)
came into existence.

How are these ma<hines supposed to wo]k without using any sort
of energy?

The first perpetual motion wheel was said to be explained by an lndian au-
thor named Bhaskara (1 l59). lt had a round rim that housed test tube stru(tured
containers which contained mercury in them. The hypothetical principle was, as
the wheel turned, the mercury in the tubes continues to flow onto the left creating
continues 9ravitational pull that wilI keep the wheel rolling foreveı

After Bhaskara, there were many artists, authors, engineers and scientists
(they weren't actually scientists, but most of them claimed themselves to be one!)
tried constructin9 diffeıent kinds of perpetual machines bas€d on different

@-
 mechanical principles and tools, but have only succeeded a little, if not completely
failed (owing to the fact that these machines would eventually stop when their
components start to wear due to friction, they assumed only a little success).

Nevertheless, they have provided us with enou9h evidence, that a machine,

closer to an ideal PMM can actually be constructed as the techno|ogy deve|ops.

ls it possible to generate perPetual eleCtİiCity?

The question is "can a perpetual motion machine be created using a similar

process?" A perpetual motion machine in a closed system breaks the first law of
thermodynamics. Machines that produce work and energy without the input of
energy go against the law ofconservation ofenergy. Accordlng to the laws ofther-
modynamics energy cannot simply be created or destroyed. Therefore, a true per-
petual motion motor may never be viable, but a close replacement could be built.

A5 our great historical scientists have rightly anticipated, many scientists,

even today are trying to build machines that are close to PMM'S in a quest to pro-
duce perpetual electricity whıch can generate huge savings in both domestic and
private sectors.

DlscUssloN Though the fact remains that an ideal PMM can never be built, many people
have been still relentlessly trying, because, if an ideal PMM can't be built, some-
ls the invention of a mochine of the kind
thing even closer to it would serve the purpose for the mankind.
mentioned above possible in this century?
Discussthis topi( in the clossroom. You've been told about machines generatin9 electricity by one ofyour fellow
members of the community. what did you think about his attempt?

PRoJEcT

Lafı Dıılgn ınd Dıvelop a iiodel to ımPıove Yleld

ı. create two-peİson gıoups in your classroom
2.|dentiry the types ofmachines used in everyday life.
3. You design a machine and develop a model.
4. Discuss what you can do to improve the energy efficiency ofthis machine.
5. Present your design and modeling to your friends in the class. Discuss whether the developed designs are an altemative solu-
tion.

9.4.5. ENERGY souRcEs

9.4.5.1. Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Sources
Energy comes from many sources, and to describe these sources we u5e two
terms: renewable and non-renewable.

@
 Nonrenewoble energy sources cannol be replaced-one they are used up, they
will not be restored (or not for millions of years). Nonrenewable energy is energy
from fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, natural gas) and uranium. Fossil fuels are usually
I

r
found in one location as their formation i5 from a similar process.
,1
Although there are many different types of fossil fuels, we have chosen three .t f
that we feel are especially important; coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Because İ

6" rÜ
virtually all fossil fuel uses produce energy in pretty much the same way.
ü.

z
Fossil fuels have been a widely used source of energy every since the lndus-
trial Revolution just before the dawn of the 20th century Fossil fuels are relatively
coal is fossil fuel.
easy to use to generate energy because they onIy require a simple direct Combus-
tion. However, a problem with fossil fuels is their environmental impact. Not only
does their excavation from the ground significantly alter the environment, but
their combustion lead5 to a 9reat deal ofair pollution.

Another nonrenewable energy source is the element uranium, whose atom5

we split through a process called nuclear fission to create heat and ultimately elec-
tricity. The diminishing availability of natural resources such as coal, petroleum,
and crude oil has left scientists searching for an energy alternative. Harnessin9 the
power of the atom appears to be the solution to that search, at least for the time
being. Fission research into le55ening problems caused by reactors is of great con-
cem to many, while fusionhas risen to the forefront offuture energy research. A wind farm

Renewobıe eneqy is energy that comes from resources which are continually
replenished such a5 sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. The
movement of wind and water, the heat and light of the sun, the carbohydrates
_l
in plants, and the warmth in the Earth-all are energy sources that can supply our
needs in a sustainable way. A Variety of methods are used to convert these renew-
able resources into electricity. Each comes with |ts own unıque set oftechnologies,
benefit1 and challenges.

ln light of diminishing fossil fuels, however, renewable energy may end up as

the energy of choice for the 2'l5t century.

Man has utilized the power of water for years. Fallin9 water was ideal for pow- solar collectors
ering sawmills and gri5t mills.

As coal became a betterdeveloped source of fuel, however, the importance

of hydropower decreased.

Water power really didn't stage a major comeback untiI the 2oth century. The
development of an electric aenerator helped increase hydropower's importance.
ln the mind-2oth century, hydroelectric power plants were built near large cities to
supplement power production. E9ı;-;.;.-
Hydroelect.icİty is the term referrin9 to electricity generated by hydropow- işiD-----+
the production of electrical power through the use of the 9ravitational force of
er;
ı
falling or flowing water. lt i5 the most widely used form of renewable energy, ac-
A hydroelectric Poı^,er plant
counting for t 6 percent of global electricity consumption.

i,( l: ]
 The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively |ow, making it a competitive source of
renewable electricity. Hydro is also a flexible sour(e of electricity 5ince plants can
_-l
be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. How-
ever, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and
,ı building large dams and resevoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife.
once a hydroelectric Complex is constructed, the proje(t produces no direct waste,
and has a considerably lower output leve| of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide
(CO2) than fossilfuel powered energy plants.

solar mofules on roof
The name "solaİ poweİ" is actually a little misleading. ln fact, most of the
energy known to man is derived in some way from the sun. When we burn wood
or other fuels, we are releasing the strod energy ofthe sun. ln fact, there would be
no life on earth without the sun, which pİovides energy needed for the growth of
plants, and indirectl, the existence ofaIl animal life.The soıar energy scientists are
interested in i5 energy obtained through the u5e of solar panels.

Panels on the roof of a building, contain water pipes. when the sun hits the
panels and the piPes, the sunlight warms them. That warmed water can then be
used in a swimmin9 pool.

We can also change the sunli9ht directly to ele(tricity usin9 solar cells.

Biomass, as a renewable energy source, is biological material from livin9, or

re.ently lıving organisms. As an energy 50urce, biomass can either be used directly,

a
or Converted into otheİ energy products 5uch as biofuel.

ln the first 5en5e, biomass i5 plant matter used to generate electricity with

T,
steam turbines or produce heat, usually by direct combustion. Examples include
-L forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and tİee stumps), yard clippings,
wood chips and even municipal solid waste. ln the second sense, biomass includes
plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemi-
cal, including biofuels. lndustrial biomass can be grown from numerous types oİ
plants, including miscanthus, swit(h grass, hemp, com, poplar, willow sorghum,
wood is souıce of biomass
su9arcane, and a Variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm
oil).

Biomass is carbon, hydrogen and oxygen based. Biomass energy is derived

from fiVe distinct energy sources: 9arbage, wood, waste, landfill gases, and alcohol
fuels.

Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane 9a5
or transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel.

Rottin9 garba9e, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gas-
also called "landfill gas" or "biogas'i crops such as com and sugar cane can be fer-
mented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transpor-
tation fuel, can be produced from left-over food products like Vegetable oils and
animal fats.

@
 wınd can be used to do work. The kinetic energy ofthe wind can be changed
:
into other forms of energy, either mechanical energy or electrical energy.

Mankind has made use of wind power since ancient times. Wind has powered
boats and other seacraft for years. Furtheı the use of windmills to provide power
for the accomp|ishment of agricultural tasks ha5 contributed to the growth of ciV-
ilazion. This imponant renewable energy source is starting to be looked at again as
a possible source ofclean, cheap energy for years to come. ,

l ı\
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy,
juch as using: wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power,
ıindpumps for water pumpin9 or drainage, or sails to propel ships.
/ t
A larqe wind farm may consist of several hundred indivitual wind turbines \
are connected to the electric power transpission network. I

^rhich
wind power, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentifu|, renewable, widely dis-
:ributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation and uses
ittle land.The overall cost per unit of energy produced is similar to the cost for new
:oal and natural 9a5 installations. Any effects on the environment are generally
ess problematic than those from other power sources. Although wind power is a A ../ind turbines

ıopular form of energy generation, the construction of wind farms is not uniVer-
ally welcomed.

Geothe]mal eneİgy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth.

"hermal energy is the energy that determine5 the temperature of matter. Earth's

|eothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet (20016) and
rom radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient. which is the
lifference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a
ontinuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the
'urface.

_l
l
At the core of the Earth, thermal energy is created by radioactive decay and
emperatures may reach over 5000 degrees celsiu5. Heat conducts from the core to
urrounding cooler rock. The high temperature and pressure cause some rock to
nelt, creating magma convection upward since it is lighter than the 5olid rock. The
nagma healts rock and water in the crust, sometimes up to 370 degress celsius.
lxt
From hot springs,geothermal energy has been used for bathin9 since Paleo- !l
ü l.' ı
I

thic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better
nown for electricity 9eneration. Geoüeımal energy

Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, 5ustainable, and environmental-

ı friendly, but has historically been limited to area5 near tectonic plate boundarie5.
ieothermal wells release greenhouse gasses trapped deep Within the earth, but
hese emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a re-
ult,9eothermal power has the potentialto help mitigate global warming if widely
eployed in place offossil fuels.

211
 Hydİogen is the simplest element. An atom of hydrogen con5ists of only on€
proton and one electron. lt's also the most plentiful element in the universe. De.
:-ı
spite its simplicity and abundance, hydrogen doesn't occur naturally a5 a gas or
the Earth-itl always combined with other elements. Water, for examp|e, is a combi
,
J
nation of hydrogen and oxygen (H2o).

Hydrogen is high in energy, yet an engine that bums pure hydrogen produc
es a|most no pollution. NASA has used liquid hydrogen since the 'l9705 a5 fuel fo
the space shuttles, and in fuel cells that provide heat, electricity and drinking wate

,ıl t for astronauts. Fuel cells are devices that directly convert hydrogen into electric
ity. Hydrogen fuel cells power the shuttle's electrical systems, producing a cleaı
byproduct-pure water, which the crew drinks.
t
A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electri(ity, heat. an(
water. Fuel cells are often compared to batteries. Both convert the energy pro
E
duced by a chemical reaction into usable electric powet However, the fuel cell wi
produce electricity as long as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied, never losing its charge.

NASA uses hydrogen fuel to launch the space ln the future, hydrogen could also join electricity as an important energ
shuttles.
carrier. An energy carrier moves and delivers energy in a usable form to consur
ers. Renewable energy sources, like the sUn and wind, can't produce energy all th
time. But they could, for example, produce electric energy and hydrogen, whic
can be stored until it's needed. Hydrogen can also be transported (like electricit!

3 j

-i"-:
JL to locations where it is needed.

Eı§ Kinetic energy exists in the moving waves of the ocean. That energy can b
used to power a turbine. When the wave goes down, air flows through the turbin
and back into the chamber through doors that ar€ normally closed.
\ Another form of ocean energy is called tida| ene]gy. When tides comes int
the shore, they can be trapped in reservoirs behind dams. Then when the tid
drops, the water behind the dam can be let out just like in a regular hydroelectri
Tidal energy
power plant.

ExERclsE
compare the environmental effect ofthe types of energy giVen in the table. lfan energy type indicates the 5pecified environmen-
tal effect, mark it as (+), otherwise G).

EnergyType/Effect soilpollution Noise climate chan9e Radiation ACid Rain

Hydraulic
sun
Geotheİmal

Hydlogen

Bioma55

@
 what Can we do to save energy?
Saving energy is the most important factor in energy effciency. Saving en-
ergy in our homes is a priority that we should consider. ln our homes, heat insu-
lation and the efficiency of the electrical appliances we use are measure to save
electricity.

Saving energy means decreasing the amount of energy used while achiev-
ing a similar outcome of end use. Using less energy has lots of benefits - you can
save money and help the environment. Generating energy requires precious natu-
ral resources, for instance coal, oil or gas. Therefore, using less energy helps us to
preserve these resources and make them last longer in the future.

what can we do to save energy?

Here are a few ideas to save energy:
ı otE
Gr
\\
. chan9e your travel behavior, think more in terms of public transportation, if
possible, walk or ride your bicycle instead oftaking the car. A+++
. Choose products that come with li9htweight packaging.
A++l
. Reuse plastic bags for shopping and storage.
. Use rechargeab|e batteries instead of disposable batteries. A+
. set your home's thermostat a few degrees lower. For each one-degree E}
change, your family can save up to 5 percent on your homel heating and
cooling costs!
. Turn off lights and all electronics (like computers, te|evisions, stereos, and
D]
video-games) when you leave a room, use energy-saving li9ht bulbs.
. Use the microwave instead ofthe oven for cooking your meals.
. Use machines like washers, dryers, and dishwashers after 8 p.m.
. open your blinds or curtains on sunny winter days to let the sun shine into -}
your home.
. save hot water by taking shon showers ınstead of baths. Energy labels
. Turn offthe water while you brush your teeth.
-
When buying a washing machine, electric oven, refrigerating aPpliances, air
conditioner, etc. we have to be careful to be A class. Energy labels show how an -
appliance ranks on a scale from A to G according to its energy consumption. class -}
A (green) i5 the most energy efficient and Class G (red) the least. once most ap-
pliances of a given type reach Class A, up to 3 further classes can be added to the
scale; A+, A++ and A+++. Energy labels enable customers to choose products that
consume less energy and thereby save money.

2,13
 CHECK YOURSELF

A. True and False

write "T" nea, each one of the statements if ıt is true or "F" if it is false.

1. ( ) A boy sitting and looking at a computer screen is doing work.

2.( ) lf you compress a balloon, you do work, and transfer energy to the air inside the balloon.

3.( )The sum ofall the energies in an iso|ated system is constant.

4.( ) The sum of kinetic and potential energies of a system is equal to its mechanical energy.

5.( ) The area under the line of force-time graph gives displacement,

6.( ) The light that *e ,ee is a type of electromagnetic radiation.

7.( ) The work done by the force F is transferred to the system as the kinetic energy.

8.( ) The gravitational potential energy of an object is dependent on two Variables-the mass ofthe object and the height to which

it i5 raised.

9.( ) lhe total mechanical energy ofthe body during free fall changes at all posltions.

10. ( ) Nonıenewable energy is the energy from fossit fuels (coal, crude oil, natural gas) and wind.

B. Fill in the Blanks.

Fill in the blanks with th. words given ln the box.

a. motion b.scalar C. energy d. kineti( e. heat f. potential 9. sun

h. spring i. power j. energy k. work l. smaller m. nuclear

1. work in the scientific sence involves

2. work is the transfer of

3. A moving object has the ability to do work which we named as energy.

4 energy is the stored energy, or energy due to the position of a ma5s.

5. Energy can also be stored by compressing or €xtendin9 ..,..........................,.......... .

6. Cars, planets, light bulbs, boats and machinery transform ................................_....... into

7. Another major form of energy is .,....,..,.,..,.,..,.,.,,.,..,.,.,....,. energy, the energy that i5 trapped inside each atom.

$. The work done by the friction force is released as energy to environment

P. The efficiency of a real engine is always _.,..-._.,....__.,--_.,. than 100 %.

1 0. ln fa(t, most of the energy known to man is derived in some way from the

@
 C. Problem About Matter

under what Gircumstan(es is not work done one a mo- 8 , The force acting on a body varies, as shown in the figure.
ving body even though a net force act§ upon it?
F (N)

what is the difference between Potential and kinetic ı5

energy? ı0
5
0
5 ı0 1 20 2s
X (m)

-5
_ı0
-ı5
Explain the similarity between a swinging Pendulum and
the motion of a mass on the end of a horizontally (omp-
ressed spring on a frictionless table.
Fİnd the work done by the foİCe a§ th€ object moves

a.fromx=Otox=5m,
b. from x = 10tox= 20 m
C.fromx=otox=25m
(a,37.5 J, b.o, c.37,5J)
what Can be said about the sPeed of an obje(t if the net
work done on that object i5 zero? 9 F (N)

20
15

]0
5

0 (m)

An object is thrown straight up into the air.

4 8 ı2 16
-5
At what position i5 its kineti( energy a maximum? At
what position is its potential €nergy a minimum?
A boy is sub.iect to a force, as shown in the figure above.

Find the work done by the foı€e on the body as it moves

(a) from x=0 to x=4m,

(b) fıom x=o to x=8m,
How Can you exPlain the (onservation of energy, if the (C) from x=8m to x= 16m,

foıce of siliding fri(tion always İeduces the kinetic energy (d)fromx=o tox=l6m.
of a parti(le?
(o,60J, b. <.ao J, d.220 J)
'40J,

l0. A man lifts a parcel weighing 6 N from the ground on to a

shelf 2 m hi9h.
/' Do the frictional fo;(es always İedu(€ the kinetİC ene]gy How much woık do€s he do on the pa]cel?
of a body? (12J)

5]
1 1. Calculate the woİk done by a o.5 N force pushing a '|
7. calculatethe kinetic energy ofa 45 g golf balltravelling
o.03 kg pencil 0.3 m. at

(o.15J) a.20 m/S. b. 60 m/s.

(o.9 J, b.81 J)

]2. How mu<h woİk must be done to stop a 1200 k9 cart]aY-

elling at 54 km/h. 18.
0
(ı 35 ooo J)
9
8
z 7
6
5
o
13. The work done against gravity in moving a box with a 4
mass of 5 kilog]ams through a height of 3 meters is....... 3
2
ı
(150J)
o12345678910
Displacement (cm)

The elastic for(e as a function of displacement presented by

14. F the graph.

E
How much elastic potential energy is stored in the
spring when it is stretched by ı0 Cm?

d (o.3 J)

A block of mass m is moved over a distan(e d. An applied for(e F is

dlrected perpendicularly to the block! displacement.
t9.
a
How much woİk is done on the blo(k by lhe force F?

(zerc)

k= 1oo!
r m

X
15. A container with a mass of 5 kg is lifted to a height of 1 m
and then returned back to the ground level.

How much work is done by the gıavitational force?

(50 J)
ı
A heavy block is suspended from a vertical sprlng.The elas-
tic potential energy i5 stored in the spring is 0.8 J.

1 6. A 12O0 kg car is moving a|ong a horizontal suıface with what is the elongation of the spring if the spring Con-
a speed of 30 m/s. what work must be done by the bra- stant İs ıoo N/m?
kesto bring the Gaİto rest in ıo s?
('l3 <fi)
(5.4 x ıü J)

216
20. m=4k9 k = 'l44 N/m
23. A boy and a gi]l aİe in the weightlifting ıoom. Gİrl lifts
the 15 kg barbell over he] head 15 times in one minute;
v=6m/s boy lifts the 15 kg baİbell oveı his head ı 5 times in 20
se<onds.
a. which student does the most work?

b. Which student delivers the most power?

An object with a mass of 4 k9 is moving with a constant
speed of 6 m/s on a frictionless surface. The object collides
w|th the sprin9.

a. What is the maximum compress of the spring?

b. Find the kinetic energy of the object when the spring has
an elongation of 50 cm.
24. A pizza is put in a 500 w micrawave oven for 50 seconds.

How much eneıgy is given to it?

(d.1oo cm, b. 54 J)
(25 o0oJ)

21.

25. A pendulum swinging back and forth, rises at the end of its
swing to a position 20 cm higher than its lowest point.

tI
How fast i5 it going at the lowest Poınt?

2.25 m (2 m/s)
Tramboline

26. A men lifts a weight of400 N through a Vertical height of

2min85.
A tramboline artist with a mass of 60 kg jumps Vertically
upward from the top of a platform with a speed of 6 m/s. what is his powe]?
(rNw)
How is he going as he lands on the tİamboline
'ast
(9 m/s)

22. A physicist does t 00 joules of work on a simple machine

that raises a box of books through a height of 0.2 meters.
27. A 100w electric lamp uses 100J of electrical energy each
lf the efficiency of the machine is 6096, how much work second. lt produces only 20 w of li9ht.
İs Conveİted to theİmal eneİgy by this pİocess?
what is its effi.lency? what happens to the other 8o w?
(40 J) (2och, converted to heot)
28. How long will it take 2000 w electric motor to lift a 33. A power mover does 9X'l05 J of work in 0.5 h
ıı(X) kg Pİano to a apartment floo, that is 15 m above.
what Poweİ does it develop?
(9 = l0 m/s')
(5oo J)
(3o s)

29, A 1200 kg sports car ac(elerates from rest to 90 km/h in 6

seconds.

what is the aveİage poweı delivered by the engine? 34. A motor operating pump has 240 w of power.

How long will lt take the system to ]aise 1oo kg ofwateİ

(62 5o0 w)
ı2 m?
l50 s)

30. A car travelling within the town speed limit, at l4 m/s, hits
a brıck wall. For a passenger without a seat belt, this i5 like
falling from the top ofa house of height h meter.

Find the value of h? 35. A motor is Used on a building site to raise a block of stone.
The weight ofthe block is 720 N and it i5 raised 20 m in 24 s.
(9.8 m)
calculate

a. the work done on the block.

b. the useful power supplied by the motor.

b,400/.; b.6oo w)

31. A girldoes l000joule ofwork in 5 seconds.

what Powe] does she develop?

(2oo w)

36. A foİce of 5N moves a 6 kg object along a İough floor at

a (onstant sPeed of 2.5 m/s.

32. A man lifts a weight of300 N through a Vertical height of a. How much work is done in 20 s by the force?
2min6§econds. b. What power is being developed?

what powe] does he develop? c. what force offriction i5 acting on the object?

(1oo w) fu.250 J; b. 12.5 w; c.5 N)

@
 D. Multiple Choice

i . How mu(h work is done to stoP a car with a kineti( €nergy To increase the speed of a 20 kg obje<t fİom 1o m/s to
of4xı06Jin5s? 30 m/s, how muCh eneİgy should be giv€n to the object?

A) 0.8x] 06 J B) 2xl cF J C) 4xl Cl6 J A) lx'l0rJ B) 4xl OrJ c) 8x10] J

D) 20x106 J E) '1.25x106 J D) 9xl Or J E) l xl cla J

;, ln which one of the following cases is the gravitational

Potential energy increa§ing?
2. How mu(h work is done against gİavity in lifting a 5 k9
object thıough a distance of8 m'
drop
A) a rain B) a wind storm
C) a landslide D) an İncoming tide
A) 50J B) 80J c)400J D) sooJ E) 800J
E) an accelerating car on a level road

8. An object projected at a Velocity ofv follows a path as shown

in the figure.

3. To keep a car moving at the speed ofv requires a force F.

^
Which one of the following gives the power?
^

A) FV aı
}rv' Ol D)
F
, E)
1F
2m
v2

What is the reason of the decreasing of the speed?

4. A force of 20 N accelerates a 'l kg object from rest for a distan-

A) The gravitational force.
ce of 'l0 m alonq a level, frictionless surface.
B) The lost in the kinetic energy during collisions.

How fast is it moving? c)The decrease in the kinetic energy during ascending.
D)The distance during ascending is grater that the distance
A) l0 m/s B) 20 m/s c) 30 m/5 during descending.
D) 40 m/s E)60 m/5 E) some of it5 kinetic energy changes into potential energy.

9. A 7.2 hp motor is used to lift a load at a rate of 2.4 m/s.

5. A linear elastic spring is compressed 0.4 m by a force of 20 N How gİeat a load can lt lİft at thİs Constant spe€d?
(1 hp = 749 yy1
what is the potential eneİgy stored by the spİing?

B) 8J c) 10J D) 16J E) 20J

A) 740 N B)
,l
l20 N c) 1830 N D) l960 N E) 2220 N
^l4J
219
10. lf an objed İs des(ending at a Con§tant (telminal) velo- 1 5. When a caı is b]aked to a stop, its kinetic energy is tİans-
(ity, what can you say about its kineti(, potential, and formed to
heat eneİ9y?

A) a stopping energy B) potential energy

potential kinetiC heat
c) energy of motion D) energy of rest
A) descreases not Changes lncrea5es
E) heat
B) increases not change5 increases
c) decreases increases increase5
D) increases increases decreases
E) decreases not changes not change5

'l 1. A 5 kW pulley lifts 20 kg load 20 m in 2 s. 16. An electric motor of power 400 w is lifting an object of
'l
20 kg.
What is the efficiency ofthe pulley?
How high can the obje(t be ,aised in 30 s? (9 = lom/s])
B)35% CJ4O% D) 45o/o EJ 6o0/o
^\2O%
A)40m B)30m c)20m D)lom E)5m

l2. lt takes 80 J to push a large box 8 m across a floor.

Assuming the push is in the same direction as the move,

what İs the magnıtude ofthe force on the box?

I7. A man throws a ]00 9 stone from the top of a 100 m cl|ff
A)4 N B) 10 N c)40 N D)80 N E) 160 N with a speed of 60 m/s.

what is the kinetic eneİgy of the stone when it lands in

a lake below?
'l3. An electric motor, with an input power of 400 W, produces
320w of mechanical power.
A) 180 J B) 280 J c) 320 -, D) 480 J E) 576 J

The efficiency of the motor is

A) 20%. B)25%. C) 55%. D) 80olo. E) 90%

] 8. Potential energy is the energy possessed by an obje(t to

14. An object which weighs 20 N is dropped from rest from a
height of 5 m above the ground.
A) its Volume

what is its total me(hani(al energy with resped to the B) its position
ground when it has f]ee-fallen 2 m? c) its Velocity
D) its acceleration

J B) 40J c) 60 J D) 80 ., E) ]00 J E) its shape

^,25

@
 Ç
?
o #

63
59
E\
55
4o
-3840
38 39 41 48 51
17 39 41 43 45
38 40

ı ı

7
UNıT 5

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

 Cl.

ı]lt
=
,r=
4
=- 60

,: = 4l)
o=
=2 ()
10=
0
20=
ı
30= =- 20 ı
ı
40
r-ı

y
.t
İ ı I
?
İ
9,5,1, HEAT, TEMPERATuRE AND ıİ{TERNAI ENERGY
9.5.1.1. Heat and Temperatuıe Concepts
9.5.1.2. kinds of Thermometers
9.5.1.3. Calcu]ation of Temperature Units
9,5.1.4. Specific Heat and Heat Calıacity
9.5.1.5. Factors Affecting the Change at the Temperature of a Substance
9,5,2. cHAilGE ıN PHYsıcAt 5TATES oF MATTER
9.5.2.1. Vaılables that the Amount of Heat Required to Change the Physical State of Pure Substances
Depend on
9,5,3, THERMAt EQuLıBRıuM
9.5.4. HEATTRAf{sFER
9.5.4.1. Energy Transferring Methods
9.5,4,2. Rates of Heat Transfer
9.5.4.3. lnsulation foı Energy Conservation
9,5.4.4. Felt Aiı Temperatu.e or Apparent
9.5.4.5. Globa l Warmi n gTem perature
9.5.4.5. GlobalWarming
9,5,5. ExPAilsıof{
9.5.5.r. Expansion of 5olids and Liquids
 9.5.1 HEAT, TEMPERATURE AND İNTERNAL ENERGY

i -ı. l ,. |,ğ],.!;ır]d Tsrnperature concepts

You have probably warmed your hands on a cold winter day by rubbin9 them
together. Where does the heat come from? lfyou hammer a nail into a thick board,
the nail becomes hot. Again, where does the heat come from? Before answering
this question, let us try to answer the question "what is heat?"

The early scientists were familiar with cenain facts about heat.They knew, for
example, that if hot water is poured into cold water, the hot water becomes cooler
and the cold water becomes hotteı lt was known that a hot object does not lose
mass a5 it cools, even though it loses heat. so heat mu5t be something that flows,
and that it is therefore a fluid. Moreover, it must be a weightless fluid.This mysteri-
ous fluid was called caloric bythe scientists.

According to the caloric theory the fluid caloric is found in all substances in
Varyin9 amounts. This theory certainly explained the exchange of heat when hot
and cold water were mixed. According to this theory some of heat in the hot water
flowed into the cold water. However, the caloriC theory did not explain the heat of
friction; that is, the heat released when you rubbed your hand5 to warm them.Thus
the caloric theory was not supported by experimental evidence. But still the ques-
tion remained, "wheİe dad the heat come fİom?" i]
L
Later on, the scientist, Rumford, figured that the mechanical energy put into
a system was transformed into heat. Then he said that heat is a foım of eneıgy.
Today this idea is accepted by all scientists and it accounts for all the various kinds
of physical change associated with heat.
J
since heat is a form of energy, what is the nature of heat? All matter i5 made
up oftiny particles. Heat energy is related to the motions ofthese parti(les. As you
know, matter may be a solid, or a liquid or a gas. The particles of gases have more
freedom of motion than the particles of liquids or solids. ln a gas, there are rela- ı
tively large spaces between the particles, so they can move freely in all directions.
The particles of liquids are also free to move. But a solid Cannot flow. lt is believed
that the particıes of a solid Vibrate back and forth.

lf a bar of copper is heated, it expands. Telephone wires become longer on

hot summer days. Why does the copper expand? why do the wires become longer?
Heat supplies energy to force the particles a little farther apart. Particles separated
in this way have potential energy, energy of position. Thus both the kinetic energy
and the potential energy ofthe particles are increased by the heat.The total ofthe
kinetic and potential energies of the particles of a substance is called the İnternal
energy of that substance.

You know that heat flows from a hot object to a cold one. When this happens
the hot object loses some of its internal energy, and the cold object gains internal

223
 energy. Thus heat means a change in inteha| ene]gy. Heat transferred to an ob-
ject is stored in that object as internal energy not a5 heat. lf heat enters the object,
the internal energy of the object is increased. lf heat leaves the object, the internal
energy ofthe object is decreased.

Temperatuİe
lt is important not to confuse the temperature of an object with the heat en-

E-_+ş ı
r
ergy. Temperature refers to the hotness or coldness of a body. lf heat is given to a
bod, its temperature rises. But temperature is not the same as heat. Temperature
is not a form ofenergy. Then what is temperature?

The temperature of a substance i5 related to the speed of its particles; the

higher the temperature, the faster they move. The atoms and molecules in a sub-
stance do not always travel at the same speed. This means that there is a range of

tr:-
Lı
energy (the energy of motion) among the molecules. ln a gas, for example, the
molecules are traveling in random directions at a Variety of speeds - some are fast

r] and some are slow.

l
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy in molecules or atom5
of a substance. since it is an average measurement, it does not depend on the
number of particles in an object. ln that sense it does not depend on the size of
when water is heated its temPerafu.e increases.
it. For example, the temperature of a small cup of boiling water is the same as the
temperature of a large pot of boiling water. EVen if the large pot is much bigger
than the cup and has million5 and million5 more water molecules.

(( ( Y' ))) (rr \' ))) ((

\' )) ((
rJ ))

(tr t )))
J
((
J ))
(rr ))) ((
J))
(tr 9 )) ) (rr \' ) ))
(( .J ))
(t İ' ))

((( J ))) ( )
( ( ( \.' ) )) (r
c )) (b ) ((
\' ))

The temPerature of a is bigger than b because the average energy of Particles in a is greater thaı that of b

How can temperature be measured? Because you cannot measure the speeds
of particles, you cannot measure temperature directly. However, temperature can
be measured indirectly. For example, an object expands when its temperature is
raised. 5ince you can measure the amount of expansion, you can use the change in
length or volume as an indirect way of measuring temperature.

we experience temperature every day.when it is very hot outside orwhen we

have a fever we feel hot and when it is snowing outside we feel cold. When we are
boiling water, we wait for the water temperature to increase and when we make
popsicles we wait for the liquld to become very cold and freeze.

224
 Temperature is measured with a thermometer. Three temperature scales are
currently in use. Their units are "c (degrees Celsius), K (Kelvin), and "F (degrees
Fahrenheit).
Thermometer
Heat changes in chemical reactions or in mixtures are measured by a device stirrer
called calorimeter. A calorimeter is a well-insulated vessel containing a liquid, usu- styrofoam
ally watet A calorimeter has two Vesse|s. one ofthem is stood on a piece of cork or cups
other poor Conducting material inside the wider vessel. This cork, and the ıayer of
air between the two vessels, tend to reduce loss of heat by conduction. There are
a small stirrer in the calorimeter to keep the temperature constant all over, and a l

ila
thermometer. Reaction
mixture
The 5l unit of heat is joule which is represented by J. Joule is The amount of
heat necessary to raise the temperature of 0.24 9 of water from 14.5 "c to 15.5 'c.
A thousand joules is called a kilojoule, kJ. Caloıie is also in use as a unil of heat. lt

is abbreviated as (al. A thousand calories is called a kilocalorie, kcal. one calorie is

the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 9 ofwater by 1 'c.
calorimeteı
The relationship between the calorie and the joule was frrst established by
James Prescott Joule and is given by 'l Cal = 4.184 J o] ı J = 0.24 Cal.

DlDYoU KNoW?
ExAMPLE
The sum of the kinetic ond potentiol en-
)erform unit conver5ion5 related to heat ener9y. ergies of partıcles forming o substonce
is called internal enerw. As the ıpeed of
'! . 1(Xt Ca| = joule
..,,..........,...
the particıes increoses, the kinetic ener-
2. 2O92o joule =............_....cal gies dlso increase. we perceive this en-
erw increose os o temperoture increose,
That is, the temperoture is o meosure of

@ the overage kinetic energies of the parti-

cles forming a substonce. Heot energy is
the energy transferred between two sub-
1.'l0O cal = 4.184 x 100 = 4'l84 joule stdnces ot different temperutures.
2. 20920 joule = 20920/4.184 = 50OOcal

9.5.1 .2. Kinds of Theımometers

A thermometer is a device that measures temperature. Most 5ubstances eX-
]and when heated and shrink when cooled. The thermometer5 we use in everyday
ife are designed around this property of matter. These are based on the principle
:hat liquids expand much more than solids when heated. Mercury and colored al-
:ohol are the usual thermometer liquids. when the thermometer bulb is warmed
Jp, the liquid in it expands but the glass bulb expands very little. A5 a result, the
iquid is forced out of the bulb and along the capillary tube in the stem.

225
 o

ı,
l00

l50
İı

(a) (b) (c)

(a) wall thermomet€rs measuIe üe temPerature ofthe places we live.

(b) The temperature for cooking in the oven should be about 250 'C.
(c) The freezer compartm€nts in refrigerators have a temperature ofaPp.oximate]y -18 'C and
the other compartments have a temPe.atufe of3-4 "c.

Bulb Thermometers

A5 shown in the Figure, a mercury thermometer consists of a 9la5s bulb an(

a stem. First the bulb and the stem are filled with mercury. Then the stem i5 seale(
by melting the glass. Mercury like other substances, expands when heated, an(
contracts when cooled.

To read the rise or fall of mercury level, a scale must be marked on the stem
The first step in marking a scale is to select two fixed points of widely separatec
temperatures.The usual reference temperatures are the freezing point and the boil
ing point ofwateı To mark the loweı fixed point, the bulb and the part ofthe sten
are immersed in crushed ice. Then the mercury contracts and the mercury level ir
the stem falls.when the contraction stops, the lowest level reached bythe mercur1
i5 marked. To mark the upper fixed point, the bulb ofthe thermometer is placed ir
boilıng water. The mercury expands and the mercury level rises in the stem. wher
the expansion stops, the hi9hest level reached by the mercury is marked.

l00,c bailin9 A liquid thermometer should have the following characteristics in order to b(
point of
water able to measure precisely.

l. A fluid with high expansion characteristics must be used a9ainst tempera

ture changes.
20,c 2. The bulb should be large and therefore have a large amount of liquid.
room
0,c temperature 3. The capillary tube shou|d be narrow.

_20"c moitin9 4.The expansion property ofthe material to be prepared must be low.
paİnt of 5. There must be many divisions on the capillary tube.
water
we use liquid thermometers in different areas in everyday life. Wallthermom
A mercuıy üermometer eter, ıaboratory thermometer and patient thermometer are examples of liqui<
thermometers.

2?6
 'c ı
§0
a0
1,. 0

*
ü
wall thermometer l-aboratorv thermometer patient thermometer

Bimetallic stİıp The]mometers

RiVet
Contact

v wire
,il
Wire

Ba5e BimetalIic strip a I

Bulb thermometers are good for measurin9 temperature accurately, but they
re harder to use when the goal is to control the temperature. The bimetallıc strip
1ermometer, because it is made of metal, is good at controlling things.

The principle behind a bimetallic strip thermometer relies on the factthat dif-
]rent metals expand at different rates as they warm up. By bonding two different
]etals together, you can make a simple electric controller that can withstand fairly
Bimetallic striP thermometer
igh tempeİatures. This sort ofcontroller is often found in ovens.

Meta| thermometers are used in environments where Very high temperature

)easurements are made. For example, thermometers measurin9 the temperature
fthe ovens and the temperature ofthe meat can be given as an example for metal
ıermometers.
 il

'li
şr}Ja
/
i'\ rı l
t

ı
.

İ:il
7 l l 7
E
I (
\
Cooking thermometer foa mea§uriıg meat Measurement wiü bimetallic striP thermometer
temperafure by immersing the meat

Gas Thermometers

A 9as thermomet€r measures temperature by the Variation in volume or pre:

sure of a gas. one common apparatus is a constant Volume thermometer. lt cor
sists of a bUlb connected by a capillary to a manometer. The bulb is filled with
gas such that the volume of the gas in the bulb remains constant. The volume ]

related to temperature by K, known as Charles's Law. The pressure of the gas in th

bulb can be obtained by measuring the level difference in the two arms ofthe m.
nometer.These instruments use gases such as hydrogen, helium and nitrogen. G€
thermometers are often used to calibrate other thermometers. Gas thermometeı
are also used in research laboratories to measure very low temperatures.

,{
İL-
a
L
ı.
#
J 150 \
100
\
(__
I --)
}
:§o 2ü' [.

3m

l /

Gas thermometer A constant volume gas thermometer

@
 otherthan these, different thermometefs manUfactured for varıous purposes
are used today. The laser thermometers shown in the picture below and patient
thermometers digitally measure the temperature Values.

ı
I

l
\_ JE5tl
t
i

Precision digital Patient thermometel u§ed in hosPitals - Digital patient thermomete. used in our homes

9.5.1.3. Calculation of Temperature U nits

REsEARcH
The celsİus scale sets the temperature of freezing of water to be 0 'c and )
the temperature of boiling water to be 100'c. The space between these two fixed Depending on the intended use, inves-
points is then divided into 100 divisions caİled degrees. This celsius scale was for-
tigate different thermometer types ond
merly called the centi9rade scale. temperature units.
The Fahıenhelt scale defines the normalfreezing and boilin9 points ofwater Presentyour results os o poster presento-
to be exactly 32 "F and 2ı2'F respectıVely. There are ı80 division, or 180 degrees, tion on the class clipboard.
between these temperature limits on the Fahrenheit scale. The size of a degree on
the Fahrenheit scale is only ı 00/180, or 5/9, times that on the celsius scale.To con-
Vert degrees Fahrenheit to degree celsius, we write

LOOK AT LİNKS
5'C
'C = ('F - 32'F) x You can watch the video at the following ge-
9"F
neral network address for the subject expres-

To conVert degrees celsiu5 to degrees Fahrenheit, we write sion ond somple solutions about the themo-
meters.

"F=
9'C x('c)+:z'F https!/goo,gnKrel L
5"F

How cold can a substance be Cooled? As any material is cooled, the molecules
that are its building blocks gradually lose kinetic energy, when this energy has de-
creased as much as possible, the temperature can drop no lower. This theoreti(al
lower limit of temperature is reached approximately -273 'c. Thi5 lowest tempera-
ture is called absolute zeıo.

2?9
 ln View of the fact that there exists an absolute minimum of temperature, an-
ı(*nı cıİfuı Fı'r..İ.il
373x l occ - 212 ç -I other scale, called an absolute temperature scale now called the Ke|vin scale. The
starting point ofthe Kelvİn scale is the absolute zero. on the Kelvin scale, the freez-

t t
ing point of water is 273 K and the boiling point of water is 373 K. The difference
between the two temperatures the same on this scale as on the celsius scale.The

l l
is

celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin temperature scales are compared in the Figure on
the left hand side.

273l< o.c - QF _I The relationship between the Ke|vin scale and the Celsius scale is given by

K='c+273

There is no negatiVe Values on the KelVin scale. For example, the freezin9 and
comParison ofthe celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kel- boiling Points of nitrogen are -2i 0 "c and -195 'c respectively. These temperatures
vin temPeratuIe scale§
are (-210 + 273\ = 63 K and (-193 + 273) = 78 K in the Kelvin scale.

one degree Celcius is equal in magnitude to one Kelvin (K\. (Note that the

obsolute temperature scole has no degree sign, so 25 K is called twenty-frve Kelvins.).

The only difference between the absolute temperature scale and the Celsius scale
i5 that the zero position is shifted.

@E
The temPeratuİe on a summer day in lzmi] i5 95 "F. convert this tempeİatuİe
to degree§ celsius

@
'F=eZ+ 9 "C + C=(9S-lZ)xİ =gS'C
5

@Eil
At which temPeİatuİe in 'c, the value read on the Fah]enheİt scale is as twı(e
as the value read on the celsius scale?

@
lf the temperature read on the celsius scale is x, then it i5 2x on the Fahrenheit
scale.To find the value ofx, it i5 5ubstituted into the formula.

'F=ız+9'C 2x=32+ 2x + 0.2x=32 - x=]60

5 5

23o
 ExERclsE

At which temperature do the celsius and Fahrenheit scales point the same number?

-40

EXAMPLE

A temPeratule scalQ sets the normal freezing and boiling Points of water to
be -t 2 "c and 128 'c. lf this th€rmometer is immersed İnto water at 60 'c, how
many divisions does the liguid in the thermometer ]ise from -12?

E@
Let's say, the space between the two fixed points C'l2'c and l28 "c) is divided
into 140 divisions in this thermometer. on the celsius scale, the same space is di
,/ided into 100 diVisions.The size ofone division on the Celsius scale is only 140/100
f,r 1.4 times that on the given scale. Then 60 divisions on the celsius scale equiva-
ent 60 x 1.4 = 84 divisions on g|Ven scale.

ExERclsE

A student makes a thermometer. He defines the freezing and boiling points of water a and b respectively. And then he divides
the space between the two points into (b -a) divisions.

Find a relation bettyeen the celsiu, scale and the student s<ale.

x-a 'c
b-a 100

ExERcısE
150 ,c ..K
ln the followİng table, Galculat€ the equiva|ent Yalues of the giv-
F
en tempeİatule values.
41 "F ..... "c
50 "F K
32"r K
.............
,c 280 K

1
 9.5.1 .4. Specific Heat and Heat Capacity
o naan3 hcet. n n€ın8 m,lı,
(dolt )T i9 tllg clİne, in The item we use while cooking is Very important. The pot transfers the heat
tğnD8ratıJİe. c lı thc
energy taken from the cooker to the food. Pottery, aluminum and steel cookware
imooıtıh pİt, tbouEh, th,t|,
the 3P.clflc h"tı are used for cooking. what Could be the reason for the preference of steel cookers
recently? will the temperature of your steel or your steel pot rise faster? what is the
reason ofthi5?
sPGcific heat?
The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 'l g of a substance
by 1 "C is called the specific heat ofthe 5ubstance. Specific heat is represented by c
and its sl unit is J/kg K. cal/g "c is also used as the unit of specific heat. The specific
heat of a substance does not depend on the amount of matter. That is why it is a
characteristic property. specific heats of some substances are given in the table
below.

heats of some substonces

'Pecific
Specific heat
substance
Jlkg.K cal/g "c
Gold 1290 0.0312
Aluminum 900 o.22
Copper 387 0.09
Benzene 1715 0.41
lce 2090 0.50
,|40
Mercury 0.0079
lron 4M 0.108
Ethyl alcohol 2460 0.552
Silver 231 0.0552
Water 4184
Lead 128
water Vapor 2020
Air l000

Since c joule of heat is necessary to raise the temperature of 'l gİam of a

substance by 1 'C, m x < joule of heat is needed to increase the temperature of m
gram of substance by 1 'c, and m x c x At joule of heat is required to increase the
temperature of m gram substance by At "c. Thus, the quantity of heat is,

Q=mxcxt
units of heat

Specific Temperatuİe Quantity

Mass
heat chanqe of heat
,c
I

Symbol m I

^t
Unit s cal/g.'C "c cal
sl unit kg Jlkg.K K J
 Using Kelvin or Celsius as the unit of temperature does not make any differ-
ence in At,

The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by 't "C is
termed the heat capacity ofthe body.lt is represented by c and its s| unit isJoule/K.

c=mc__, Q=cxt

Daily Life Effects of speCific Heat

The temperature changes of materials with small specific heat are Very fast.
As the temperature increases very quickly, it also falls very fast. ln everyday life we
use this feature of materials in different areas.The rapidity oftemperature changes
is essential for the measurement speed and accurate measurement of the ther-
mometer. As a result of using a low-specific heat liquid in the oil radiator we use
for heating in our homes, the electricity given can be converted to heat energy
immediately. ln the same way, the gases used in air conditioners and refrigerators
and the vessels used for cooking are selected by taking into account the specific
heat of the substance.

tıJ?
ı
ll İll _

ı -!
ıııl
*ı' aı
a ı
oil radiator Refrige.ator aıd air conditioner gas Cooked pan

The seas are warming up late and cooling down while the land quickly warms
and quickly cools down. This causes breeze winds to form. ln other words, it needs RE5EARcH
to take a lot of heat in order to increase the temperature of the water. Because of
----2
this feature, water is currently used for cooling purposes. lnvestigate the daily effeas of tempera-
ture changes of the substances wıth dif-

9.5.1.5. Factors Affecting the Change at the Temperature ferent specific heot. Share examples you

of a substance find with your friends 05 a poster preıen-

totion.
Let! learn the Variables that affect the changes in the temperature of a mate-
rial by doing the following experiments.
 ExPERlMENT r

Th€ (hıngğ İn TemPerature when Equal Amount of Heat ݧ GİYen to Equal Masses ofwater
Puıpo5e:To research the change in temperature when equal amount of heat is given to equal masses ofwater

EquiPment

ıts
1. Beaker (/too mL)

2. Alcohol burner

3.Two test tubes

r,
- ı}ı ,-
ıl :-ı E
4. water

5. Four clamps

6.Two ring stands

7. Graduated cylinder
a,,
8. Two thermometers

9.Tripod
fu;
10. stinıng rod
ş
Pıo<eduıe

1. Fill the two-thirds ofthe beaker with water and place on the tripod.

2. Put 10 mL of water and a thermometer into two test tub€s.

p
a
3. set up the apparatus as shown in the figure. Wait a few minutes and record a
the temperature of water in the tubes. ı
t_ *iı-.l
5. Heatthe water in the beaker up to 50'c. For homogeneous heatin9, stirthe
water in the b€aker.

6.stop the heating and measure the temperature ofwater

Quastıons
in the test tubes.
E r
ı l
ı. Find the changes in temperatures in both testtubes. Are they almost equal?

2. lf the initia|temperatures ofwater samples in the testtubes were different, ı

would there be any difference in temperature changes? ]

when two test tubes are placed into hot water at the same time, and both
test tubes contain the same mass of water, the temperature of the two increases
identicalıy a5 you see in the experiment. Thus, temperature change is proportional
to the amount of heat added.

AT cıQ

?34
 EXPERİMENT 2

The changes in TemPeratur€ when the same Amount of Heat is Given to Diffeİ€nt Masses of water

PurPose: To research the change in temperature when equal quantity of heat is given to different masses of water

Equipment

1.Two beakers (250 mL) ı

I
2. Two alcohol burners

3.water

4. Two clamps

5. Two ring stands ') ı--i*ı

6. Graduated cylinder

-a'_)
7. Two thermometers

E. Two tripods \*-_-/

9.stirring rod ı ı
procedure ı ı_ a
1. Put 200 mL and t 00 mL of water into two beakers

2. set up the apparatus as shown in the figure aside.

3. Measure the temperature of water in two beakers

4. Heat them with identical alcohol burners.

5.when the temperature ofone ofthem becomes 35'C, stop heating both ofthem
5. Measure the frnaş temperature.

Questions
ı. Does the amount of heat given to wateİ samP|es equal?

2. Are the changes in temperatures the same? lf not, why?

3.what kind of relation is there between the tempe]ature change and the mass?

when two beakers are placed on identical alcohol burners, and one beaker
has twice as much water as the other, the temperature ofthe larger volume ofwa-
ter rises half as much as the temperature of the smaller volume of water. The tem-
perature increase is inversely proportional to the mass of the substance. Thus, we
can write

llo 1m

235
 EXPERİMENT 3

The changes in Temperature when the same Amount of Heat is Given -l

to Diffeİent substances Having Equal Masses

Purpose:To research the temperature increase, when the same amount of

heat energy added to equal masses ofdifferent substances
{ Lr ı

EquiPment
t ry& ıy§
1. Two beakers (250 mL) 2. Two alcohol burners = ir
3. water 4. olive oil l .ı
5. Two clamps 6. Two ring stands
7 ı -ğ
7. Graduated cylinder
9. Two tripods
8. Two thermometers
10, EquaFarm balance
l
-a_
11. set of standard masses

procedure

1. Put l00 9 of water and 100 g of olive oil into two beakers.
2. set up the apparatu5 a5 5hown in the figure.
3. Measure the first temperatures of water and olive oil with a thermometer and record them in the table given below.

temperature
maüer
0. dk 5. dk 10. dk 15. dk 20. dk

'l00
9 water

'l00
9 oıive oil

4. start to heat the beakers with the alcohol burners at the same time. Mea5ure the temperature of the heated water and olive
oil every 5 minutes and record in the table. Heat the beakers for 20 minutes.
5. Draw temperature-time graphs for both liquids using the data in the table.

rİı
-t-tl-t-l_
l
i- -

--J_ _-l
lll il

+ ' 1 l- i -l ı

Ti.ne{mb) Tirrp kninl

236
 l. Are the changes in temperatures the same? lf not, Why?
2. Does the temperature chan9e depend on the kind of matter?
3. can you identify a 5ubstance by means of this experiment?

The same amount of heat energy added to equal masses of different sub-
stances wilı produce a greater temperature change for one than it does for another.
We conclude that the temperature change depends on the substance to which
we add the heat. we include this in our proportionality observations by use of the
specific heat for a particular material. DİD YOU KNOW?
The amount of heat energy token or given
AT o __:
C by a substonce thot vories in temperoture T
is colculoted by the following mothemotical
Thus, the larger is c the smaller is the temperature increase. Let us collect all
model.
of our observations into a 5ingle formula,
Q=m,c,AT

ATcım.c 1
or Q=m.c.AT

9.5.2 CHANGE ıN PHY5ıGAL sTATEs oF MATTER

9.5.2.1. Variables that the Amount of Heat Requıred to change the

Physical State of Pure Substances Depend on

ı \

€'

\l
.e3lğ
,
mehing heat added
=-_
50lid
_-E.
soıidifi cation heat removed
ı
liquid
(]har8es oi stati,

we know that the substances can be found in various physical states. A sub-
stance may pass from one to the other when the necessary conditions arise. lt is
called the change of state when the substance is changed from one form to an-
other. when the substance changes state, it takes heat or gives heat.

237
 3 o o
o
o o o
o o
Solid Liquid Gas
The distances between the Paİticles ofthe §ubstance üat change physical state also change.

The change of the physical state of a substance occurs by the change of the
weak interactions between the molecules. When a substance takes heat energy,
only the kinetic energy of the particle5 Varies, as the potential energy of the parti-
cles may change. When the solid and liquid substances are heated, the tempera-
ture increases as the kinetic energy of the particles increases for a cenain Perıod
of time. After a while, the increase in kinetic energy ends and the potential energy
ofthe particles inCreases. As the potential energy increases, the distance between
the particles increases.

ln thi5 section, we will learn the transition between solid, liquid and 9as states
of matter. The weak interactions between the particles get weaker and the matter
changes its physical state. Durin9 the change of state, only the potential energy of
the particles increases, so no temperature change is observed. The temperature
Value at which the chan9e of state takes place is called the state chan9e tempera-
ture. The state change temperature is also a distinguishing property forthe sub-
stances. Letl examine the state changes that took place in different ways.

x
.,
ı Melting and Freezing
I As mentioned earlier, matter can exist in three different states; solid, liquid
^/ and gas. The state depends on the temperature. lce is the solid form of water. lf
ice is heated, it melts and changes to a liquid state. The change of state from solid
to lıquid is called melting. The temperature at which melting occurs is called the
melting polnt. Conversely, the change from liquid to solid is called freezing and
the temperature at which freazing occurs is called the freezıng point. Actually the
melting and freezing points of a given substance are the 5ame. Fi9ure 9iven below
shows the meltin9 of ice and the freezin9 ofwater

lf you live in a part of your country where it 5nows in the winteı you see that a
big pile of snow takes longer to melt than a small one. Does this mean that the big
pile melts at a higher temperature? To answer such a question, let us see whether
l the meltin9 and freezing temperatures are really characteristic properties of the
substances. To do so, we shall measure the freezing temperatures of some sub-
Ice melting is a phase change.
stances by using samples ofdifferent mass.

,?i ı)
 sdid !ş:\ |htld
melts sdkJ

|ıqJk
]

+
heat
s
I

Melting of ice and freezing of water

When a solid melts or a liquid freezes temperature remains constant. There

are some attractive forces between solid particles. As the temperature of solid in-
creases, the heat energy increases and the particles Vibrate faster and faster. A5
they vibıate the partic|es begin to overcome the attractiVe forces.Then, at a certain
temperature, the particıes begin to move f.eely and 5lide over each other.This Pro-
cess is called melting. The attractive forces in solid phase are stronger than that of
liquid phase. The heat energy given to so|id when it melts is used to weaken the
attractive forces and to increase the distance between the particles. when all the
solid becomes liquid the temperature begins to rise again.

temperature

liquid
increase5
m.p

part l part ll part lll

heat
solid solid+liquid liquid
The temPeratuJe-time gIaph for melting ofa solid. Paİt I Heat ener8y increases the kinetic energy of
the Panicles and the temperature. Paİt II solid melts. Solid and liquid phases are together. The di§tance
between particles and theiİ potential energies increase because ofthe heat energy. Part III Substance is
in liqrıid Phase. Kinetic ener8ies ofParticle§ and temPerature increase.

At the melting point, the kinetic energies of the particles in solid and liquid
states equal. But the liquid particles have higher potential energy than the solid
particles. The heat energy given to the solid as it melts, i5 converted to potential
energy. ln other word5 heat energy is used to melt solid.

From observation5 and measurements it is concluded that,

1. The freezing temperature of a substance is equal to the meltin9 tempera-

ture ofthe same 5ubstance.

239
 2.The melting and freezing points ofsubstances are characteristic properties.

l They do not depend upon the amount ofthe 5ubstances.

3. The cooling curve of a substance has a flat section. All the flat sections of
the graphs occur at two temperatures. The flat section indi(ates that the tempera-
ture stays constant during the freezing or me|ting.The fact that no part ofthe curve
is flat means that the substance, as in candle wax, ha5 no freezin9 point.
4. Meıtin9 points of many solids are not affected by the pressure exerted on
them. But when some solids like ice melt their volumes decrease and their den-
sities increase. The increase in the pressure on these substances, de(reases their
melting points.
5. lmpurities in solids lower their freezin9 points. For example, if table salt is
added jnto pure wateı the freezing point of this mixture is below 0 "c. Table salt is
frequently used to melt ice on roads in winter. Antifreeze, when added to the cool-
ing system ofan automobile, protects from freezing in cold weather.

İ;l f
EXAMPLE
[-
r§
Temperature

ı l

Time
B c

The graph given above represents the cooling curve of paradichlorobenzene. Dur-
in9 which time intervals is there

a. only liquid,

b. only solid,

c. both liquid and solid?

@
a. Durin9 the time interval A, the substance i5 only liquid

b. During B the substance is both liquid and solid.

c. During the time interval c, the substance is only solid.

240
 - ı
,a,r'
J{
ffi
)

I ) aı

===-6_ l
-
After the snow falls, üe air cools dou,n. Because the §now melt§ it takes h€at from the In cold weather storage, when the water is frozen, it gives offheat and
enüronmenL Prcvents the vegetables f;om freezin8

Heat of Fusion (meltlng)

lf a sample of ice at -20 "c is heated, the temperature of the ice rises until its
melting point (0'c) is reached. The temperature then remains steady until all the
ice is melted. At this point the temperature of the water begins to rise. Now let us
|earn how to find the heat that accompanies the phase changes. For any ob.iect
r/vhose temperature changes because of loss or gain of heat, the heat can be calcu-
ated by the formula,

Q=mx(xAt
There is no temperature change during the pha5e changes, (melting or boil-
ngJ.Then the heat given during melting can be calculated by usin9 the latent heat
)f fusion or latent heat of melting. Latent heat of fusion (Q of a substance i5 the
lmount of heat required to melt l gram of a substance without change of tem-
)erature. ln 5l, the unit of latent heat of fusion is J/kg.

Therefore the heat gained or lost during the melting and the freezing of a
;ubstance is

Heat = Mass x Latent h€at offusion

Q=mxtt
Where

m = mass in kilograms,

lü = heat offusion in Joule/kg,

Q = heat in kilojoules.

The table given on the next page shows the melting points and the latent
ıeats offusion ofsome common substances.
 Melting points and heıt offusiotts of some cornmon substonces

Melting point Heat offusion

5ubstance l
fc) (cal/g)

Aluminum 658.0 62800 2.520

,l26000 30.24o
Benzene 5.5

Copper l080.0 2070oo 49.6ao

DİDYOU KNOW? Ethyl alcohol l08000 25.92o
-114.4
The heot energy that must be token for the Gold l063.0 62800 15.o72
melting of a given mass of o substance at the l
lce 0.0 335000 80.400
meking (freezing) temperoture ond the heat
_39.0 ,l400
energy thot must be given for the freezing Mercury l 2.736

are found by mothemoticol model silVer 960.0 88300 21.92o

Q=m.Lr
lron 1530.0 33000 7.90o

Evaporation
lf you set a beaker ofwater out on a table, after a few hours some ofthe wa
ter will have evaporated. To see why this occurs, consider the molecules near th(

t ı \;
surface of the liquid. The average kinetic energy of molecules in a liquid depend:
on the temperature. However, at a given temperature some ofthe liquid molecule:
have a higher energy than the average. They gain this higher kinetic energy b)
collisions and interchanges of energy between them and other molecules in th(
<..J

-r
lı \ liquid. ln fact they often receives a large enough kinetic energy to escape from tht
\ surface of the liquid. This process, the change from liquid to vapor, is called evapo
ration and the 9as formed by the evaporation of the liquid is called a Vapor.
I

Fa§ter moving molecules are able to escape
a liquid
lf you place a few drops of rubbing alcohol on the back of your hand, you no
tice that it feels cool. After swimming, you surely have noticed that your wet bod,
feels Cooler than it did when it was dry The reason for this cannot be related to thı
temperature of the liquid because the same 5ensation is felt even after a hot bath
from A deeper look at the process of evaporation provides an explanation. since thı
faster molecules escapq the average speed ofthe remaining molecules decreases
and therefore the temperature of the lıquid is lowered. ln other words, the aver
age kinetic energy of the liquid molecules i5 decreased, and therefore evaporatioı
cool5 the liquid that remain5 in the container. Evaporation is a cooling process.

Liquids evaporate at almost every temperature, but it is Very difficult to ob

serve this. HoweveÇ drying of wet clothes. and melting of snow in winter show u
that evaporation of water can take place at any temperature. The rate of evapor;
tion can be increased by increasing temperature. increasing the surface area an,
presence of air currents. An increa5e in the ratio of moisture in the air decreases th
rate of Vaporization.

?42
 / \

/
l- il> (

Wll
(

l
EEl
\
\ r-
(ı
I

l
\,

i) (İr
ğ
r
'
;) When cologne eı.aporates it cools ouİ hands.
ı)When üe water leaking from üe pores ofday jug €vaPorates it takes some heat of clay jug and water and cools them.
) Sweating is the bodyt cooling s}§tem. when !h€ sweat evaPorates (dries), our body gets cool,

The reverse of evaporation (that is, the change from the 9aseous state to the
quid state) is called condensataon. The figure given below shows the changes
etween the two states of matter-

t liquts gl.
o
,
h€gı O
| ıqılo
condorİs6 a
* ,.,,O a ,,o

ExERclsE
ether a piece of
As shown in the figure a watch glass with some ether in it wet cloth
is placed on a piece of wet cloth. After a while, water in the
cloth freezes as the ether evaporates. Explain what hap-
pened?

Boİling
when water is heated, the temperature rises and the rate of evaporation in-
]ases. Eventually the water becomes so hot that bubbles of vapor are formed
İhin the water. The bubbles rise to the surface and explode. When this takes
ıce the water is said to be boiling. The temperature at which it takes place is

r
lled the boilin9 poınt ofthe liquid.

i,4: I
,!
 Every substance has its own particular boiling point. These characteristic tem-
peratures for some common substances are 9iven in the table below.

Boııiflg poınts of some comırıofı substances

substance Boiling Point ('c)

Benzene 80.1

Ethylalcohol 78.0

zinc 918.0
Aluminium 2467.o
Copper 2595.0
Hydrogen _252.o

lron 3000.0
,] ,]70.0
Lead
Mercury 357.0
Temperature ("c)
oXygen - 184.0

sulfur dioxide _,l0.0

sulfuric acid 316.o

100
water ] 00.0
Nitrogen _196.0

Boiling Points ofwater ıneasured at different pıessures

t
lf water in a beaker is heated, its temperature ri5e5 steadily until it boils. Ho\
heat eveı the temperature of boiIing water does not rise above İts boiling point, I

Ql V2 matter how strongly it is heated. what happens to the heat put into boilin9 wat€
The heat put into boiling Water is used to overcome the force of attra(tion betwe(
water molecules and push them farther apart.The temperature ofthe Vapor is tl
Temperature ("C)
same a5 the temPerature of boiling water. Hence, when water is boiling, the aV(
age speed of the molecules in the liquid as the same as the average speed of tl
molecules in the vapor. Therefore the kinetic energy of molecules does not chan,
ll when boiling water becomes water vapor. However the potentıal energy chan9l
100
The heat does work in pushing molecules apart, and this energy is stored in t
molecules of vapor a5 potential energy.
t
Thus heat put into boilin9 water does not raise its temperature. lnstead t
heat heat increases the potentiaI energy of molecules.
2Q, 2Q,
lf different amounts of water are placed into two beakers and heated w
GİaPh-I i§ for m 8 wateı GraPh-tt is for 2m water identical heaters, both of them boil at the same temperature. But the water w
Twice üe mass doe§ oot change üc boiling point of
wateı But lıeating and boiling Periods b€com€ twice. more quantity starts to boil later. BoiIing point of a liquid is a characteristic pr(
erty. lt does not depend on the amount of liquid.

244
 ln spite of evaporation takes place at the su rface and at all temperatures, even
below melting point (sublimation), boiling takes place throughout the liquid at a
:ertain temPerature (boiling point). During the evaporation no bubbles of vapor
:an be seen. But when a liquid boils, bubbles ofvapor are formed within the liquid.

Boiling points ofwater and other liquids depend on the pressure. At sea level
]r at 'l atmosphere pressure, pure water boils at l00 "c. Normal boiling point of a
iquid is the boilin9 point of that liquid at 'l atm pressure. Boiling points of liquids
neasured at the same pressure can only be compared. BecaUse, when the pressure
ıf the surroundings is changed, the boiling points of liquids also change.

At high altitudes, the air pressure decreases and water boils before l00'C.
]ut below sea level, the air pressure increases and water boils over 'l00 'C. Boiling
)oints of water at different air pressures are given in the Table below.

Altitude Pressure (mmHg) b.p. ("c)

(m) 'l2200 225 69

6100 350 79
a,
İ, I
4570 424 84
l
3050 522 90
I

1220 656 96
I

610 702 98
I

760
,]
0 00
I

(t, -6.1 12l0 114

I

3 _,l2.2 1650 123

.=
-a _l8.3 2l00
,l
31

o
oJ
_36.6 3450 149

water in a closed container can be made to boil at 25'c in a partial Vacuum

yen though it is at sea level. on the contrary water is boiled at 120 'c by increas-
]9 the pressure over water. The pressure cooker works on the same principle. lt
; sealed container from which steam cannot escape up to a certain pressure. The
,ressure i5 increased to make the water boil at higher temperatures. The cooker's
ontents can be raised to a higher temperature decreasing the cookin9 time.

The boiling point depends on the kind of liquids. lf the attractive forces (inter-
ıolecular forces) in a liquid are weak, it boils at a low temperature. The weaker the
ıtermolecuıar forces, the lower the boiling point. For example, the intermolecular
)rces in ethyl alcohol are lower than water. That is why at the same temperature,
]e evaporation rate of ethyl alcohol is faster than water, and its boiling point is
)wer than water. Normal boiling points of ethyl alcohol and water are 78 'c and
0o 'c respectively.

245
 ExERclsE

thermometer rubber
ln Figure-a, the water in the container is boiling. r it is held upside down under
tubin9
a tap for little while,first its boiling stops but |t starts to boilagain. Explain why?

tt tt
heai
(a) (b)

Another factor that affects the boiıin9 point of a substance is the presenc(
of impurities. When a liquid with a higher boiling point or a solid dissolved iı
a liquid, its boiling point increases and the rate of evaporation gets slower. Thl
change in the boiling point of a liquid is directly proportional to the amount o
substance dissolVed in a unit vo|ume of liquid. (Be careful: Although impuritie
lower the melting point, they raise its boiling point.)

After many observations and measurements, it is concluded that,

1. A liquid evaporates at any temperature.

2. when a liquid begins to boil, the temperature stays constant until a

the liquid boils away. The heat given increases the potential energy of the mol
ecules.

3. The boiling points do not depend on how much liquid there is at th

beginning or on how much is left. Therefore, boiling point of a liquid is a chaı
acteristic property of the kind of liquid.

@Eil
The melting point§ and boiling Points of some pu]e substances are given iı
the table below. what a]e the physical states ofthese substances at 25 oc?

substance i Melting Point ("c) i Boiling point ('c) (at 1 atm.)

A 0 100

B _20 l0
c 60 105

D _15 25

246
EEEEil .
Substances are solids at lower temperatures than their melting Points and they are
gases at higher temp€ratures than their boiling points.They are liquids at tempera-
tures between their meltin9 and boiling points.

orif t < m. p + substance is solid

m.p<t<b.p + substance is liquid
b.p<t + substance is gas
At 25 'C (t = 25 "C), c is solid, A isliquid, B i5 9a5. since the boiling point of D is
25 "c, it can be liquid or gas at 25'c,

ExERclsE
The melting points (m.p) and the boiling points (b.p) of some substances
substance l
are given in the table on the right. what are the physi(al states of these
substances at X _12 u -l
a. 0 "c, b. 25 "c, c. 100
,c. 21 127

z 254 854
-_

ffir
Suppose that you are given three white, odorless solids X, Y and Z. The solids are
3laced in different test tubes and heated with identical alcohol burners. Then the
lemperature-time 9raphs are plotted for the solid5 as shown in the figure below.

Using the graphs below, tan you identify whether they aıe the same sub-
ıtances oı not?

"c
,c "c
X
7o 7o
solid + solid i solid + liquid
50
solid + liquid
30 30

10

10 time (min) 20 time (min) 30 time (min)

247
 @
since the solids X and z melt at 70 "c, they may be the same substances. To make
sure whether they are the same substances, some other tests such as measuring
the boiling points, densities, etc., 5hould be done. For example, ifthe boilin9 points
and den5ities of X and Z rather than melting points are equal, you can definitely say
that they are the same substan(es.

The melting point ofY is exactly different from those of X and Z. So Y is real|y a dlf-
ferent substance.

ExERclsE
The graph aside shows the temperature changes as a function of time temperature ('c)
as a solid melts. Answ€İ the following questions, usİng thİs gıaph.
l20o
what is the meltinq point of the solid?
1080
what i5 the freezing point ofthe solid?
How long does it take for the solid to start me|ting?
How lon9 does it take for the solid to melt completely?
what are the physical states of the substance in time intervals A,
B, and C?
100 B c
time (min)
020 5 80

F \

I
t

\ı
Z
-ş,.-,-
T sublimation ofdrv i.e

t:

n
Meiting oftold VaPorization ofwater

@
 ı /-
EXPER|MENT 4

Drarüing a Temperature-Time Graph ln(ludes |(e-Water-Vapor Phase Changes

Purpo5e: To draw a temp€rature-time graPh for the melting of ice and then boiling of water formed

EquiPment

ı. Beaker (400 mL) 2. Beaker (250 mL) 3.Table §alt

ıı.Thermometer 5.1ce 6.Tripod
7. Wire gauze 6. Alcohol Burner 9. watch

|- ı r

r
Ç-l
-1
Il
,l 7
ıı a _&, ,-)

. 4=.-.- a ı
-
procedure

1. Prepare a mixture by using equal masses of ice and salt. Put the mixture into the 400 mL beaker. The temperature of this mix-
ture i5 below 0 'c.
2. Put some amount of ice into the 250 mL beaker and then place this beaker into the 40O mL beaker which has the ice-salt
mixture.
3. Dip a thermometer into the ice in the 250 mL beaker and wait for 3 minutes.
4. Heat the 250 mL beaker with an alcohol burner.
5. Read the temperature every minute and record them on the table given below.
6. continue heating until all ofthe ice melts and then boıls.
7. Draw the temperature-time graph by using your results, 50 that the horizontal axi5 shows the time and the Vertical axis shows
the temperature.

ıııI
Time (min) l 2 4 5 6 7 8

Temperature ("c)

1. How many horizontal lines are there on your graph? what do they show?
2.what kind of changes occur5 as the temperature changes and 5tay5 constant?

249
 temperature ("c)
200

150

ll lll
l00
water boil5

50
lce
melts water
0 time
] 2 t 4 5 6 7 ia
_10
lce

The graph you have drawn looks like Figure above. But the melting and
boiling poınts can change depending on the purity of the substance and the
air pressure. During Port l of the curve, the temperature of the ice is changing
from -'10 to 0 "c. when the ice reaches 0 'c, it remains at this temperature-even
though heat is being added-until all the ice melts (Paİt rrr. Between 0 "c and
'l00 'c, there are no phase changes, and all the heat added to the water is be-

ing used to ıncrease its temperature (Part ı ).^t l00 "c, there is another phase
change occurring as the water at l00 'c changes to steam at 1 00 "c (Poİt ryr.

Heat of Vaporizalion (condensotion)

ln liquids, the intermolecular attractive forces are able to hold the mol-
ecuIes of the lıquid together. A molecule in the center of the liquid is attracted
equally in all directions by the surrounding molecules. Molecules at the surface
/ of a liquid, however, are attracted only toward the interior of the liquid.

F} J.,. lncreasing the temperature, that is,9ivin9 heat increases the kinetic en-
ı
ı ergy of molecules. The molecules with kinetic energy high enough to overcome
a l+ai+§ ı
ıı ı the attractive forces can escape from the liquid. soon the liquid boils. When a

aaaat ,'/
liquid boils, the temperature remains constant a5 long as the liquid remains.
, -\ı. The heat given during the boiling can be Calculated from the latent heat
t lrllrır of Vaporization. The heat of Vaporization of a substance is the amount of heat
ı required to change 'l kg of the substance at its boiling point from the liquid to
the gaseous (or Vapor) state; the same amount of heat must be removed from a
unit amount ofthe substance in the gaseous state at its boiling point to change
The intermolecular ettractive forces hold the molecules it into a liquid. The usual symbol for heat of Vaporization is Lv and its sl unit is J/
ofthe liquid to8ether
kg. But the unit cal/g also is used.

Heat required for vaporization = mas5 x heat of Vaporization

Q=mı\

250
 The boıling points and heats ofVaporization of some common substances
are given in the Table below.

Boiiing Points and heats ofvaPorization of some common §ubstances

8oiling Point Heat of VaPorization (U

substance
fc) callg Jlkg
Ethylalcohol 78.5 204 853 000

Lead 1170.0 175 732 ooo

Lithium
,]336.0
5,| 1 2136000 DlDYoU KNow?
Mercury 357.0 71 397 000
The heat enerw thot must be token to boil
Nitro9en _1 96.0 48 20l 000 o certoin mass of a moterial at the boiling
_183.0 (condensation) temperoture ond the heot
oxygen 5l 2,1 3 000
enerw that must be given for condensotion
sulfuric acid 326.o 122 5,10 000
are found by mathematicol model
water 100.0 540 2 260 000 Q=mXLv
Zinc 9,]8.0 475 1 990 000

sublimation

}
-
-

I t
The naphÜalene sublimales and emits odoİ The fiost i§ a form ofPrecipitation When dry ice exposed to air, sublifiation occurs.

Under certain circumstances most substances can change directly from

the solid to the vapor, or vice versa. The process in which molecules go directly
from the solid into the vapor phase is called sublimation and the reverse pro-
cess (that is, from Vapor dire(tly to solid) is called deposition. solid carbon diox-
ide is an example. lt is called'dry ice" because it does not melt. lt tuİns directly
into vapor. Naphthalene, a substance used to keep moths away from clothes
sublimes at İoom temperature. lf the forces between solid particles are weak,
the solid can sublime. At 'l atm pressure, the solids naphthalene, iodine and
arsenic sublime.
 ExPERlMENT 5

sublimation of a substance at room Temperature

Purpos€; To study the sublimation of iodine

cT
Equipment

glass
l.Watch Beaker
2. 3. Alcohol burner
a.Tripod S.|odine 6.1ce
7.Wre gauze
procedure l
ı. Put some iodıne crystals into the beaker. close the beake, with a watch glass. Place
some ice on the watch glass.
2. set up the apparatus as shown in the figure and heat the beaker.
3. Observe the changes underside ofthe watch glass.

Que5tions

1. Did the iodine melt in the beaker?

2. How are the crystals underside the watch glass formed?
3.why was the watch gla55 cooled?

As you have seen in the experiment iodine turns straight from a solid to

LOOK AT LİNKs a gas. lodine sublimed, and then condensed at the top of the container. lodine
has a simple molecular structure. Weak forces hold its molecules in place in its
You can follow the simulotion at the public Cry5tals.
network address below to ob^eNe the change
of stote of the moterial by toking heat energy. 9.5.3. THERMAL EQULıBRıUM
htt p ://p h et.col o rodo.e d u/e n /s i m U l at ion/ l e - lt i5 observed that a higher temperature object which is in contact with a
g o cy / st ote s-of - m ot-te r lower temperature object will transfer heat to the lower temperature object. The
objects will approach the same temperature, and in the absence of lo55 to other
objects, they will then maintain a constant temperature. They are then said to be
in thermal equilibrium.

This does not mean that they contain the same amount of energy. A rock
thrown into the ocean will reach the same temperature as the surround|ng wa-
ter. certainly the ocean has more thermal energy than the rock, but they have the
same temperature.

Heat energy flows from high temperature to low. ln the summer heat goes
from outside where it is 35 'c to inside. ln the winter heat flows from the warm
hou5e to the outside. lt is possible to force heat to flow the wrong way. This is done
by refrigerators and air conditioners, but it requires energy. work ha5 to be done to
make the heat go from cold to hot.

252
 .İ
_
,\
E
t G
,
fr:

r
. -'-- \__,
;lİ
-,
İ_
[-
a
The fruits and vegetables in the relii8erator reach a thermal equilibrium aft€r a while. By taking heat from üe environment, th€ meltin8 ic€ reaches a üermal equi-
librium after a while

ExPERlMENT 6

Heat Ex(har:(€ ıl,rinq the Mixing Two water samples Having Different Temperatures and Masses

Puİpose: To investigate the heat exchange when tlvo samples of water with different temperatures and masses

EquiPment

l.Two beakers (250 mL) rod

2. Stirring 3. Alcohol burner
4.Tripod 5.Thermometer 6.wire gauze

Pro<edu re

ı. Put 50 mL of water into one of the beakers and 100 mL of water

into the other.
2. Heat the beaker containin9 50 mL of water Until the temperature
ofthe water is just above 60 "c. Let it cool, keeping it stirred until l
the temperature isjust 60 'c.
-
3. ln the meantime take the temperature of the cold water in the
=
other beaker.
4. Pour hot water into the cold water,stir well, and note the tem-
perature on the thermometer.
5. Find the change in the temPeratures ofthe samples.

Question,
1.what kind ofchange did you observe in the temperatures ofwa-
ter samples?
2. What kind of heat exchange happened between hot water and cold water?
3. what is the direction ofthe flow of heat?
4. lf the masses of water samples were equal, what would the temperature of the mixture be?

?53
 when hot water is added to cold water the whole comes to one tempera-
TırTa ture. The final temperature is higher than that of the cold water and lower than
that of the hot one. Thus the cold water gains heat, and the hot water loses it.
The heat gained by the cold water is that lost by the hot, 50 that the two quanti-
ties are equal.

Q1"1e1 = Qglven

Heat eıer8y transf€r betıdeen hot and cold wateı

9.5.4. HEATTRANsFER

DİDYOU KNOW? ln the 5implest of terms, the disc|plıne of heat transfer is concerned with
only two things: temperature, and the flow of heat. Temperature represents the
when two bodies with differcnt temperatu-
amount of thermal energy available, whereas heat flow represents the move-
res come into contact with eoch other, heat
ment of thermal energy from place to place. The transfer of heat is normally
exchonge occurs between them. when the
from a high temperature object to a lower temperature object. Heat transfer
heot exchange is over,the finol temperatures
changes the internal energy of both systems involved according to the First
ofthe objects ore the some, ond the amount
Law ofThermodynamics.
of heot given ond token becomes equal.
on a microscopic scale, thermal energy i5 related to the kinetic energy
of molecules. The greater a material's temperature, the greater the thermal
agitation of its constituent molecules (manifested both in linear motion and
Vibrational modes). lt is natural for regions containing greater molecular kinetic
energy to pass this energy to regions with le5s kinetic energy.

9.5.4.1 . Energy Transferrin9 Methods

Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three method5: con-
duction in solids, convection of fluids (liquids or gases), and radiation through
anything that will allow radiation to pass. The method used to transfer heat is
usually the one that is the most efficient. lfthere is a temperature difference in
a system, heat will always move from higher to lower temperatures.

A thermal infrared image of a coffee cup filled with a hot liquid. Noti.e the
rings of co|or showing heat traVeling from the hot liquid through the metal cup.
You can see this in the metal spoon as well. This is a good example of conduc-
tion.

Heat Tıansfer by Conduction

conduction occurs when two object at different temperatures are in con-
tact with each other. Heat flows fİom the warmer to the cooler object until
they are both at the same temperature. conduction is the movement of heat
through a substance by the collision of molecules, At the place where the two
object touch, the fastermovin9 molecules ofthe warmer object collide with the
slowermoving molecu le5 of the cooler object. As they collide, the faster mole-

254
cules give up some of their energy to the slower molecules. The slower mol-
ecules 9ain more thermal energy and collide with other molecules in the cool-
er object. This process continues until heat energy from the warmer object
5preads throu9hout the cooler object.

condu(tion occur5 when a substance is heated, particles will gain more

energy, and vibrate more. These molecules then bumP into nearby particles
and transfer some of their energy to them. This then continues and passes the
energy from the hot end down to the colder end of the substance.

\
CICICI OOO
,

§,§,§,
./
! //

§,C,§ OOO
0
§
"ö, "§, "a
A thermal idfrared image ofa coffee cup filled with a hot liquid. Notice the conduction occurs when a substance is heated; Particles will 8ıin mo.e en-
.ing§ of color showing heat tıaveling from üe hot liquid through üe metal ergy, and übrate more. These molecules then bumP inİo nearby Partides and
cuP. You can see this in the metal sPoon as well. This is a good example of transfer some of their energy to them. This then continues and parses the en-
conduction. ergy from the hot end down to the colder end of the sübstance.

some substances conduct heat more easily than others. solid§ are better
conductor than liquids and liquids are better conductor than 9a5es. Metals are
very good conductors of heat, while air is Very poor conductor of heat. You
experience heat transfer by conduction whenever you touch somethin9 that is
hotter or colder than your skin e.9. when you wash your hands in warm or cold
water.
,l

,- 7

} 7
ı
L {
I
,
(

?
-İC9
.L:,La
,2 ,-
7'z
A metal sti& one end of which is beiıg heated up Usin8awooden sPoon whilecookin8 §hows üat
will burn your hand after a while. wood is not a good heat condüctor.
 wooden spoons used to mix dishes in kitchens, holding places of some
cookware, porcelain and glass dishes we eat are used to prevent the transfer of
heat by conduction. Besides, the fact that the pots and the heating radiators
are made of metal makes it possible to easily transfer heat.

ı
(#dı §
l
(a) (b) (C)

sinc. the uooden §Poon (a), porcelaiı (b) and glass (c) are low heat conductivity materiaıs, üe heat flow i§ 5low

The substances that do not conduct heat well are called heat insulators.
The space between the particles forming the heat insulator is too much and the
particles are unsteady. Heat in5ulators conduct very little heat in a short time.
Wood, plastic, concrete and air are heat insulators. Plastic foam, 9lass wool, cot-
ton, hay, asbestos, the space of air in the double glazed windows, the va(uum
between the inner and outer surfaces of the thermos flasks are used for heat
insulation. Transferring the heat well or badly of a substance by condu(ting is
related to the distance between the particles forming the substance. As the dis-
tance between particles increase5, the quality of conducting of the substance
decreases. Taking the adVantage of thi5 property of the substance, heat insulat-
ing substance5 are produced.

}
|=\- lır i
\. ,^
üt
\a \
ı
.,_.} -
}-3

,-4 -- \ ,-a }

a
The materials u§ed in the heat insıılation ar€ usııalIy substances having Porous stlucturc with sPaces of air in them

256
 since the distance between the liquid particles is greater, the heat trans-
fer does not take place very quickly. ln gasses, heat transfer by conduction i5
negligible. For this reason, the heat transfer by conduction is only important
for the solids.

ExPERlMENT 7

Aıe Thermal Conductiviti€5 Of Metals the Same?

Eq u ipm ent

1. Heat transfer tool

2. Alcohol burner
3. stopwatch -! ığ-
"l,
Utiliğ knife
ün
s€
4.
5. Match
6.5olid paraffrn (wax) J
i\ Ll
procedure

1. Make groups according to class availabilıty and materiaI con- fr

dition. Draw the following table in your notebook.
2. Divide a solid paraffin into four parts of equal sizes and
1 cm thick.
3. Place the pieces of solid paraffn that we cut to the ends of the four different metals in the heat transfer tool.
4. Light the alcohol burner and heat up the center of the heat transfer tool startin9 the stopwatch.
5. When the first piece of so|id Paraffin melts and droPs from the heat transfer tool, read the time of melting and record it on the
table.

l tt metal 2nd metal 3ıd metal 4th metal

I

Meltin9 time

Q uestion 5

1. which metal transferred the heat faster?

2. whIch metal transferred the metal the slowest?
3. lfa wooden stick at the 5ame length were used, what would its place be in the ranking of heat transfer rate?

257 ı
 Heat Tıansfe7 by convection

ln liquids and gases, convection i5 usually the most efficient way to trans-
fer heat. Convection occurs when warmer areas of a liquid or gas rise to cooler
areas in the liquid or gas. As this happen5, cooler liquid or ga5 takes the place
of the warmer areas which have risen higher. Thi5 cycle results in a continuous
circulation pattern and heat is transferred to cooler areas. You see convection
when you boil water in a pan.The bubbles ofwater that rise are the hotter parts
of the water rising to the cooler area of water at the top of the pan. You have
probably heard the expression "Hot air rises and cool air falls to toke its place" -
this is a description ofConvection in our atmosphere. Heat energy is transferred
by the circulation of the air.

_
l
L-ı

ın
-.arj
_
-
:nL
E
a .]

-E-. ı ı
I

Eı
r
G
,.} ,a a

ı -
t ,

The heat is transferred to everywhere of the liquid by convection The sofas heaı the room by convection.

Convection above a hot surface occurs because hot air expands, becomes
less dense, and rises. Hot water is likewise less dense than cold water and rises,
causing convection cuırents which transport energy.

l
}
.,+
G:-) c@İ

r'
1

t
+._ ?
-a.ira.
E-y.a
i-İ!
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-

t -§ H-oar,ı.. bıl |ç oaıa |oğrr

.ıl' . iİ.ıd b, .o*. J.

258
 ExPERlMENT 8

ob5erve th€ Transfer of Heat through Convection

Equipment

ı, cold water (at room temperature)

T
2. Hot water

3. Beaker

4. Jug
l ]
5.|nk
procedure
a
1. Note down your observations dropping
a few drops of ınk in a beaker in whıch
there is water at room temperature.
2.Then put the beaker on a jug in whİch there is hot water and observe the changes.

Question§
l.When the water heated up, what changes did you observe in the movements ofthe ink

All materials radiate thermal energy in amounts determined by theır tem-

)erature, where the energy is carried by photons of light in the infrared and
/isible portions of the e|ectromagnetic spectrum. when temperatures are uni-
brm, the radioactive flux between objects i5 in equilibrium and no net thermal
-,nergy is exchanged. The balance is upset when temperatures are not uniform,
ınd thermal energy js transported from surfaces of higher to 5urfaces of lower
emperature.

.rS-,
ts- }
t
11 _- lrl

(b)

ı ) Lands 8at hot fastğ comPared to üe s€as. As th€ hot air on the land incİea*§, üe cold air on üc sea rePlaces it. Thus ther€ becomes a cooi aa fl
ı thc land. (b) Lands ga coId faÇer compaıtd to üe §ğas. AJ the hot air on the sea increase§, üe cold air on the land replaces i!. Thus üere becomes
,om the land ıo the sea.

259
 Solar chimney systems are developed by making use of gases' transferring
heat through convection. solarchimney systems are electricity 9eneratin9 systems
working on the principle of increasing air as a result of increa5ing heat. with the ra-
diation from the sun the thermal energy ofthe air in the collector increases and the
air increasing in the chimney 9ives this thermal energy to a group of a turbine and
9enerator. From here the energy of electricity is obtained. solar chimney consists
ofa glas5 collector (9lass house), a chimney and also turbine ( one or numerous).

solaİ chimn€y systeml are electricity 8€nerating sys- Heat Transfer by Rad iatio n
tems L,orking on üe principle of increasin8 air of
v.hich temPerafure is isin8. A final method of heat transfer involves radiation. Radiation i5 the transfer of
heat by means of electromagnetic waves. To radiate means to send out or spread
from a central location. Whether it is light, sound, waves, rays, flower petals, wheel
spokes or pain, if something radiates then it protrudes or spreads outward from
an origin.The transfer of heat by radiation involves the carrying of energy from an
origin to the space surroundin9 it. The energy is carried by electroma9netic waves
and doe§ not involve the movement or the interaction of matter. Thermal radiation
can occur through matter or through a region of space that is void of matter (i.e.,
a vacuum). ln fact, the heat received on Earth from the sun is the result of electro-
magnetic waves traveling through the Void of space between the Earth and th€
sun. All objects radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

The hotter the object, the more it radıates.The sun obviously radiates off mor€
energy than a hot mug of coffee. The temperature also affects the wavelength anc
frequency ofthe radiated waves. objects at typical room temperatures radiate en
ergy as infrared waves. Being invisible to the human eye, we do not see this form o
radiation. An infrared camera is capable of detecting such radiation. Perhaps yot
have seen thermal photographs or Videos ofthe radiation surrounding a person o
animal or a hot mug of coffee or the Earth.

Both conduction and convection require matter to transfer heat. Radiation i5;
method of heat transfer that does not rely upon any contact between the heat sourc(
and the heated object. For example, we feel heat from the sun even though we ar(
nottouching it. Heat can be transmitted though empty space by thermal radiation
Thermal radiation (often colled infrared rodiation) i5 a type electromagnetii

--]
.ı
\
(

Panels producing ele«ricity fİom sunlighl Hot water suPPly systems by solar üğ. The solaı rays are gather€d at a sPot and cooked

@
 aFr - ',
l-
-'-

I
A theİmal in{iared ima8e of the center of our galaxy. This heat from Even in daİIq images can be captured by night üsion
nrımerous staff and interstellar clouds t.aveled about 24,000 light cameras by the help of the radiaıing strııctur€ of the
years tfuoııgh sPace by radiation to reach ouİ infrared telescoPes. substances.

radiation (or light). Radiation i5 a form of energy transport consisting of electro-

magnetic waves traveling at the speed of light. No mass ıs exchanged and no me-
REsEARcH
dium is required in the process of radiation. Examples of /adiation is the heat from
the sun, or heat released from the filament ofa li9ht bulb.
ln the explanationı we made obove, you
learned about the ways in which heot
9.5,4.2. Rates of Heat Transfer
tronsfer ond some oppİicotions related
We have learned that heat is a form of energy transfer from a high tempera- to them, you will olso shore the results
ture location to a low temperature location.The three main methods of heat trans- with your clossmotes by investigoting
fer - conduction, convection and radiation - were discussed in detail on the previ- what kind of applicotions orc involved
ous pages. So what variables would affe(t the heat transfer rates? How can the rate with the heat tronsferring pothwoys in
of heat transfer be controlled? your area,

Today transferring energy especial|y with minimum loss is one of the most
important problems. Transferring thermal energy without loss is impossible. The PRofiCr
higher heat conductıng rate is, the less the loss of heat will be. For the heat can Toke odvontoge of oir elevated by con-
transfer faster, the particles formin9 the substance must collide with each other in
vection to rotate a wheel. llluminate a
LED bulb using the return motion.
aVery shorttime. Forthat reason,the particles must bec|osetoeach otheras possi-
ble as they can be, ln this instance, when we consider the closeness of the particles,
it is said that solids have a better thermal transferrin9 than liquids and liquids have
a better thermal transferring than gases.

Heat flows from the hot substance to the cold one. The bigger the difference
between the temperatures of two poınts is, the higher the quantity and Velocity of
the heat flow is. ln this case, in order to increase the Velocity ofthermal transferring,
the difference between the temperatures oftwo points mu5t be Very much.

Another factor affecting the velocity of thermal transferring is the regional

cross section where thermal transferring flow occurs. For the velocity ofthe thermal
transferring can be high, the cross-section must be large. Radiators are produced

261
 with fins or other means increasing the surface area similar to the plates located
in a parallel way not in the shape of a flat rectangular prism. The size of the area
where the heat is conducted i5 directly proportional to the quantity of the heat
being conducted.

Besides the Velocity of the thermal transferring is related to the type of the
substance, thickness of the substance and pressure.

lt i5 not always necessary to increase the velocity ofthe thermal transferring,

sometimes it may be necessary to decrease the Velocity. ln winter, we try to stop
our body spreading out heat and cold air getting in not to feel cold. We wear thick
clothes for this.Therefore the quantity ofthe heat spreadin9 from the substance is
inversely proportional to the thickness ofthe environment it spreads.

l lll
7, f

?,
we try to stoP temPe.ature loss of our body *,eaİitrg üick In order to enlarge the contact surface, radiators aıe produced
cloth€s in cold weather. iı üe shape of parallel surfaces.

ln conclusion, the rate of conductive heat transfer between two locations is

affected by the temperature difference between the two locations.The rate ofheat
transfer depends on the materiaI throu9h which heat is transferred. The effect of a
material upon heat transfer rates is often expressed in term5 ofa number known as
the heat transfer coefncient. Heattransfer coefficients are numericalvalues that are
determined by experiment. The higher that the Coefficient is for a particular mate-
rial, the more rapidly that heat will be transferred throu9h that material. Materials
with relatively high heat transfer coefficients are referred to a5 thermal conductors.
Materia15 with relativeıy low heat tİan§fer coefficients are referred to as thermal
insulators.

The mathematical expression between the rate of heat transfer (Q/At), the
temperature difference between the two media (AT), the perpendicular cross-sec-
tional area (A) and the thickness (Ax) is as follows:

Q k.(A.^T)
At Ax

When the cross-sectional area m2, thickness m, time (t) s is taken as, the unit
of heat transfer rate is J/s.

;,l ;: ,

!
 The table below lists heat transfer coefficients (k) for a variety of materials,
|n units of wm . 'c.

Heat transfer coefrcieflts of some materiak

Material k Material k

Aluminum 237 Sand 0.06

Brass 110 cellulose 0.039

Copper 398 Glass wool 0.040

GoId 3,15 cotton wool 0.029

cast lron 55 Sheept wool 0.038
Lead 35,2 Expanded Polystyrene 0.03

5ilver 427 Wood 0.13

Zinc
,l
13 Acetone 0.16 DlDYoU KNow?
Polyethylene (HDPE) 0.5 water 0.58
The rate of conductive heot tronsfer po\sing
Polyvinyl chloride (PVc) 0.19 Air 0.024
hom hot body to cold body:
Dense Brick 1.6 Argon 0.016 lt is inversely propoltionaı to the distonce
concrete (Low Density) o.2 Helium 0.142 between two surfaces whose temperatures
concrete (High Density) 1.5 oxygen 0.024 ore different.

lce 2.18 Nitrogen 0.o24 ft dewnds on the nature ofthe motter.

porcelain ıt is directly proportional to the suioce areo
1.05 cellulose 0.039
between the two surfoces with different tem-
peratures.
lt is diredly Propoftionol to the temperoture
As shown in the table, heat is generaIly transferred by conduction at con-
differcnce of the bodies.
siderably higher rates through solids in comparison to liquids and gases.

ExAMPtE

Candles were placed on three rods whi(h are connected each other as shown in
the figure. The length of the rods equaI but their thermal Conductivities are differ-
ent.
lf the system is heated fıom the middle point what will be the meltİng oıdeı
ofthe candles?

poor conductor intermediate conductor good conductor

candle
B c

263
 @
The candle B will melt first because the second conductor transfers the heat to its
ends at the same period. Then the candle C will melt and finally the candle A will
melt because first conductor tran5fer5 the heat faster.

EXAMPLE

When the rods K, L, M riveted to X

L
each other, having X, Y z waxes on
their ends are heated by identical K

heaters, first X, then Y and then z L

wax drops.

Put the theİmal conductivity of K

the metal rods, K, L, M in oıder.
z
\-

İ
@
The metal L is common in 1st and 2nd sticks. lf X drops before Y the conductivity
of K must be greater than M.

The metal M is common in 2nd and 3rd sticks. lfY drops before z, the conductivity
of L must be greater than K.

The relation between the thermal conductivities of the three metals is L > k > M.

s
ExERclsE

when the rod K in the figure is heated which one ofthe pin
waxes on the points X,Y, z melt first?

rod
X Y z

b
 9.5.4.3. lnsulation for Energy Conservation
lnsulation a(ts as a barrier to heat loss and heat gain, particularly in roofs and
ceilings, walls and floors. lt helps to keep your home warm in winter and cool in
summer-
-
A
why insulatlon ls lmpotant?
ı 1l l }
b.
Half of the energy we use to heat or cool our homes can simply leak out with- |dfiG
out insulation.

lnsulatlon heıps to: The areas wheİe the ra)rs reaching üe cemera ale con,
centrated are in red color.
. Reduce use of heating and cooling systems
. save money on your energy bills
. lmprove your comfort at home l
some types of insulation can also make your home more soundproof.

TyPes of lnsulatlon rı
There are two main tyPes of insulation:

. Bulk insulation (usually battg rolls or boards) acts as a barrier to heat flow t
l!
keeping unwanted heat in or out ofyour home. lt Can be made from materi-
als like glass wool, polyester, wool or recycled paper.
. Reflective insulation helps keep your home cool in summer by deflecting
radiant heat. lt is usually shiny aluminum foil laminated onto paper or plas-
tic and is available a5 sheets and batts. l,Fr,T- /
some insulation products are available that combine features of both bulk ,A.s insulati()n
-
malerial, nraterials which excessivel,v
haYe spaces ofair in thenlselYes like Po]Ys§Tene foam,
and reflective insulation.
sponge and glıss wool are ı.ısed.

What type of insulation i5 best for you will depend on where you live and
whether you need to keep heat in, or out, or both. Your home's design, the material ş
it's made from and its orientation to north are also factors.

ceiling insulation is particularly important, but there are other areas of your
home that can be Insulated as well. To maximize the efficiency of your insulation,
draught-proof your home to reduce the leaking of heated or cooled air. \
lf your roof or ceiling isn't insulated, you could lose up to 35 per cent of your
t-
heating and cooling energy Via the roof Verandah roofs should be insulated in hot
l
climates to reduce heat from the sun, as this not only affects the space below but
al50 thetemperature inside the house. covered verandahs and garages might ben-
efit from insulation if you spend a lot of time in these areas, especially if you are
!
heating or cooling them.
ı
Uninsulated walls can increase heat loss in wınter by ı5 percent. Heat can be
lost through some types offloors - up to 5 percent ofyour winter heat. carpets are r
one option to ınsulate a floor. ln hot climatesfloor insulation may interfere with the Always wear Protective cloüing and a face rıtask when
natural cooling from the 9round beneath the house. rf,oıking wiü fi b€rgla§s irısul.tion_

265
 ffi
water pipes inside walls can also be insulated when building or renovating.
lnsulation reduces the exchange of heat throu9h a surface such a5 a wall, attic, duct
or roof. ln a wellinsulated home, less warm air escapes from the house during the
winter, and less cool air escapes during the summer, reducing the amount of en-
ergy needed for heatin9 and coolin9. lmprovin9 the insulation an older structures
may lower your annual heating and cooling bill by up to 20 percent.

T-r
!'
t ı
Lı
The double glazing assemblies prepared bv enrpty
int the air between two glasses Provide a very high
th€rmal insulation.

t ı
ı
The thermal caınera images of a hou§€befo.e it is üermal insulated aİd after it is
üermal insulated - The areas where there is heat loss a-re seen red.

The outer shell, or envelope, of your home is the barrier that prevents the
temperatures ofthe inside and outside air from equalizing. The better insulated the
walls, floors and roof are, the less energy your heating and cooling systems have
to use to warm or cool the air in your home. since heat rises, insulating your roof is
especially important to keep warm air inside in cold climates.

I Even walls with good insulation can let warm or cool air escape through
Jı-_ \
-F crack and gaps around windows and doors.
ın ıüall insulation, §pccial coating materials of which
dan§it}, i, vcr},loı9 üelefore which are very light, aıe
ln homes with central heating and air-conditioning units that force air
usad. through a duct system, leaking ducts may lower efficiency by up to 20 percent.
seai and insulate all of the ducts in your house to let the warm and cool air get
where it's suPposed to go as efficiently as possible. Good insulation is even more
4 important when the du(ts travel through unfinished areas like attics or basements.
Finally, sealthe areas around the registers to keep air from leaking behind the wall
or under the f|oor.

LA.ı-ll Reflective lnsulation

while most insulation reduces heat transfer by physically blocking it, reflec-
tive insulation, also called a radiant barrier, is installed on the attic floor, where it
Bcc.usc shiny surf.ccs reflect the Iight moı€, an e,ı(, reflects the heat radiated into the attic by a hot roofand prevents it from entering
tİama incİca* in the temPeratuf€ does not oacur in-
.idc th. building. the living space below.while reflective insulation has some value in lowering heat-
ing bills, its main purpose is to keep the house cool in hot climates.

266
 While buildings are constructed, they must be designed to benefit bythe sun
rays to the utmost and great importance must be given to thermal insula-
tion- ln order to make all of these attempts, construction companies must
attach ımportance to R&D (Research and Development) subject. Companies
must organize a project team consisting of specialists on the subject for an
effective R&D study. organized Project team must be commissioned to take
joint decision. Then the assignments must be allocated equally and it must
be provided that everybody can express their findings and thoughts about
the project. After this stage, positive and negative sides of the process and
the product like the usefulness, the cheapness and the feasibility must be REsEARcH
evaluated. As a result of all of these scientific studies, with everybody's joint
decision, there wilI come out applications, devices and methods which can ls thermol insulotion only applied ot the
be carried out ea5ily. buildings? Give daily exomples of the
A(cording to the given information above, you also prepare a project about places where heot insulation is opplied,
thermal insulation. ln order to do this; lnvestigote whot kinds of insulation ma-
teiols are used in these applicotions.
. Makes groups in your class.
. Share work within the group.
. Research the ways ofthermal insulation.
l

. Design a the.mal in5ulation modeıproviding

energy-saving.

9.5.4.4. Felt Air Temperature or APparent Tempeıature

E
ı -i
ı}alı d
\ Dear viewers, today it is
expected to be 34 'c but
perceived temperature
4 will be 36'c in Bodrum.
lı l
} ,1

.ı ıü Ç -t1
rY \
] "/
Apparent temperature is the general term for the perceived outdoor tem-
perature, caused by the combined effects of air temperature, relative
humidity and
wind speed.
. The heat index measures the effect
of humidity on the perception of tem-
perature. ln humid conditions, the air feels hotter than it actually is, because
of the
reduction in evaporation of perspiration.

26'7
 . The wind chill measures the effect of wind speed on the perception of tempera-

ture. ln windy conditions, the air feels cooler than it actually i5, because of the in-
crease in evaporation of perspiration.
. The wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) combines the effects of radiation, hu-

midity, temperature and wind speed on the per(eption of temperature. lt is not

often used as the resulting figure is very location specific (e.9.: cloud cover and,/or
wind shielding).

sometimes the heat index and the wind chill are denoted collectively by the
single term'aPparent temperaturel "relative outdoor temperature] or "feels likei

The heat index (Hl) or humiture or humidex is an index that combİnes air tem-
perature and relative humidity in an attempt to determine the human-perceived
equivalent temperature-how hot feels.The result is also known as the "felt air tem-

n r- perature" or "apparent temperature'l For example, when the temperature 32 "c

with Very high humidity, the heat index can be about 41 "c. At high temperatures,
the level of relative humidity needed to make the heat index higher, than the aC-
tual temperature, is lower than at cooler temperatures.

The human body normally cooıs itself by perspiration, or sweating. Heat is

The eİces§iye increas€ in the air humidity rate bore all
living üings. removed from the body by evaporation of that sweat. However, relative humidity
reduces the evaporation rate because the higher Vapor content ofthe surrounding
air does not allow the maximum amount of evaporation from the body to occur.
This results in a lower rate of heat removal from the body, hence the sensation of
being overheated. This effect is subjective; its measurement ha§ been based on
subjective descriptions of how hot subjects feel for a given temperature and hu-
midity. This results in a heat index that relates one combination of temperature and
humidity to another one at higher temperature and lower humidity. The excessiVe
inCrea5e in the air humidity rate bor€ all living things.

Meteorological Considerations
outdoor5 in open conditıons, as the relative humidity increases,first haze and
ultimately a thicker cloud cover develops, reducing the amount of direct sunlaght
reaching the surface.Thus, there is an inverse re|ationshiP between maximum po-
tential temperature and maximum potential relative humidity.

To find the Heat lndex temperature, look at the Heat lndex chart below. For
example, if the air temperature is 36 'c and the relative humidity is 70%, the heat
index -how hot it feeıs- 54 t.
The apparent temperature can also be different on cold days. Especially in the
winter months when the temPerature of the air falls on the next page zero, the
temperature felt with the strong wind i5 lower than the measured temperature.
This causes the air to feel colder than it i5. For example, in the Table on the next
page, where the air temperature i5 -10 "c at a wind speed of 6 km/h while the air
temperature felt -14 'c, the temperature felt at a wind speed of 90 km/h drops to
_25,c.

26B
 Temp€rature

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(7o)

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4,|

41

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40

@ 39 {ıEE@EEE@|@@@EEE
39

E
38
37:l8 !ı9 EEEEEEEEEEE@E
ıı1
4ı E@@EıEE@@@a@@E
@ 37 :ıE 39
E t5 3736 :t8 19 41EEıııEEEE@|@@@EEE
36

E
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37 3s .oı?Eı'EEEEE@@@EEE@
35
35
p
EEEE@,@@@
=
@ 34 35 36 37 38
E 32
E 34 40 49
T
a
33 34 34 35 36 38 39 4ı EEEaEatrİİDlE
E 31
aJ
33
.2
ffiİffimffiİ
E 31
34 36 39 41
40
32 33 33 35 37
§
ffiüg§f
E 30
ğ. 31 32 32 32 33 34 35 37 38
3l 31 31 32 39 40
32 33 34 36 ffiEİ
37
@ 36 38 39
E 2928
30 30 30 3t 3ı 32 33 34 35 41
34 35 36 38 40 4ı
E 27
29 29 29 29 30 30 31 32 33
28 28 28 28 32 33 34 35 36 38 39
29 29 30 30 31 41

@ 30 31 32 32 33 34 36 37
E 2626
27 27 27 28 28 28 28 29 30 38

a
26 26 27 tı 27 29 29 30 30 31 32 32 33
27 27 27 28 28 34
26 26 26 26 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 31 31
27 27 27 28 32

@ 25 27 27 27 27 2a 2a 28 28
E
25 26 26 26 26 26 26 27
25 29
25 25 25 25 25 26 ?6 26 26 26 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 27

fl Caution İ Extreme Caution ! O.ng", Extreme Dan9er

Effects ofthe heat index (shade values)

Celsius Notes

27 - 32"c caution: Fatiguc i5 possible with prolonged exposure and actiVity. continuing actiVity could result in heat cramps

32-41"c Extreme caution: heat cramps and heat exhaustion are possible. continuin9 activity could result in heat stroke.

41 - 54"c Danger: heat cramps and heat exhaustion are likely; heat stroke is probable with continued activity

over 54 'c Extreme danqer:heat stroke is imminent.

269
Apparent temPerature yalues according to wind ,Peed

E
TEMPERATURE (,c)

0
-r _; -4 _5 _l0 _l5 ..20 _25 _30 -35 40 -50 _55 60

Ll -2 -3 _4 _5 _7 _8 -14 -]9 -25 _31 -42 -48 -54 -60 -65 -71
Io -4 _5 _6 _7 _9 _38 _44 _67 _73

rn
-3 -14 -20 -26 -32 -50 -56 _6,1

L
_3 _5 _6 _7 _8 -9 -ı5 -21 -27 -33 _39 _45 -51 -57 -63 -69 -75
15 -4 _6 -7 _8 -9 -ıı _17 -23 -29 -35 _41 -lı8 -54 -60 -66 72 -7a
20 _5 -7 -8 -9 -ı0 -12 _l8 _24 -30 -37 _43 49 -56 -62 -68 -75 _81

25 -6 -7 _8 -ı0 _l1 -12 -l9 -25 -ı2 -38 -44 -51 -57 -ü _7o _77 _83
30 _6 -8 -9 _ı0 _12 -t3 -20 -26 -33 -39 -4 -52 -59 _65 -72 | -78 -85
35 -7 -8 -10 -ıl -12 -14 -2o -27 -33 -4o 47 -53 _60 _66 -73 -ao | -ao
q -7 _9 -ı0 -11 -ı3 -14 -21 -27 -34 -41 -48 -54 -61 -68 -zı|-aı|-ee
E
i.
45 _8 _9 -10 -12 -13 -15 -21 -2a -35 42 _46 -55 -62 -69 -75 -a2 _89
!
O
5o _8 -ı0 -11 -12 -14 -15 -22 -29 -35 42 49 -56 -63 -69 -76 l -83 _90
(ı,
55 -8 -ı0 -,| l -13 _,l4 -15 -22 -29 -36 -43 -50 -57 -63 _7o _77 -84 -9t
!
6o -9 -ı0 -12 -,l 3 -14 -ı6 -23 -30 -36 -43 -50 -57 -64 -71 -7a ü5 l -92
ş _ı0
65 -9 -12 -,l3 -ı5 -16 -23 -30 -r7 -44 -5ı -58 -65 _72 -79 -87 l -93
İ 7o _9 -tı -12 -14 -15 -,l6 -23 -30 -37 -44 -5t _58 -65 -72 -so|-gzİ-sı
75 -10 -1ı -12 -14 -15 -17 _24 _31 -38 45 -s2 -59 -66 -73 _80 -88 I _94

80 -ıt _13 -ı4 _15 -3ı _74 _89

n
-10 -17 -24 -38 -45 -52 -60 -67 _81 -95
85 -1o -t1 -ı3 _ı4 -16 _17 -24 -3ı -39 -53 _6o -67 -74 -81 _89 -96
9o _ı3 _15 _16 _96
ıı
n
-10 -12 -17 -?5 -32 -39 -53 -61 -68 -75 -82 -90
95 -10 -12 _l3 -ı5 -16 -18 -25 -32 -39 -54 -61 -68 -75 -83 -90 | -97
l
100 -ı1 -12 _14 -ı5 -16 -18 -25 -32 _40
ı -y -61 -69 76 _83 _90 I
_98
ı05 -tı _12 -ı4 -ı5 _17 -18 -25 -33 -ıı0 ı -55 -d2 -69 _76 -84 -91 -98
1to -tl -72 -14 _ı5 _,l7 _l8 -26 -33 -40 -48 -55 -62 -7o -77 -a4 -91 -99

Daily temperatures are summarized as Minima and Maxima. These are the hi9hest
and lowest hourIy Values from the foİecast. Actually measured maxima or minima
can be up to 2 'c hi9her or loweı since the temperatures can still Vary between the
hours.

9.5.4.5. Global Warming

Global warming i5 the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and
oceans since the late 19th century and its projected continuation. since the early
20th century, Earth's mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 "c, with
about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 'l980.

@
 Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than
90% certain that it is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse
gases produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and defor-
estation.

The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of

infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere
and surface.
ş*
Naturalıy occurring amounİs of 9reenhouse gases have a mean warming ef-
fect of about 33 "c. without the earth's atmosphere the temperature across almost
the entire surface of the earth would be below freezing. The major greenhouse
gases are water Vapor, which causes about 36-70% of the greenhouse effect; car-
bon dioxide (Cor), which causes 9-26%; methane (CHj, which causes 4-9%; and Symbolic rePresentation of the greenhouse elfcct
ozone (or), which causes 3-7%. Clouds also affect the radiation balance through
cloud forcing similar to greenhouse gases.

What Causes Global Warming?

scientists have spent decades figuring out what is causing global warming.
They've |ooked at the natural cycles and events that are known to influence cli
mate. But the amount and pattern of warming thatl been measured cant be ex-
"!
plained by these factors alone.The only way to explain the pattern is to include the *
effect of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by humans.

one ofthe first things scientists learned is that there are several greenhouse
gases responsible for warming, and humans emit them in a Variety of ways. Most
come from the combustion of fossil fuels in cars, factories and electricity produc-
tion. The gas responsible for the most warming is carbon dioxide, also called Cor. l1 ffiİ r _]

other contributors include methane released from landfills and agriculture (espe-
1
6
cially from the digestiVe systems of grazing animals), nitrous oxide from fertilizers,
gases used for refrigeration and industrial processes, and the loss of forests that
would otherwise store co2.

Earth's temperature depends on the balance between energy entering and

leaving the planet's system. When incoming energy from the sun is absorbed by
the Earth's system, Earth warms.when the sunl energy is reflected back into space,
Eanh avoids warmin9. when energy is released back into space, Earth cools. Many
factors, both natural and human, can cause changes in Earth's energy balance, in-
cluding:

. changes in the greenhouse effect, which affects the amount of heat re-
tained by Earth! atmosphere.
. Variations in the sunl energy reaching Earth.
. changes in the reflectivity of Eanh's atmosphere and surface

These factors have caused Earth's climate to change many times. scientists
nave pieced together a picture of Earthl climate, dating back hundreds of thou-

27,|
 sands of years, by analyzing a number of indirect measures of climate such a5 ice
cores, tree rings,gla(ier lengths, pollen remains, and ocean sediments, and by
studying Changes in Earthl orbit around the sun.

Recent climate changes, howeve1 cannot be explained by natural causes

alone. Research indicates that natural causes are Very unlikely to explain most
observed warming, especially warming since the mid-20th century. Rather, hu-
man activities can very likely explain most of that warming.

When sunlight reaches Earth's surface, it can either be reflected back into
space or absorbed by Earth. once absorbed, the planet releases some of the
energy back into the atmosphere as heat (also called infrared radiation). Green-
house gases (GHGs) like water Vapor (H2o), carbon dioxide (co2), and methane
(cHX) absorb energy, §lowing or preventing the loss of heat to space. ln this
way, GHGs act like a blanket, making Earth warmer than it would otherwise be.
This process is commonly known as the'9reenhouse effect".

ln the distant pasl (prior to obout ı0.000 yeors ogo), Co, levels tended to
track the glacial cycles. During warm 'inte19laciaı' periods, Co, levels have been
higher. During cool g lacia l' periods, CO, levels have been lower. This is because

the heating or cooling of Earth's surface can cau5e changes in greenhouse gas
concentrations. These changes often act as a positive feedback, amplifying ex-
i5tin9 temperature changes.

since the lndustrial Revolution began around 1750, human activitie5 have
contributed substantially to climate change by adding co2 and other heat trap-
ping gases to the atmosphere. These greenhouse gas emissions have increased
the greenhouse effect and caused Earth's surface temperature to rise. The pri-
mary human activity affecting the amount and rate of climate change is green-
house gas emissions from the burning of fossil fuels.

Effe<ts of Global Warming

High levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are likely to remain

high for many years, these changes are expected to last for several decades or
longeı accordIng to the Environmental Protection A9ency (EPA).

Global Warming causes many negative situations to occur. Below are a

few direct consequences that might result in the future if Global warming.
However, some of the5e situations are already taking place now. But since they
are still not very severe, we do not really feel the impact they have on us. How-
ever, we have to stop them as soon as possible before it's too late. For when the
time comes, and allthese effects come to show in a form ofchain reactions, w€
will not be able to stop them in time. And that wıll be the time when we will
really be suffering from the ill-effects of Global warming.

The effe«s of global warming are the ecological and social changes
caused by the rise in global temperatures. There is a scientific consensus thal

272
climate change is occurring, and that human activities are the primary driver.
Evidence of climate change includes the in5trumental temperature record, ris-
ing sea levels, and decreased snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere. Projec-
tions of future climate change suggest further globa| warming, sea level rise,
and an increa5e in the frequency and severity of some extreme weather events.

Recent climate changes, however, cannot be explained by natural causes

alone. Research indicates that natural causes are Very unlikely to explain most
observed warmin9, especially warming since the mid-20th century. Rather, hu-
man activities can very likely explain most of that warming.

The planet is warming, from North Pole to south Pole, and everywhere in
between. Globally, the mercury is already up more than 0.8'C, and even more
in sensitive polar regions. And effects of rising temperatures are not waiting
'or some far-flung future. They are happening right now. signs are appearing
ıll over, and some of them are surprising. The heat is not only melting 9laciers
ınd sea ice, it is also shifting precipitation patterns and setting animals on the
nove.

ü*İİ
,-.,a

ll',şrı a

'1-:,,--

ı
1ıe decrease in glaciers negatively alfects üe habi In recent yeaİs, very severc hurricanes come to be. Th€ irregula.ity ofüe P.eciPitation a]so causes the
ıts ofanimals iı the arctic lesion. drought.

5ome impacts from increasing temperatures are already happening.

Droughts and Floods

when the temperature rises, water evaporates quicker. The evaporated
/ater is likely to condense to form clouds and fall as rain or snow. Howeveı the
ıinfall will not be evenly distributed. ln dry areas where water is scarce and
ıuch and the plant life depends on water from lakes and rivers, the increased
Vaporation is likely to worsen the dry conditions and a drought occurs. The
lant life would then die and there would be less pıants to take carbon diox-
le out of the air. This would make crops die and hunger and or thirst would
Vertake many unfortunate people. Famine might be an indirect result a5 food
roduction will drop for crops might not be able to adapt to the extreme con-
itions. ln wet areas, more water will be evaporated and will eventually fall in
h 7
ıese a]eas as rain or snow. This might result in floods.

?73
_
 Rising Sea Level
When it gets hotter, ice melts. Global warming makes it warmer at the ice
caps at the North Pole and south Pole, causing great amounts of ice to melt,
letting all the fresh water flow into the ocean. Tons and tons of ice will melt if
it 9et5 hot enough and this will cause sea levels to rise dramatically and can
rise by as much as '1.4 m. Low-lying coastal areas will flood and maybe even be
5ubmerged. lt is estimated that two-thirds of the worldl poPulation live within
']50 km of the coastline. Therefore, millions of homes and lives wilı be lost as

coastal areas go underwater. Many small islands are also in danger. The sea wa-
The amount of polar snow is rapidly dediniıg ter would flood farm areas and damage crops, leading to a fall in food produc-
tion. And in some places, it's very crowded. so if they all have to move inland,
there could be a shortage of space in certain areas and result in overcrowding.

Ext]eme weather
A change in temperature would mean a significant change in weather
Global Warming can intensify winds. rains and storms. This would change th(
overaIl climate of Earth and many chain rea(tions would follow. The climate o
the future will be very different from the one we are having now. However, w(
are already seeing these changes now, albeit in a milder form.There are alreadı
reports of storms, rains and winds being much stronger in velocity than thl
ones we are used to having. And we have seen what they can do. They uproo
trees, blow down houses, flood entire towns and bring disasters. one can onl,
imagine what disasters they mi9ht bring to u5 when they become intensified.

These are only direct scenarios that may happen. There can be thousand
of chain reactions resulting from them like changing land value due to deseı
tification, famine due to lowered crop production. Many animals may also be
come endangered or extinct due to the rapidness of thi5 climatıc change. The
might not adapt to the new Climate fast enough. And also, some of their habi
tats mig ht also be destroyed due to the rapid change ofthe climate.

A wide range of physical, biological, and economic systems are vulnerabl

to climatic change that may be caused by Global Warming, including agricui
ture, forests, water resources, coastal zones, biodiversity, wildlife, air qualit)
and human health.

This change in global climate will result in a world Very different from tc
day's!

Humans have yet to have the knowledge or ability to transfer entir

ecosystems to suitable areas. The ultimate effects could last for centuries an
would be virtually irreversible.

what are the effects of climate change? The impacts of c|imate chan9e ar
diverse and could be damaging to billions of people across the world, partict
larly those in developing countries who are the most vulnerable. Many of th

@
effects of climate change will have negative economic consequences. The num-
ber of severe weather events, for examp|e, is likely to increase and intensify as

f jI
a result of climate change, which could result in billions of dollars in economic
damage annually. The following is an overview of the potential implications of ı
climate change.

Disease and other Health Effects

n İ
g iı 1 r ,I

climate change could expand the geographic distribution of and ex-

posure to infectious diseases like malaria, dengue feveı cholera, and Lyme
disease in parts of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and North America as warmer
weather allows these and other diseases to thrive in locations previously too
cold to support them.

The World Health organizatİon estimates that climate change caused

more than 150,000 fatalitie5 in 2000, a figure projected to increase in the future.
Diseases linked to climate change that are attributed to fatalities and illnesses
are cardiovascular mortality and respiratory illnesses due to heat waves, altered
transmission of infectious diseases, and malnutrition from crop failures.

ois.uption of the ECosystem

climate change could magniry the cumulative impacts of other ecosystem

l
stresses caused by human development, such as air and water pollution and
habitat destruction. Natural systems, including glaciers. coral reefs, atolls, man- ,T i:I
groves, boreal and tropical forests, polar and alpine ecosystems, prairie wet-
lands, and remnant native grasslands, are particularly vulnerable and may be
damaged irreversibly. Considerable harm has already been done. For instance,
according to the Millennium Ecosystem A5se55ment, in the last several decades
of the twentieth century, about 20% of the world's coral reefs were lost, and an
additional 20% were degraded. This report also states that "by the end of the
century, climate change and its impacts may be the dominant driver of bio-
diversity loss and changes in ecosystem services globally. "Changes in ocean
water temperature and salinity as well as in co2 concentrations in ocean wa-
ters may compound other stresses placed on the world's fisheries, which would
partıcularly hurt the poor. one billion peopİe mostly in developing countries,
depend on fish for their primary source of protein.

Habitat Destİu(tion and specİes Extinctİon ftEsEARcH

Habitat loss and ecosystem changes are expected to brin9 about a de-
lnvestigate whot solutions con be cre-
cline in the local diversity of native species by 2050, and the rate of exıinction
ated on the effects of globol worming,
for these species may be hastened by climate change. ln the Arctic, warmer
temperatures and melting sea ice caused by Climate change will be particularly Share your research results with your
harmful to native species like polar bears and ice-dependent seals. lt is unlikely friends in a presentation-
that these species will survive the century if climate change persists.

275
 9.5.5. EXPANsıoN
with a few exceptions, substances expand when heated, and contract
when cooled. They expand not only in length but also in width and thickness.
According to the kinetic theory, the molecules or atoms of substances are in
constant motion. when heated they Vibrate or move faster and force each other
a Iittle farther apart and the expansion results.

ln your daily life, you have rarely noticed the thermal expansion ofsolids.

. previously gaps are left between the lengths of rail. why?

. one end of a metal bridge is fixed and the other end rest§ on rolleıs. why?
. The telephone wires are straight in winter, and they stretch and sag in sum-
mer. why?
. The metal wheels are placed around a wooden barrel after they are heated to
a certain temperature. why?

t- l- *' 1-

7.
J t.
I
ı tj
Space left for expaosion between rails lt is very öficult to open when thejar coven are squeezed.

Most ofyou can answer the questions above lo9ically. Now, ask the ques-
tions: Do the expansions of equal lengths of two metals equal? ls the expansion
a characteristic property for each of a solid, or a liquid or a gas? To answer these
questions, let u5 5tudy the expan5ion of the three states of matter.

E
lı^

üi
r_
| --4
\,;

-,4

@
 Expansion is a feature of distinctiveness for solids. You can observe the
solids expanding when heated using the contrivance named supPort ring .ln
gravzant ring, there are a steel ball hanging from a metal stick with a chain and
a metal ring through which the steel ball can pass easily. When the steel ball is
heated, it expands and do not pass through this ring.

9.5.5.1. Expansion of Solids and Liquids

Exp

solids expand when their temperature is raised. Because the increase in

thermal energy increases the kinetic energy of particles. Then the increase in
kinetic energy increases the amount of vibration of the atoms and molecules
composing the solid. As a result, the atoms and molecules force each other
slightly farther apart, and the solid expands in all directions. For example tel-
ephone wires become longer in summer, become straight in winter due to con-
traction.

,ı
':)
I
l l

l
ı

E*Pansion ofsolids can be obseıwed by using Gralzant ring-

When a solid is heated, it expands not only in length but also in width and
thickness. Therefore thermal expansion results in an increase in length, area,
and volume_

l. Llnear txpın3lon
Coefficients of linear expansion of some solids

substance ı (1fc)
Aluminum 2^6 x l0-5
Brass 1.9 x 'l0-5
copper i.7 X lo 5

Gla5s 8.5 x 10-6

lron 1.2 x 10-5

Lead 2.8 x 10-5

zinc 2.9 x l0-5

?77
 Different materiaıs of the same |ength expand different amounts for the
same increase in temperature. The change in unit |ength of a so|id when its
temperature is changed one degree is calIed its coefficients of linear expansion.
since the Coefficient of linear expansion is defined as the change inunit length,
its value does not depend on any particular length unit. lts sl unit is 1/K. lf
temperature is in 'c, then the unit of coefficient of |inear expansion is i /'c. we
conclude from the observations that the change in the length of a solid equa|s
the product of its original Iength, its change in temperature and its coefficient
of linear expansion. This can be given by the formula:

AL=Lox}xAt
Where AL (delta L) is the change in length, l(Lambda) is the coefficient of
linear expansion, Lo is the original length, At is the change in temperature (tf -

to). As shown in Figure, the final length of a metal rod when heated to a certain
temperature will be,

L= Lo+ LoxlxAt

,k- Lo ---------------- AL -->

-
1

L -----------

Lineaİ exPansion

Expansions of different metals are shown in the Figure below.

l,'ı{ü,(ln)

t,0o2

0.0ı

l,mo
oı020so.060orOaosl rtl

Linear eİPansions ofsome metals

?7B
 ıl. Aİea ExP.nslon

Remember that when solids are heated they increase in all dimensions. The
coGfficient of area expansıon, or the increase in unit length area per degree, i5

approximately twice the coefficient of tinear exPansion. lt is represented by cı. (<ı =

2tr).Then the expansion in area may be gıven by the formula:

AA=Aox2lxAt=AoxcıxAt

t
where A is the change In area, A0 is the original area, is again the coeffiCient 9
^
of linear expansion and At is the change in temPerature. The final area is given by
the formula

A=Ao+Aox(ıxAt

lll. volume Expansion

The coefficient of volume expansion or the increase in unit Volume when a

solid is heated one degree, approximately three times the coefncient ofthe linear
\
is

expansion (p = 3I).Then the formulas may be given as follows. I

AV=Vox9xAt (The change in volume)

v=vo+vo xpxAt (fhefinolvolume) l
where V is the change in Volume, Vo is the origanal Volume. Figure given be- t İı. /
low shows the volume expansion of solids.

--
-
Why do cups crack when tea is 6lling?

Volume exPansion of §olidl

when a substance is heated, its volume increases. But its mass remains the
same. Then the density of the substance decreases (d = m/V). On the contrary,
the density ofa substance increases when it is cooled. Figure given on the next
page shows how the density of a substance changes when the temperature is
:hanged.

Paİt l: The mass and Volume both increase in the same ratio. That is why
lensity remains constant. ln thas region of the graphs temperature of the sub-
;tance does not change. Pıİt ll: The mass is constant but the Volume is in-
:reased because of the increase in temperature. Then the density is decreased.

?79
 m d d

ll ll
m

The relationshiP between the density and temPerature of a substance

Bimatallic strip

{ı) (b) (<)

(a) Bimetaılic §trip (b) wüen hcated (c) when cooled

There are many uses of expansion in our daily life. shrink fitting, rivetiİ
meta| plates are a few uses of expansion. Equal lengths of different solids u
dergo unequal expansions when equally heated. The difference in the expa
sion of two metals are also used to form bametallic stİip. lf equal lengths
two different metal5, e.g, zinc and iron, are riveted together so that they cann
move separately they form a bimetallic strip. When heated, zinc expands mo
than iron and to allow this, the strip bends with zinc zon the outside. Whı
cooled, zinc contracts more than iron then the strip bends with the iron on tl
outside of the curve.

EXPERİMENT 9

-|---_---e
[-
r-ç
To 5tudy the expan5ion of a bimetallic strip
"ı
Eq

1. Metallic strip 2. Alcohol burner 3. lce

Ln
4. Table 5alt 5. Ring stand 6. clamp
/ -^

1. set up the apparatus as shown in the figure and heat the bimetallic
strip hom09eneously. f/
2. Observe what happens.
(. l =

-@
 3. when you see the bendin9 of the bimetallic strip due to heat, stop heatin9.
4. ls the bending upwards or downwards?
5. wait for the metal strip to cool down.To speed up the cooling, dip the strip into a ice-saıt mixture.
6. observe the cold metal strip.

Questions
1. Why did the bimetallic strip bend?
2. which metal expanded more, according to the bending direction?
3. what happened when the strip was cooled? Was the metal outside the curve the same metal? why?
4. where can this property of the bimetallic strip be used?

ln the experiment, when the bimetallic strıP was heated, one ofthe metals
expanded more than the other and the strip bended with the metal expanded
more on the outside. Because the outside of a curve is longer than the inside. i

When the strip was cooled, this metal contracted more and remained inside
l.
curve. The difference between the eXpansions of these metals comes from the
difference between their coefficients of linear expansion.
-
Differential expansions as shown by this experiment find5 many practical
applications in industry. Bimetatlic strips are used, for example, in the making
ı
of balance wheels for fine watches and in thermostats for refrigerators, hot wa- Thermostat of an elect.ical iron

ter heaters, car radiators, and electrical irons, fire alarms, car flashers, etc. Figure
5hows a thermostat of an electrical iron.

Thermostat is a device which controls the temperature, The principle used

in thermostats is the bending of a bimeta|lic strip due to heat. ln the following
activity, you will find out how a thermostat works.

ExPERlMENT 1o

To control the temPerature by using the properties of bimetallic

strip5 due to heat
T
,ı l
t-!
1. Bimetallic strip

3. Lamp (1.5 V)
2. E|ectric wire

4. clamp
ıj
- h
1.ı ı
5. Battery (3 V) 6. Alcohol burner İ
7. Ring stand 8. switch

281
 procedure

1. connect one end of the strip up the electric wire and set up the circuit as shown in the figure. Be careful, the metal whose
coefficient of linear expansion is smaller will be upper part of the stfip.
2.Turn the switch on. Does the lamp give light?
3. Heat the strip. when the contacts touch each other, the lamp lights.
4. stop the heating. What happens?

Que§tions

ı. where and what purpose can a system like this be used?

2. can you get the lamp lights at a temperature which you want by adjusting the gap between the contacts?

As you see !n the experiment, a bimetallic strip can be used to control

temperature. when the temperature reaches a certain point, the bulb lights. lt
when the light is seen, heating the strip i5 stopped. Hence, the tem-
is a signal.
perature of the strip does not exceed the value we want. ln the Figure below
some of equipments made by using bimetallic strips are shown.

heating wire (resistance)

bimetalic
bell contact 5trip
pointer
5Crews

contact
screws

heat
bimetalic
strip
fixed
end
bimetalic
strip lılıl
(ı) (b) (C)

(ı) Fiıc daım, (b) Ihermometeı (c) Flasher

ln the alarm circuit shown in Figure-a the strip bends toward the contact
5crew when the temperature increases. The strip bends until it touches the con-
:-
tact screw which sets the alarm off. Figure-b 5how5 the principle of the bimetal-
lic thermometer. one end of a thin bimetallic spiral is fixed, the other end being
attached to a spindle of a pointer which moves over a scale of degrees. The
I
ş spiral tends to curl in a clockwise direction a5 the temperature ri5e5. Bimetallic
thermometers are generally used where temperature5 above the boiling points
of alcohol and mercury are to be measured.
ln a flasheı the wire which is used to heat the bimetallic strip, and the
lamp are connected in series. when the switch is on, the current flows through
a wire and heats the strıp. Be(ause of the high resistance of the wire the lamp
Thomometers mıde by using bimetallic §tİiP does not give light. Temperature ofthe strip inCreses and it bends until it touches

28?
the contact screw. Now, the current passes throu9h the strip instead ofthe wire.
Because the resistance of the strip is less than the heating wire. And the ıamp
lights on. After a while, the temperature ofthe strip decreases, and it contracts.
The current passes through the wire again and the lamp goes out.

EXAMPLE

The shapes ofthe bimetaIlic strips K-L and L M

M-L become linear when heated.

Ac<oıdingly, how is the İelationship be-

tween the (oef6(ient§ of lineaı expan-
sion of metals, l*, l., lr?

EE@
The length ofthe L in the K-L metal pair i5 5horter. The fact that they are linear when
they heated means that the last lengths of K and L equal. ln this case, the increase
in the length of L i5 more than that of K. trL>)\K.

ln the M-L pair, the length of M is increased more than L, so )\M > The relation-
ship betwe€n the coefhcients of linear expansion ofthe three metals ^L.
i5 as follows:
\M>trL>I(,

The Expansion of Liquids

Like solids, most liquids expand when heated, contract when cooled. Dif-
ferent liquids expand different amounts when heated through the same tem-
perature change. Unlike solids, liquids have no fixed length or surface area but
a|ways occuPy the shape of their containers. Therefore, in the case of liquids,
we are concerned only with their Volume expansion. ls the expansion of liquids
a characteİistic proPerty or not? To answer this question, let's perform the fol-
lowig experiment.

2a3
 EXPERıMENT 11

Measuİing the Expansion of Liquids

Purpose:To show the differences in the expansion of different liquids by amp|ifoing a small change in volume

Equipment
ı
l.Threeclamps 2. Four stirrig rods 3.Two alcohol burners
satand
4. Ring s.Beaker (ı0O0mL) 6.water
7. Glycerin 8. Aıcohol

l- g.
9.Three large test tubes ('l8 x 'l50 mm)
10. Three one-hole rubber stoppeİs
11.Thermometer 12. Glue
Ç i
l3. Milimetric araph paper
ı4.Three pieces of narrow glass tubing (6 mm in outside diameter, l5 cm long) ]
procedure
y
1. Hold three large test tubes in a 1000 mL water bath set a5 shown in the figure.
2. Fill in the test tubes completely with water, alcohol and glycerin and insert the
lı a
rubbeİ stoppers into them.
3. Put the 15 cm glass tubing through the hole of the stopper for each of the test
tubes.
4. MoVe the tubing until the liquid level i5 about 2-3 cm
volume change is cm3
above the stopper. But the levels ofthe liquids should Temperature ("c)
in water in alcohol in glycerın
be equal.
0
5. stick millimetric araph papers on the §urface of nar-
row glass tubings to read the expansions easily. 5

6. Heat the water bath by using two alcohol burners. ]0

When the liquid5 expand, the small increase in volume 15
of each liquid in each test tube pushes liquid a rela- 20
tively large distance up the narrow tube.
25
7. Measure the rise in liquid level in the narrow glass
30
tubes in every 5 "c temperature rise. Then record your
35
measurements in a table 5imilar to one given on the
right. 40

E. cont|nue to read the temperature to maximum 65 'c.

9. Now plot a graph of rise in lıquids (cm) as a function of temperature. Then compare the thermal expansion of three liquids,

Question5
ı. Does the expansion of liquids depend on the kind of the liquid? lf so, is the expansion of liquids a characteristic property?
2.whydid we usethe narrow glass tubings?
3. what are the functions of mercury bulb and the narrow pan of a thermometer?
4. Do the volume of test tubes and the narrow glass tubings remaın the same during the heating?

284
 ln the experiment, when the water in the beaker is heated, the liquids
in the glass tubes are also warmed up. First, the level of the liquid decreases
and then increases. Because the test tube is warmed up before the liquid in it.
And it expands. When thermal equilibrium is reached, the liquid also expands
and rises in the glass tubing. The small increase in the volume of the liquid
in the test tube causes a big rise in the liquid in the thin glass tubing. So the
small volume change is magnified to a measurable amount. The system used
for measuring the expansion of liquids is Very similar to a liquid thermometer.
ln the experiment when the temperatures of equal Volumes of different liquids
are increased equally, the changes in their volumes are measured to be differ
ent. A(cording to lhis, expansion is a characterics property for liquids.

tvdo, erceİn k6ro3oıo dcohol |.

ıl
,İ
-}
-} l_

|aı

İ ı
n:t
lO

ı.
I lG

,U UU
lota

,O

Expansions of some liquids ExPansions ofsome liquids volume-temPerafure graPh§ of some liquids

Liquids expand more than solids; Coefrcients of volume expaısioı of

consequently they haVe higher coeffi- some liquiü
cients of volume expansion. The coef- p (1/K)
Liq uid
ficients of Volume expansion for some
Mercury '1.82 x 10{
common liquids are given in the Table
below. The Coefficient of volume ex- Ethly alcohol 7,45 x]}a
pansion of a liquid is the increase in Glycerin 4.85 x 10{
unit Volume per centigrade degree. carbon disulfide 1.'l x ]Oj
The amount of expansion may be given petroleum 8.99 x 1O{
by the formula Water (1 5 - 'l0 'c) 2.1o x 'loa
AV=Voı9xAt
where AV is the Volume expansion, V0 is the original volume, p is the co-
efficient of Volume expansion, and At is the change in temperature. The final
Volume is found by the formula

V =Vo +Vo x pxAt=V0 ('l+ p x At )

2a5
 ExERclsE
Rise ın liquids (cm)
Three different liquids are poured into three different test tubes. The ,|6
same procedure as you did in the previou5 experiment is folloved and alcohol
the rise in liquids (cm) is measured as a function oftemperature.Then 14
glycerin
a graph of rise in each liquid Versus temperature is plotted as shown 12
in the figure aside. ,l0

a. How many cm does each liquid rise when they are heated from 8 _ _- _ _i__..- a- - -- -.i- ---

30 'c to 50 'c? mercury

6
b. what is the order of the coeffiCients of volume expansion of these
liquids from the smallest throu9h the lar9e5t7 4
(. when the temperature is raised from 30 "c to 70 "c, how many 2
times is the rise of glycerin larger than that of mercury?
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65, 70 75
o, Alcohol - l6 cm, glycerin - 8cm, mercury - 4 cm Temperature ("c)
b. B mercury, Pglycerin, Palcohol
c,2

Expansion of Wateı
ln liquid thermometers, mercury or alcohol is used. As temperature in-
creases, the lİquid expands and rises in the tube of the thermometer. The ex-
pansion per degree of a given mass of liquid (alcohol or mercury) is the same aı
all points on the temperature scale. The volume expansion coefficient of mer-
cury is 1.82 X'lo{ 1/'c, and that of al(ohol is 7.45 x
,l0{ ,l/'c
in any tempera-
ture range.

But water is a very unusua| liquid. lt shows Very great irregularities in its
expansion as its temperature rises. lt contracts when heated from 0 to 4'c
above 4 'c, it expands like most other liquids. lf the results are platted into a
graph the curve will be as shown in the Figure on the next page. water pipe:
can split if they freeze up in winters. Thıs is due to the water trying to expand
as it cools from 4 'C to freezing point. lf the ends of the pipe are already frozer
up, tremendous pressure can build up in the middle as the water freezes, ano
this way split the pıpe. As the wateI freezes, its Volume ıncreases 10%. why dc
drivers put anti-freeze in the radiator?

According to the graph, a gıVen mass of water has its smallest volume
and therefore iits greatest density, at 4 'c. water at thi5 temperature of its maxi
mum density is referred to in definin9 the gram. The den5ities of water at differ.
ent temperatures are given in table aside. changes of density cause importanı
movements in water as it cools to its freezing point.

286
_
 d (ycrn3) ı@..
1 ,02o
1@.?
J ffi
1000 1ü,

lü,l
o,995
1@.a

0,990 tnJ
1al

tİ
0,985
lü.,
+-..]
+--}-]
1Q,0
0.980
-1o -O -20 -r0 0 4 10 20 s /ıo t cc) 0ı a t10 |, !a ll

Density temperafure graPh ofwater The volume temperafure relation of watei

Density of water at different temperatures

Temperature ("C) |
Density (gkm3}
0 o.99987
ğ(
2 0.99994
4 ].00000
6 0.99994 at
0.99983
i.
10 0.99973
12 0.99954 l

ln the Figure on the right the upper thermometer readin9 remains steady
at 0 'c, while that of the lower thermometer reading approaches 4 'c. when
the lower one becomes 4 "c, it becomes steady, and the upper one continues
to give a reading of 0 'C. Because at 4 "c, water has the greatest density. That is
ş ı
why it sinks to the bottom. ln other words, when the bottom layer is 4'c, it has
its maximum den5ity, 5o that neither warmeı nor cooler water wilı di5place it.
TemPelatures at difeİent Poiıts of ice-ıüater
These effects are of considerable importance in Nature. Durin9 the winter mixture

the water of ponds and lakes loses heat from the surface layers. As these cool
they will sink, but when a layer at 4 "C has sunk to the bottom. As the surface
layer cools still more, it will float on the water at 4'c below it. when it reaches
0 "c it will begin to freeze, and as thereis a further expansion when water at o
"c turns to ice. The ice is less dense than the surface water, and so remain float-
ing. Thus, the water at the bottom of a pond seldom falls below 4'C, and very
severe and prolonged frost is required to freeze a pond solid.

2B7
 ( ı

"q
ı
L
REsEARCH

what would hove been the results other

than chonges in the loke ond seos if the
volume of woter is decrcased as it is fro-
zen like most liquids? Shore your findings Lakes freeze from the surface, but under the ıayer ofice life continues.

with your friends.

lf it were not for the expansion of water as it cools from 4 'C and freezes,
ponds would freeze from the bottom upwards, and probably all life ın them
would be destroyed every time they froze. Also the ice would melt much more
slowly in the summer, as the heat would have to penetrate the water to get to
the ice. This would result in large sheets of water having a Very great cooling
effect on the climate of surrounding districts

READİNG TEXT

\|
-,*- Çj}
-*-{E!ri*

EXPANsloN o =-=dış.;
Chemical principles indicate that when water freezes, the resulting_ic? is a-percent iess
dense than its liquid state. Equally fascinating is that liquid water at + ae9rtetİis morİ' jeıİİe
than liquid water at any temperature, either hotter or colder. This is counter intuitive but itt
true: as 4 degree water cools, it expands. The same occurs when ice is formed; it expands be-
yond its Volume as a liguid. )

water is the only naturally occurring liquid on our planet that decrea5e5 its den5ity upon
freezing. For almost every other compound, the 5olid state is denser tha n the liquid state; thus,
the solid would sink to the bottom ofthe liquid. The fact that iCe floats on water i5 exceedingly D
important in the naturalworld, because the ice that forms on ponds and lakes in cold areas of ,-'İ"
the world acts as an in5ulatin9 barrier that protects the aquatic life below. Aquatic life is totally
dependent upon this physical characteristiC.

288
 CHECKYOURSELF
A. True and False

write "T" near ea(h one ofthe statements if it is true or"F" if it i5 false.

1. ( ) lf u 20'c incr"use in the celsius thermometre i5 recorded, a 20'c increase in the Kelvin thermometre is recorded

2.( ) ln order to change its state, a substan(e must definitely take heat.
3.( )A substance losing heat at a constant temperature may be changing from gas state to liquid state.
4.( ) For thermal transferring through radiation, there is no need for a physical environment.
5.( ) Heating the house of a radiator can not be given as an example of heat transferring by convection.

6.( )There is bimetalic strip on the fire alarm system.

7, ( ) Fluids transfer heat better than solids.

8.( ) Bimetalic strips are made by using metal's expanding differently.

9.( )The sun! heating the earth occurs through convection.

lo. ( ) Perceived temperature and the actual temperature are always equal.
ı1. ( )The expansion coefficient is distinctiveness for solids, liquids and gases.
ı2. ( ) As pure water at O "c is heated, density of the water first increases then decreases.

B. Fill in the Blanks.

:ill in the blanks with the woıds givenin the box.

a. calori b. large c.liquid d. expansion e. kinetic f. internal energy g . Convection

h. insu|ation i. freezing j. transfer k. gas l. kelvin m. heat caPacity n. exPansion

o. specifc heat p.joule contraction q. meıting s. radiation t. small

l . Temperature is a size proportional to the average ,....,.,......,..,....,....,..,......,. energy of the particles forming the substance

2. ln a substance, the total kinetic and potantial energy ofthe moleCules and atoms is called

3. The thermometre taking the freezing point of water as 273 is the thermometre-

4.The thermometres are not used to measure the Very high temperatures
5.The necessary heat to increase the temperature of m gram(s) of a substance 1 'C is called
6.The heat unit is accordIng to sl unit.
7.The tran5ition event from the solid-state to the İiquid-state is called
$. Double-9lazed windows provide thermal
9. The warming of the hand|e of the tea spoon when it i5 immersed in hot tea can be given as an example for the spreading of the
heat through

0. ln viaducts, and parts are left.

l .The density of water at 4'c is the .,.

2. The reason why the hot tea poured into the glass cracks the glass is

r
ı
 C. Questions and Problems

1. A İise in temperature of 20 Kelvin degrees is equal to a 6 . A thermometer measures the freezing point of water as 1c
ris€ ofwhat degrees celsius? degrees and the boiling temperature of the water as 'l7(
(2o degrees celsius) degrees.

How many degrees does thİs theİmomete] measuİ(

25 ,c?

(5o

2. A kilocalorie is equalto how manyjoules?

(4200 joules)

7. ln the fiqure, the "c

change graph of the

3. What is 20 degrees Celsius in degrees Ke|vin? celciu5 thermome-
(293 degrees) ter is given accor- ]0
ding to the X ther-
mometeü ,X
-20 0
Accoİding to this,
what is the value of
4, At what point is the temperatuİe the same on the celsius the t€mPeratuİe of 60 "c in x theİmometer?
and Fahrenheit scales?
(10(
(negotive 40 degrees)

5 Melting Point Boiling Point 8, which teım ıefers to the amount of heat needed to ]ais
cc) co the tempeİatuİe of a unit mass of a substance throug
Mercury -39 357 one deg.ee?

Alcohol 78
(specific heoı
iI -115

Bromine -7 59

Three thermometers are madQ u5ing the above liquids.

which ofth€se thermometĞrs Gan b€ uscd to measu.e thc fıĞe-

zing and boiling temperatuİe, of water (watĞr f.eeıes at 0 " c, 9. Which has moİe kineti( energy:a cupwith 8 mLof boilin

boils at 10o c)? wateİ oİ a pool with 4oo liteİs of (old water?
"

(only ı) (poo

;,! l(J
ı0. substance Heat taken Finaltemperature
l5. The amount of heat,equiİed to chang€ a boiling liqu-
id to a gas at the same temPerature depends on which
K 2Q 2l pİoperty of the liquid?
ı L O 2t
(heat of vaPoization)
2Q 3t

Ac(ording to the above tabl€, which of thc following judg-

ments al€ Gxactly corred foİ the 5ub5tan(e5 K, L and M whos€
16. substance Heattaken ] Final temperature
initial temPeratuİes are t?
X _10 l10
l. Land M are the 5ame 5ubstance.
|l. K ha5 larger heat capacity than that ofL and M. _20 95
lll. when the equal amount of h€at is given, the temperature of K z l0 85
increa5e5 mo5t.

(onıy ll) Melting and boilin9 points of x, Y and Z are given in table

Ac(ording|, in the tempe.atuİe Change bĞtween -'l5 "c and

90'c, whi(h ofthe 5ubstan(er i9 ob§eİved in three ofthe §olİd,
1. A kİlogram ofwateİ goes from 90 degrees celsius to 10 liquid and gaş,tat.ş?
deg.ees celsius in a PQİiod of2 hours. |fthe sPe(ifi( heat
(only z)
of water is 4 kilojoules per kilo9ram per degree Celsius,
how mu<h heat has the wate] lost?

(320.000 joules)

17. Temperature ("c)

2. The specifi< heat caPacity of water is t Ca|orie per gram

peı degree Celsius. This means that it will take .................
caloİi.(s) to in(rease the tempeİature of ı0 grams of
water by 10 deg]ees.

(1oo)
Time (min)
ll lll lV V

The temperature-time graph of a materiaI i5 giVen in the figure,

3. what is the diffe]en(e between evapoİation and boi- According to thi, at what time PQriod i5 the liquid and solid
lin9?
,tates of mattarfound to be togethĞr?

(ıı)

4. 0'c and
How is it that you can have both water and i(e at
both wateİ and steam at 10o "c? A lot of energy goes
into these Phas. transitions. why doesn't it Chan9e the 18. wall hot wateı fle.ze into i(e cubes faster than cold wa-
temP.İatuİe? teİ in your freezeİ?

291
1 9. What are youİ İeasoning foİ the fact that 24. Heat transfeı by mixing is moıe commonly known a:
what?
a. you feel cold just after you go out sea.
b. it warms up as it snows. (conve<tion
c. water coo|s when it is placed in a pitcher in summer.
d. water melon cools when it is left open air in summet
e. your hands cool when you rub some alcohol on your
hands.
25. lfa metallic objed is heated, how does its d€nsity Chan
ge generally?

(decfaosQ!

2O. Draw an arrow in the direction in which energy in the form

of heat would flow.

object 1 Dire<tion of heat flow object 2 26. lf water is warmed from O degree Celsius to 6 deg
Metal rod Fire rees celsius, how does ıt3 volume Change?
Hat snowman
(cont,o.t filsa then exponl
lce cube Gla55 ofwarm water

21 . Heat flow is normally from a high temperatufe toward a low 27. ln what way is the heat from the sun being tranfe
red to the Eaİth?
temperature region.
(radidtio
How do you manage to cool youı body on a Ju|y day
when the tempeİatuİe is 40 'c (comPaİed to 36.5 oc noİ-
mal body temPeİatuİe)?

28. lt is a pleasant fall day and the temperature outside

35 degrees Celsius. You decide to take a hot show,
22. Everyone knows that heat flows from a hot area to a cold after a tough football practice. To keep the bathroo
area. from fogging up, you open the window.

How then does your refrigerator get it to f,ow fİom the ln what way ı5 the heat from the shower bein
inside of its f]eezing compartment to the warm outside, transferred to the outside?
"uphiıı" İol haal? (.onvectio

29. Ahmet is in a competition to see who Can carry an i,

23. The temperature difference between day and night in de- cube the furthest before it me|ts.
serts i5 much more than those regions which are close to
seas and lakes. He decides to weaı gloves. Why does he do this?

ExPlain its ]eason. (to stop condu.ti<

30. Ayşe goes to her track meet on saturday. lt is very hot and 35. lf you have steeland wood at 0 "C, which feels colder? lf
she is out in the sun all day. By the time she gets to her last you have steel and wood at 100 "c, whi(h feels hotter?
race, her skin is hot to the touch and she feels a little ill.

what is the main fo.m of eneİgy transfer that made

Ayşe! skin so hot?

(lodiotionl

]1 . what is the diffe]ence between conduction and Convec-

36. lf you have a cup of coffee which is too hot to drink, sho-
uld you add Cİeam to it immediately to Cool it oı let it
tion?
stay bla<k and sit for a while before adding cream? The
object is to get it cool enough to dİink in the shortest
Possible time.
}2. When you open the door to your house on a cold day, you
feel a cold draft.

what (auses thİs?

(wam dirffomthe inside movıngtothe outsid.)

37. lf youheata uniform metal plate with a hole in it. willthe

hole get la]ger oİ smalleİ?
} 3. Do you get more gasolİne for youİ money in the winteİ
or in the summer, providing it sells for the same price
Peİ liteİ?

}4. substance Heat taken Final temperature

X _38.4 357
38. change in length (cm)

-7.2 x
2^L
z _219.o _l83

L 98.0 892
Y
R M.2 28o ^L

Temperaıure ('c)
0 t
Answer the following questions by using the data given in
the table.
The relationship between the lengths of metal rods X and
a.Which one(s) of these substance is in solid state at 0'c? Lx at 0 "c. The linear expansions of X and Y with
Y i5 LY =
b, Which one(s) of these substances is in liquid state at 25
respect to temperature are given in the figUre.
,c?
c. Which one(s) ofthese substances is in the state of gas or what is the İatio of the Coeffa(i€nt of linear expansion
Vapor at 100'c? of x and Y?
a.LR, a)LY; c.Yz (}ır/Ar= 41
 D. Multiple Choi<e

4.

EYL
1
Llqulğ Mass (9) l specific heat (J/kg.K)
Which of the following teİms ıepresents the sum of the
kinetic and potential eneıgies of the molecules within a
2m 2c
mateİial.
3m c

E
2m 3c A) Temperature B) Absolute zero c) Heat

m 4c D) lnternal energy E) specific Heat capacity

The masses and specific heats of the liquids X, Y z and T are

9iven in the table.
lf all liquids are heated by identi<al heateıs foİ equal Pe-
riods of time, which one will have the highest incıease İn
thetemPe]atu]e? {none ofthe liquids boils)

A) X B)Y crz D)T E)Yandz

2. Which of thĞ following teİms r€Pİesents the ave]age

tİanslationaı kineti( eneİgy per molecule in a mateİial?
5 Temperature ('C)
A) Temperature B) Absolute zero c) Heat
D) lnternal energy E) specific Heat capacity
80

3 Temperature ('c)
t 30

80
Heat (caI)
0
]00 ] 200
60

Temperature-heat graph of a solid X with a mass of 10 9 is

given in the figure.

Heat (cal) Whi(h are the spe<ifi< heat and latent heat of fusion ol
0
]00 200 500 75o the solid?

Temperature heat graph of a substance is given. specific heat (Cal/g.'cl Latent heat offusİon (caı/g)

what is the ratio between the spĞcific heats of the solid A) 0,1 80
and liquids state§ ofthe substan(e? B) o.2 90
c) 0.3 100

A+ 1
B),4 c D)!
,2 E) 3 D) 0.2 110
2
E) 0.5 120

294
6. A person who puts cologne of his face feels cool 9. ln the figure, the ice at o'c is placed ice (0 'c)

Which one orones of thefollowing can be explained with

the oPPosite of the prin(iple that explains the fact given
into water at 10 "c. The ice melts
completely, and the final tempera-
ture ofwater is measured as t'c
L_l
above?
which one or ones of the follow-
l. The temperature slightly goes up while it is raining. ing pro(esses result in a higher
the value of t?
ll. Buildings with double-glazing windows can be heated Water (10'C]
-
more easily in winter.
l. lncreasing the mass of ice..
lll.The water put in a pitcher cools in summeİ.
ll. lncreasing the mass of water.
lll. lncreasing the initial temperature of water
A) Only l B) only ll c) only lll
D) l and ll E) land lll A) Only I B) only ll C) Only lll
D) land ll E) ll and lll

Tha bolling point of a liquid depends on which one or

'. l
,%#
ones of the following? 10. X
1^>
l. Altitude ofthe place
Y =-ü
z

ll. Kind of the liquid

The shapes ofthe bimetalic strips which are made of X,l Z
lll. Purity ofthe lıquid metals, become as shown in the figure when they aıe hea-
lV.Temperature of the medium ted.

whiGh is the r€lationship between the coefficients of

A) |, ll B) ll, lll c) lll, lV
linear expanions of the metals?
D) |, ll, lll E) |, ll, lll, lV

A)\>\>Iz B)ıx>ız>\ c)}.z>},x>\

D)\>ız>?,,x E)ız>\>}"x

}. A hot sphere made of §teel is placed in a container which has

cold water.

11. Which is Goİİect foİ the volume. mass and density of a

To (al(ulate the amount of hQat gained by wateı which of
substan(e whose temperature is in(ıeased?
the following is not ne(essary?

A) lnitial temperature the sphere Volume Mas5 Density

A) increases no change !ncrease5
B) lnitial temperature ofthe water
B) no change increases increases
c) Final temperature ofthe water
c) increases increase5 increa5es
D) Mas ofthe sphere
D) increases decreases increases
E) specific heat ofthe steel
E) increases no change decreases

295
12. initıal incıease in Iinear 14. X
rod
length temPerature expansion
Y
x L 3t a K
L
2L t +

z 3L 3t

Bimetalıc strip given in the figure is made of the metals X

The rods X, Y and Z have the lengths of L, 2L and 3L respec- and Y
tively. The linear expansions of these rods as a function of
temperature are 9iven on the table. lf }., > i,.r, whi<h lamp will light on when the strip is heat-
ed and cooled?
which of the foılowing predictions is tİue for the mate-
rial of whi<h the rods are made? Heated Cooled
A) L,K K,t,M
A) X and z may be the same but Y is different B) L K,M
B) X and Y may be the same but z is different. c) L,K L,M
D) L,K-M K,L,M
c)Y and z may be the same but X is different
E) K,L,M L,K
D) All ofthem may be the same.

E) All ofthem are different.

13. L L --------ı,
Xr-i X -
,_.x--i Y-< 2xj
(l .c) (t _ 00
,l ,c)
Figure I Figuİe ll

when the temperatures ofthe rods in Figure l are decreased

by 'l00 'C, they become a5 shown jn Figure ll. ,l5. K L

lfthei] temperatures were increased by ı0O'c, theiİ ap-

pearan<e would be in which of the fo|lowing? t( tt tM

A) i1- L B) ]+- L --_----ı

when the object L is touched the object K, the Volume of L
X X
-j decreases, but when it is touched the object M, its Volum€
increases.
C) i<- L ---------ı
X X
whiCh is the increasing order of the inital tempeİatuİe!
Y tK, tt and tii| of the objects?

E) i<- L _____;
A) tK, tL, tM B) tx, tııı, tr c) tM, tK, tt
x
Y- D) tt, tK, tM E) tU tM, tK

296
 Which of the following i5 fal5e? 19. x,Y,z identical candle pieces are stuck to the stick K and L
obtained by the metals of which lengths and thickness are
A) Both conduction and convection require mattertotrans- the same, combined as in the image.
fer heat.
B) solar energy reaches the earth by radiation. The sticks aİe heated at the end o. conssideİing the
C) Dark coloured surfaces radiate more. thermaltransferin9 ofthe metal K is beter then the met-
D) Heat flows from the environment with much heat to the al Us, whi<h one ofthe followings is right?
one with little heat.
E) ln order to get protected from the radiation effect, light Y
X
coloured clothes mu5t be wom.

K K

K L

'l 7. Which of the following cannot be explained bythe aiı's

beİng a poo] heat (onductor?

A) The temperature of the liquid stay|ng constant in the

thermos fla§k§ for a long time A) First the candle X drops. Then the candle Y finally the
B) Heating the buildings with roof better in winter candle Z drops.
C) Double-9lazing the windows in cold places B) First the candle X drops.Then the candles Y and Z drop at
D) Bards fluffing their feathers on cold days the same time.
E) stovel heating the room c) First the cand|e Y then the candle Z, finally the candle X
drops.
D) The candles Y and z drop at the same time, then the can-
dle X drops.
E) Three of the candles drop at the same time.

The amount of heat per unit mass needed to raise the

temperature of a material by 1 degıee centigrade is
-l
8. whi(h of the following is not a facto] incıeasing the
global warming? called as.......

A) Factories waste gases A) Temperature

8) The carbon dioxide exhaled by the livin9 things B) Absolute zero
c) The waste gases from the burning oif coal c) Heat
D) The waste gases from the burning of natural gas D) lnternal energy
E) carrying out photosynthesis ofthe plants E) specific Heat caPacity

?97
@
 V
,}

UNıT 6

ELEC ıcs
 ı

}'-'

ll
"Ğ.
J
.{_.
a ı
ı
t, I
I

9.6.1 EtEcTRıcAL CHARGES

9.6.1.1 . Electrification and Electric Charge

9.6.1.2. Electrostati< Forces between Charged Particles

9.6.1.3. Electric Field Due To Charge

 9.6.1 ELECTRlCAL CHARGES

The dependence of modern

life on electricity is very great. our ıri
homes are lit and often heated by ıl
it. Electric kettles, cookers, irons, lt ,ı
blankets, washin9 machines, vac-
uum cleaners, refrigerators, televi-
ı I n lı
sion receivers and record players
work off the electricity supply. ln
posİtİVe charge
industry and commerce comput-
When electricity has been cut everywhere goe§
ers and other machines are either
dark.
all-electric or have vital electrical
components.

Although most ofthe common uses ofelectrical phenomena involve electric

charges in motion, the fundamental concepts were first developed in electrostat-
ics, the science of stationary electric charges.

ZG
Thales is believed to have first d iscovered the effects of static electricity. About
600 B.C. he observed that amber attracted thin wood shavings when rubbed with \
wool. centuries later, William Gilbert discovered that many kinds of materials be-
have like amber when rubbed; they acquire the ability to attract light weighing ob- }ı
=ı r
jects. Gilbert i5 credited with giVing the name electricity to this property of matter.

9.6.1 .1. Electrification and Electric charge ç,

The phenomenon of electrification can be observed in a number of ways. An _] e 7
annoying shock is sometimes experienced when you touch the door handle of an
automobile after sliding over the plastic-covered seat. You may feel a shock after
walking on a woolen carpet and then touching doorknob or other metal object.
a
Everyone is famıliar with the fact that if a pen made of certain plastic materials is
rubbed on the coat-sleeve it will afterwards attract dust and small pieces of papeı

Electrification is the process of establishin9 an e|ectric char9e on an object.

-
The object is said to be charged with electricity, and may attract smaıl bits of cork,
paper, or other li9htwei9ht particles. Electrification is most apparent when the air is
cool and dry. 8ecause the electric charge is confined to the object, it said to be an
negatİve charge
i5

electrostatic charge. static electricity is commonly produced by friction between

two surfaces in intimate contact.

a. ElectrİfiCation by Fİiction
When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, the glass rod is charged by elec-
tricity. Likewise when ebonite is rubbed with fur it is electrified. why are these ob-
jects electrified by friction? Before answering the question, let5 do the following
experiment.
L
 ExPERlMENT l
Electrification Lıy F ri<ı:o ı
Purpose: To produce electricity byfriction

EquiPment

1. Glass rod 2, Ebonite rod (or rubber)

3.5ilk cloth 4. Fur (orflannel)
5. Pieces of paperd

procedure

1. Hold the end of the glass or rubber rod near a piece of pa-
per. what happened?

2. Rub the glass rod with a silk cloth.

-1
3. Hold the end ofthe rod near a piece of paper.
4. Repeat the same experiment with a rubber or an ebonıte rod by stroking it with a piece of fur.

Que5tions

1. what did you observe when the glass or rubber rod is approached to pieces of paper before they are rubbed with silk or fur.
2. what haPpens when the glass rod whıch is rubbed with silk is approached to pieces of paper?
3. lf you think that the glass rod i5 electrified when rubbed, how can you explain it?

When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth or a rubber rod is rubbed with a
Piece of fur they become charged. They have the power of attractin9 light objects
after being rubbed. Rubbing different materials can produce static electricity, a5
seen in the sparks produced on combing one's hair or removing a nylon shirt.

static electricity is the electric charge that is stationary, Usually acquired by a

body by means of '|. friction, 2. touching, 3. electrostatic induction.

The rubbing process does not create the electric charges that appears as a re-
sult. All "Uncharged' objects actually contain equal amounts of positive and nega-
tive charge. For some pairs of mater|als, as we have seen, mere rubbing is enough
to separate some of the charges are firmly held in place and more elaborate treat-
ment i5 needed to pull them apart. An object whose positive and negative charges
exactly baıance out is said to be electrically neutral.

lf a rubbed glass rod is hung up and another rubbed glass rod is brought near
it, repul5ion occurs- Attraction occurs when a rubbed ebonite (or rubber) rod is ap-
proached to it. we conclude that the charges on the rods are some how different
and different char9e5 attract each other. comprehensive experiments show that
all electric charges fall into one of these two types. Regardless of origin, charges
always behave a5 though they came from either a rubber (or ebonite) rod rubbed
withfurorfroma glass rod rubbed with silk. Benjamin Franklin suggested name5

1
 EXPERİMENT 2

lnvestigating the lnteİactions Between the obje€ts Electrified by Friction and an Electri€al Pendulum

Puıpose:To investigate the interactions b€tween the objects which are electrified, themselves and electrical pendulum

Equipment

1. Glass rod 2. Rubber rod

3. silk cloth 4. Fur
5.Thread 6.stand
Pith ball 8.İn foil
'.
Pao(edure

1. Rub a glass rod with a silk cıoth.

2.5uspendtherubbedglassrodasshownintheFigureandholdanotherrubbedglassrodneartheendofsuspendedglassrod.
Record your observation5.
3. Repeatthe same experimentwith two rubber rods.
4. Now rub the glass rod with a silk cloth and 5uspend it. 5troke the rubber rod with a piece offur and hold the end ofthe rubber
rod near the suspended glass rod. Record your observations.
5. Rub the glass rod with a silk cIoth and approach it to the silk. Repeat the same procedure with rubber rod and fur or flannel.
Record your observation5.
6. suspend two pith balls with nylon thread. (A pith ball is a small ball of wood covered wath tin.)

a
7. charge a glass rod by rubbing. Bring it close to one ofthe pith balls and touch it.
8. Repeat the step 7 by using the rubbed rubber rod and the other ball.

r ı
/

Questions
1. what i5 observed when a charged glass rod is brought near another charged glass rod?
2. What happened when charged glass and rubber rods are brought together.
3. Why do the glass and the rubber rods attract each other whereas two glas5 rod5 or two rubber rods repel each other?
4. Do you think the kinds of electric charges on both the glass and rubber rod are the same? Explain your answer.
5. what happened the Charged gla5s or rubber rods are come near the balls and touch them7

E
3o3
 for these two basic kinds of electricity. He called the charge produced on the rub-
ber rod negative charge and the charge produced on the glass rod positiVe char9e.
DlD YoU KNow? These definition5 are still used today.
Two objects rubbed together are looded with The experiment shows that there are two kinds of electric charges. That on
the same omount ofelectric chorge, but with glass rod is taken as positive (+) and that on ebonite i5 negative (-). lt also shows
the opposite siqn. that like charges (+ and + or - and -) repel, unlike charges (+ and -) attract.

Materia15 such as glass and rubberare insulators.when insulators are charged

by rubbing, only the rubbed area becomes charged and there is no tendency for
the Charge to move into other regions ofthe materials. ln Contra5t, materials such
a5 coppeı aluminum and gold are good conductors. lf you hold a gold rod in your
hand and rub the rod with wool or fur, it will not attract a piece of paper.This might
5u99e5t that this material cannot be charged by rubbing when it is held by naked
hand. lfyou hold this rod with an insulator and rub, the rod will become charged.

ExAMPLE

The spheres A, B, c and D are charged.The sphere A repels the spheres B and c but
attracts the sphere D.

lt is known that the charge of the spheıe c is negative. what aİe the Gharges
of othe] spheres?

B c D

Like charges repel each other. A repels c. 5ince the charge of c is negative, then the
charge ofA is negative. A a|so repels B then B ha5 the 5ame kind of charge with A. B
is negative. A attracts D. Unlike charges attract each other. ln that case, the charge
of D is positive.

ExERclsE

The spheres K, l- M and N are charged spheres. The sphere M attracts the spheres K and L but repels N. What is the effe« of L on
the other spheres?

(ıt oftracts M and N, repels K.)

 Electroscope
An instrument for detecting and finding the sign of an electric charge i5
called an electroscope. A leaf e|ectroscope consists of two thin leaves of gold or
aluminum foil attached to one end of a metal rod which is terminated at the other
end by a metal sphere.

when the metal sphere is charged, part ofthe charge goes to the foils, which
repel each other and therefore diverge. The greater the charge on the leaves, the
greater the divergence. lf you touch to the knob ofthe charged electroscope with
your hand, charges move freely through your body and pass to orfrom the ground.
lt is said to be electrically"earthed" or discharging the electroscope.

+ +
+ +
+
+
+ + +
+ + ElectİoscoPe
+
l et
l +
+ +
++
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +

lfa negatively (J charged object is touched, the electroscope is negatively charged (-).
Ifa positively (+) charged object is touched, the electroscope is positively charged (+).

b. Charging by Conduction
when two objects are rubbed with each other, electrons are transferred
'rom one to the other and these objects are said to be charged. what hapPens if a
:harged material is touched to a neutral or another charged object?

EXPERlMENT 3

lnvestİgatİng th. Prop.rtı6 of thG ob,Gcts İüich ırr chırged by contıCt

Purpose: To explain how to charge a neutral object by contact

EquİPment
l. A leaf electroscope 2, A glass rod 3. An ebonite or plastic rod 4. A piece of silk and wool

Procedure
l. charge a plastic rod by friction and touch it to the knob ofan uncharged electroscope. what happened?
2.Touch yourfinger to the e|ect]o5cope. Now the electroscope is discharged.
3. Charge a glass rod by friction and touch it to the electroscope. Do not discharge the electroscope.
ıı. Now touch the charged plastic rod to the charged electroscope. Record your observations.

3o5
 -\7 -\ı7 l

l ı
Questions

1. How can you understand that a substanCe i5 electrically charged or not by using an electroscope?
2. What wi|l the charge be on an eiectroscope, when a charged 9lass rod is touched to the knob?
3. what happened in the fourth step of the eXperiment? Explain.

This expeİiment shows that when a charged object is touched to a neutra

object, the neutral one is charged by the first object. The sign of charge on bot}
objects is the same.This kind of electrification is called char9in9 by conduction.

lf a negatively charged material is touched to a neutral object, some o

the electrons 90 to the neutral material from the negatively charged object. Th(
amount of total charge remains the same but the amount of charge on the nega
tiVely charged object becomes les5.

qK+qL=q'K+q'L

(a) (b) (c)

K K L L

notr

charging by conduction

ExERcl5E

Explain how to char9e a neutral object positively by conduction. Note that protons do not move.

What happens when a positively charged object i5 touched a neutral electroscope? Explain.

3o6
 lf a charged sphere is touched to an electrical|y neutral sphere, some charge
passes from one to the other. charge is equally shared between the spheres ifthey
are identical.

lf we connect several spheres with a conductor wire or touch with each other
which have radii of ıyı2,ı3,. . . and charges q], q2, q3,. . . respectively, as §hown in
the figure, the total charge is shared by spheres as proportionaI to their radius. BUt
the total charge remains the same, because ofthe conservation of electric charge.
The charge ofeach sphere is

qr +q2+q3+
9'ı=rıx + + +
2 3

@r
The charges of three identical and con-
ductive spheres A, q1
B and c are +6q, -]2q
and +5q respectively. Sphere A istouched
firstto B and then c.

what a]e the final <harges of spheres?

q2

+6q -]2q +5q

E@
since the spheres are identical (r, = r, = r, = r), first A and B will share their total
q3
charge equally.

qgr+P
q,A ,
ffi =,, =,,
(r1)
=
_aq

Spheıes wiü different chaİges and radii

q'B=q,A=-3q

Now A with its new charge, -3q, is touched the sphere C

ı.o=,o, ffi=rx
(-3q) +(+5q)
=r* jl=o
Q'o = q'. = .ro 1'h" ,adius of A and C equal)
Finalcharges: q"o = +q, q,8 = -3q, q,c = +q +
qTot"|= (+q) + (-3q)+ (+q) = -q
lt i5 equal to the initial total charge: (+6q) + (-12q) + (+5q) = -q
As you see, the electric charge is conserved.

3o7 ]
 ExERclSE

There are three spheres as shown in the figure. The charges of the c
B
spheres are 18 c, 0 c, and 0 c respectively. sphere A is touched first
the sphere B and then c.

what is the final Chaİ9e of cı

(4.5 c,

@Er
The conductive spheres A, B, c with the radii of ı 2ı 3r respectively are on insulated
supports.The sphere B is touched first A and then c.

what a.e the finalchaıges of spheıes?

-7q
+q

+2q

B c

E@.
9n +
* rA+rB_ ,,
Qa (+2q) + (+q)
,,.
jj.a = +o'
l+2f =
3(
rjt J!9-
a,e = rs x -q^ = 2, * = 12q

Q'g nQc +(-7q)

B r8+r8_rrx
(+2q)
=r_, 2I+3l =zrr_la
q" =_zo
8 5r

o,.=,.,
ffi=ı" j;q =_ıq

3o8
EXAMPLE

L
K
r 2r

-q
+q

Electrically charged, conductive K and L spheres are touched and separated by be-
ing held together by an insulator.

Accoıdingly, what are the final Chaİg6 of K and L?

DlDYoU KNow?
@ After charging by conduction, objeds are
qK+qt=qlK+qlL either chorged with the same sign or become
(-q)+(+q)=q'K+q'L neutral. Thot is, it is not the case thot one is
looded, one is neutral or the other is chorged
5ince the total charge is zero, there will be no charge per radius
0=q'x+9'r with different sign.
in the last case. So they're both neutral.

q 0
K
q =0

c. Charglng by Induction
lt is possible to charge a neutral object without touching or rubbing. The
following experiment provides more information about the charges which are in-
duced on an insulated conductor when a charged rod is brought near it.

ExPERlMENT 4

lnvestigating the Kinds of Charges on the Ends of a Rod whi(h is charged by lndudion

Purpose; To learn how to charge an object by induction and detect the kinds of charges on the ends ofthis object

EquiPment

l.Two beakers 2. Metal rods rod

3. Plastic 4. Glass rod s.Thread
6. Pith baİl 7. silk 8. wool 9. Ring stand and tin foil
pıocedure

ı.suspend a pith ba|lwith a nylon thread as in the figure. (A pith ball is a small ball of wood covered with tin.)

L
309
 2. Place a plastic rod on a glass beaker.
3. Let it touch the pith ball.
ıı.charge a glass rod by rubbing and bring it close to the other end of the plastic rod. ls there any change in the positıon ofthe
pith ball?

(a) ,,l
-T rod
ftetal rods

K plastıc

t
L B
gla5s rod 9lass rod

ı ı

5. Now replace the plastic rod with a metal rod and repeat the steps 3 and 4.
6. Remove the beaker without touching the rod. Bring the glass rod Close to the pith ball. What happens?
7. Repeat the experiment by using different kinds of rods.
8. set up the apparatus as shown in figure-b. The pith ball touches one end of the metal rod.
9. Bring a charged glass rod close to the other end ofthe rods. Observe the plth baIl.
10. with the charged plastic rod close to the rods, separate the rods by moving the beaker B without touching the rods and
observe the pith ball.
1 1. Now remove the beaker A and bring the b€aker B and one end of the rod on it close to the pith ball. What happens?

l. ls the plastic rod charged, when the glass rod i5 approached? lf it is so, explain how?
2. ls the metal rod charged, when the glass rod is approached?
3. why does the rod B repel the pith ball?
4. Does the plastic rod lose its charge?
5. In the ninth step, ifthe plastic were left before separating the beakers, what would happen?

ln the fifth step ofthe Experiment, when the 9lass rod is approached the met-
al rod, you see, the pith ball is repelled. Let's pull the beaker and bring the glass rod
close to the pith ball. lt repels the pith ball. 5ince like charges rePel each other and
the g|a5s i5 positively charged then the pith ball and the end ofthe metal rod which
touched the ball must have positive char9e.

Positively charged glass rod attracts the free electrons of metal rod to the
closer end thereby creatin9 a negative indu(ed Charge at the closer end and a posi-
tive charge at the other end.The pith ballwhich is touched the positive end ofthe
metal rod is charged positively. charging a conductor substance by a charged ma-
terial without touching is called charging by induction or electrostatic induction.

:llıl
 ln the experim€nt, when the negatively charged plastic rod is brou9ht close
to one end of the rods, the free electrons on the rods are repelled to the other end.
Then the close end to the plastic is charged positively and the far end is charged
negatively. lf the plastic rod is removed, the electron5 return to their former places
then the rods are not charged. But if the rods are separated from each other with-
out removing the plastic, one ofthe rods becomes positively charged, the other is
negatively charged.

Now let! try to understand how the charging by induction is carried out in

E
.onductors. see the fol|owin9 fi 9ure.

K L

We bring K

ffi
closer.

conductors touching each other

K L
+
+

Neutral conductors

Mhen K is in üe same Position, we sePaİate the L and M from each otheİ by holding them with
heir in§ulating leg§.

+++++
a-
L M
++ ++
+q -q

Vhen we ıemove K, üe initiaıly neutİal L and M are charged with equal amounts and oPPosite
isD&

lt is possible to charge an object completely by induction. See following fig-

lre. when a negatively charged rod is brought near a metal rod, electrons go too
ar end ofthe metal rod. lf the metal rod is earthed by touChing it with the finger or
metal wire the electrons flow from the rod to earth through the body or wire.The
emoval of the negatively charged rod leaves the metal rod with a positive charge.
'he metal rod is posilively charged because the neutral metal has lost some of its
,lectrons.

311
 K conductor L k conductor L K L
+++
+ ++
+++
+++ ++++++

chaf8in8 a!ı object comPletely by induction

The earth as a whole, at least that part of it beneath the outer dry soil, is a
fairly good electrical conductor. Hence if a charged object is connected with the
earth by a piece of metal, the charge ıs conducted away from the object to th€
earth. This convenient method of removing the charge from an object is called
grounding the object.

To charge the metal rod negatively by induction a positively charged glass

rod i5 used. ln this case eanhing the metal rod causes electrons to flow to the roo
from earth. ln this Ca5e, the neutral metal rod gaın5 electron5 and hence it become:
ne9atiVely char9ed.

@r
The negatively C) charged object K is approached to the conductive and neutra
L, M spheres touching each other. Then L and M spheres are separated from eacİ
other and k is removed.

ACcordİngly, what are the elect]iG charges of the L and M spheres?

K L

Neutral conductive spheres

@..
(b}
j j
(a)
L
L +
+ r 2r

+
+
Neutral conductive spheres

31?
 (d)
j
(c) M
L L
+ + +
+ 2r
+
+ +
+
+q
-q

As in Figure a, the object K is being approached. ln this case, the electrons

are displaced to M and charged M negative C) as in Figure b. since the L is losing
electrons, it is charged pozitive (+). lfthe L and M spheres are separated from each
other like in Figure c and the object K is removed as in Figure d, we can say that the
L and M spheres will be charged in the form + q and - q, respectively.

Electrostatic induction also enables us to understand the force of attraction

exerted by an electıified body on a neutral conductor.5uppose that the electrified
rod is positively charged.see the figure. ıt will induce a negative charge on the
nearest part of the ball and a positive charge on the part farthest away.

DİDYOU KNOW?
Physical size does not matter in the case of
PositiVely
charged rod charging objeds by induction, but the prin-
ciple of conseNotion of loads is volid.
netrual

a-=
Attraction ofa neutfal conductor.

The induced negative charge is attracted toward the positive charge on the
rod, and the induced positive charge is repelled by it. However, the repulsion i5

weaker than the attraction, because the induced positive charge is farther from
the rod than the negative one. As a result, there is a net force on the ball pulling it
toward the rod.

There is also electrostatic induction between an electrified object and a

neutral insulator. But it is weaker. Because in the insulators negative and positive
charges are tightıy bound. They cannot move freely inside the insulatoı only a
small amount of charge separation actually occurs. when insulators are charged
by rubbing, only the rubbing area becomes charged and there is no tendency for
the char9e to move into other regions ofthe materials. But if thi5 area i5 connected
with another object by a piece of metal, the charge is conducted away from the
insulator.

313
 That is whythe places where static electricity can be folmed are connected to
the earth with a conductor. And so the excessive charge goes to the earth. otheı
wise some dangerous situations might occur. Petrol tankers, laboratories working
with substances whose vapors are flammable such as alcohol, ether, chloroform,
operating rooms are places where static electri(ity can be dangerous. There is a
chain which touches the ground on the back of the tankers. Why?

d. Earthing (Grounding )

lf a conductive object is connected to the ground with a conductive wire or

coPPer strip it is said to be grounded. The grounding is carried out by connect-
ing the copper plate buried under some amount of the soil to the ob.iect. Ground-
ing is the best way to bring electrified objects to neutral. lf a negatively charged
conductive body is grounded, the negative char9es (electrons) on the body go to
the ground. when a positively charged conductive body is grounded, the negative
charges (electrons) come from the earth and the body becomes neutral. lt is ap-
parent that the eanh, by taking electrons or by giving electrons according to the
situation, brings the charged objects into neutral state.

(a) (b}

Display of ground
I

I
connection
I

:]: \_ :]:
Negative charges (elec- The sphere
trons) go to the ground. becomes neutral.

(c) +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + e-
+
+' } The sphere
Electrons come from becomes neutral.
the ground.

Gİounding indication and neutralization ofcharged obiects with grou.ding

Grounding in everyday life has a very big importance. ln our homes, metal
plu9s in the vertical direction are connected to the earth connection of the bUi|d-
ing. The main reason for doing earthin9 in electrical network is for the safety. When
all metallic parts in electricaIequipments are 9rounded then ifthe Insulation inside
the equipments fails there are no dangerous voltages present in the equipment
case. lf the live wire touches the grounded case then the circuit is effectively short-
ed and fuse will immediately blow. When the fuse is blown then the dangerous
voltages are away.

- 314
 lf there is a fault in your electrical installation you could get an electric shock
'you touch a live metal part,This is because the electricity may use your body as a
ıath from the live part to the earth part.

Earthing is used to protect you from an electric shock. lt does this by provid-
ı9 a path (a protective conductor) for a fault current to flow to earth. lt a|so causes
1e protective device (eıther a circuit-breaker or fuse) to switch offthe electric cur-
]nt to the circuit that has the fault.
RESEARcH
For example, if a cooker has a fault, the fault current flows to earth through
Do a reseorch covering the histoıicol de-
1e protective (earthing) conductors. A protective device (fuse or circuit-breaker)
velopment of grounding and methods of
I the consumer unit switches offthe electrical supply to the cooker.The cooker is
grounding buildings.1hore your findings as
ow safe from causing an electric shock to anyone who touches it.
a presentotion.
Today, there is no residence permit without earth connection.

7 --
ı OıO

earth connectors
{

-ounded socket Electİical connection cables in eıect.ical equiPment

ln everyday life there are many applications of grounding and charging by

duction. For example, mosque minarets or conductive rods at the ends of high
.ıildings, called lightning rods, are systems that are 9rounded with a copper strip.
general, the nearest parts ofthe clouds to the ground are electri(ally negative C)
ıd the ground is positive (+). By way of induction the clouds and the lightning rod
e Charged oppositely. ln the lightning event according to the state ofthe positive
ld negative electric charges on the ground with the cloud , sometimes there is a
)w from the ground to the cloud and sometames there is a flow from the cloud to
e ground. ln the 6gure a lightning rod is seen.

The factories producing cars make use of static electricity in painting cars. For
is purpose the body of the car and the paint are charged with opposite charges
that the point covers the cat

The particles 5pread from the factory chimneys into the atmosphe.e cause air
)llution. By holding these particles by means of static electr|city the air pollution
n be prevented.

|,,
 Photocopiers also work with the help of static electricity.

+
ilı

t
\
t
L.
]
(
ı L
ı- ğ
Ju Some advantages ofelectrostatic are used in coPiers.

ı,
EXAMPLE
Lightnin8 strikes the Eiifel Tower
Three idcntical electİos(oPer a]e Charged positively in equal quantitİ€s

a. when the object K is brought near to one ofthe electroscopes, the amount ]

divergence between the leaves decreases.

b. When the object L is brought near the second electroscope, the amount in c
Vergence between the leaves increases.
.]
C. when the object M is brought near to the third electroscope, the leaves first cc

E lapse and then diverge again.

Accordİng to the information given abov€ (ompaİe the kinds and amounts (

cha]ges ofthe objects K L and M.

E@
Lightnin8 rod a. lf the quantity of charge on the leaves decreases, the amount in divergence b,
tween the leaves decreases too. To decrease the quantity of positive charge c
the leaves, some electrons should move from the knob to the leaves. ln oth,
words, the object K should repel the electrons from the knob. ln that case, tİ
charge ofthe K is negative. Because like charges repel each other.lfthe quanti
of charge on the K and electroscope were equal, the leaves would collapse cor
pletely.Then, the quantity of charge on the K is less than that ofelectroscope.

b. when the quantity ofcharge on the leaves increases, the amount in divergen(
between the leaves increases too. To increase the quantity of positive charge <

3,16
 the leaves, some electrons should move from the leaves to the knob. lt means
that, the object L attracts the electrons. Then, the charge of L is positive. Be-
cause, opposite charges attract one another.

. The charge of the object M is negative, because the leaves of the electroscope
collapsed. For the |eaves to be diverged once more, the quantity of charge on
the M needs to be greater than that ofthe leaves.The new charges ofthe leaves
are the same with the M, thus they are both negative.

How<an the typ€ofele<tıi( Chaİ9e be determined with an elect]oscoPe?

For the determination of charge of a body by ele(troscope the following

:eps are followed in order:

1. The electroscope is primarily charged with a known type ofelectric charge

"-l

\* ./

2.The object with the unknown type of charge i5 approached to the electro-
ıpe ball (untouched).
3. lf a little more opening is observed in the leaves of the electroscope af-
l the approximation, we can say that the object3 charge and the electroscopel
arge are the same kind.

317
 + +
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +

"-1

\- _j
4. on the electroscope leaves after approximation;

a) a little closure,
b) complete cl05ure,
c) cl05in9 and then openIng,

we Can say that the charges of the object and the electroscope are differe
types. The first situatİon to be observed here is that the leaves are a little closu
(a).The cases (b) and (c) can be observed, respectively, dependin9 on the variabl
such as the greater the amount of charge ofthe object or the closer it is to appro:
mation.

EitrEEE .
X z

The X, z objects and the Y electroscope given in the figure are electrically charg(
lf X is approached to Y the electroscope leaves are a little closed. When Z is a

proached to Y it is observed that the leaves are slightly op€ned.

Accoİding to thİs,

l. ıf X is charged negatively G) then Y and z are positively (+) charged.

ll. lfX is positive (+) then Y and z are negative (-).
lll. X, Y z have the same type electric charge.

which ofthesejudgments (an be tİue?

@
@
lfthe leaves are closed when approaches Y then X and Y are oppositely charged.
X
lf the leaves are opened a little when Z approaches Y then z and Y have the
same type of electric charge. ln that case, the charges of z and Y are the same,
and X is the different kind can be regarded as correct. ln this case l and ll are the
appropriate.

@E }

K L
P

insulated stand

when three insulated brass spheres K, L and M are placed tou(hing one another, a
positively charged rod, P, is approached M.Then the sphere L is taken away by hold-
ing it from the insulated stand. Later the rod P i§ taken away.

What will be the Gharge of each spheıe?

E@
The positively charged rod, P, attracts the electrons in spheres Kand L to the sphere
M. As a r€sult, a positive charge is induced on K and a negative charged on M.

K L K L
+ P +
+ + +
+
+ + + +
+ + +
+ +

(a) (b)

/yhen the spheİes are separated and the charged rod is removed, the distribution
)f charges doesn't change. Finallİ K is charged positive|y, M is negative|y, and L is
ıeutral.

3,ı 9
 ExAMPLE

K L

insulated
support

A positively charged sphere, K, mounted on insulating support is approached a

conductive object, LM. And then M end is grounded by a copper wire. After a while,
the wire is removed and then charged object K is taken away.

Explain what hıppens in ea(h step.

@
when K is approached LM, a negative charge is induced on the end L and a positive
charge on M. lf a conducting wire is then connected to M, some electrons, because
ofthe positive charge on M, move from ground to M.

lf the wire to ground is then removed, the object ML is left with an excess of elec-
tron5 or an excess of induced negative charge.

Finally, when the sphere, K, is removed from the vi(inity of the object ML the in-
duced negative charge will remain on the grounded object ML.

K L K L L
+ + + +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ -+
+- +

(a) (b) (c}

- ExERclsE

-What would the charge on ML be if the object K were negatively charged in previous examp|e?

32o
 e. Atoms as the Source of Charge
Practical electricity was fairly well developed before the electron was discov-
ered about 'l900. Nevertheless, you will find electricity easier to understand if we
explain it in terms of the electron.

1 18 varieties of atom are known, but each of them is made up of just three
kinds of elementary panicles. Two of the particles carry electric charges, so that
charge, like mass, comes in small parcels of definite size. The thırd particle has no
charge.The three elementary particles found in atoms are given in the table below.

Ekmeflıary particııs of an atom

svmuoı (e)
ParticIe
I | cnaıse
| clıaıse tcl Mass (k9)

Electron e _l -].6x'l0-ı9 9.1 '|

x 10-3ı

Proton p +i 1.6x'l1-19 1.67 x 10-27

Neutron n 0 0 '1.68 x 'l0-27

Every atom has a small, central nucleus of protons and neutrons with its eleC-
lrons moving about the nucleus some distance away.

The electrons in an atom are normally equal in number to the proton, 50 the
]tom is electr|cally neutral unless disturbed in some way.The electİons, or negative
f,articles, are in the outer part ofthe atom. And they can easily shift from one atom
:o another.

All substances differ in theiI tendency to give up or take on electrons. There-

bre, when you rub two different substances togetheı both of them usually be-
:ome charged. A transfer ofele(trons occurs.

one substance gains a negative charge, while the other receives an equal and
]pposite positive charge.

nucleus

electron

Shown is a simplified model (not a scale) ofthe most common t}?e of

caıbon atom, which has six protonst six neutrons, and six electrons.

ll|l1
 The production of charges by friction can be explained by supposing that
electrons are transferred from one materiaI to the other. For example, when a glass
(a) rod is rubbed, electrons go from glass to the cloth, leaving the glass short of elec-
+ +++
trons. lf an object gives its electrons it becomes positively charged. That is why
the glas5 rod is charged positively. The cloth now has more electrons than protons
and becomes negativeıy Charged. Note that it i5 electrons which move, the pro-
(b) tons remain in the nucleus. Likewise when ebonite is rubbed wıth fur, electrons are
++++
transferred from fur to ebonite, thus making the ebonite negative and the fur posi-
tive. Why this happens, and why the electrons go from glass to silk and from fur to
ebonite and not in the reverse direction, are not at present understood.
++++ ((}

f. Quantlty of Charge, Elementary Charge and Paıticulate

Nature of Charge
(a) Neutraı atom,
(b) Negaüvcly charged atoın ln the production of charges by friction or conduction, electrons are trans-
(c) Posiüvğ charged atom ferred from one substance to the other. one of the substances loses some of its
electrons and the other substance gains these electrons. The number of electrons
lost equals the number of electrons gained. Total number of charge remains con-
stant in an isolated system. charge is conserved.

An object can gain or lose 'l, 2, 3, ..., n electrons. Then the charge ofthe object
can be '|, 2, 3, ..., n times the charge of one electron. Charge is quantized, that is it
can appear only as whole number multip|es of a fundamental indivisible unit.

q=nxe (ne 0,1,2,3,...l

The charge of an object can be q = + 'l0e or q = -129.

But it cannot be q = +'l7.5e or q = -2.5e.

The sl unit of charge is the coulomb. 'l coulomb is equal to the charge of
6.25 x 'l0r8 electrons.The smallest unit ofcharge known in nature is the charge on
the electron or proton. The proton has a charge of +1.6 x 10 ]9 c and the electron
has a charge of -'1.6 x ı o-ı9 c. All charges, both positive and negative, afe therefore
found only in multiples of '1.6 x ı 0-19 c. This basi( quantity of charge, elementary
charge, ıs abbreviated e.

e = 1.6 x 1O-r9 C (8asic unit of change in nature)

g. conductors, lnsuİato15 and semiconductors

A substance through which electric charge flow readily is caIled a conductor.
Metals are the only solid conductors at room temperature. ln a metal, each atom
9ives up one or more electrons to a "sea'of electrons that can move relatively freely
inside the metal. The atoms themselves stay in place and are not involved in the
movement of charge. Among the metals, silver ranks 6rst as a conductor. copper is
nearly as good, and since it is much cheaper than silver, we usually use copper for
electric wires.

@
Some of anductors, ınsulıtors, and semicorıductors

conductors lnsulators 5emiconductor9

lron porcelain siyicoh
Copper Dried wood Germanium
silVer Rubber
Gold Glass
Aluminum Teflon
salty water Mica

ln an insulator, charge can flow on|y with great difficulty. Nonmetallic solids
are insulators because all their electrons are tightly bound to particular atoms or
groups of atoms. Glass, rubber, and plastics are good insulators. ln the first experi-
ment, insulators such as glass, ebonite, plastic were used. Because the charges are
held in insulators. The term static electricity is used for the charges which are not
in motion. To understand this phenomenon. you can repeat the experiment with
metal rods instead of rubber or glass objects. Table gives some of conductors, insu-
lators and semiconductors.

A few substances such as germanium and silicon, called semiconductors,

are between conductors and insulators in their ability to Iet charge move through
DlDYoU KNow?
them. The electrical properties of semiconductors can be controlled. by adjusting
The distinction of eledrical insulotion is not
the type and concentration of impurities. semiconductors have made possible de-
certoin. Therefore, there is no absoıute elect-
vices called transistors, whose ability to carry charge can be changed at will. Tran-
icoı insulation. Physicol conditions such as
sistors are widely Used in modern electronics, notably in radio and television receiV-
temperature and humidity con disrupt eıect-
ers. A computer contains thousands of tran5istor5 that act a5 miniature switches to
ricol insulotion, For example, the glass beco-
perform arithmetic and carry out logical operations. 5emiconductor memories are
mes conductive at about 2ao " C. ln overloa-
also used in computers, with huge numbers of memory elements built into a "chip"
ding, gosses con be conductive,
smaller than a fingernail.

Many experiments have been performed to show that the net charge on
a conductor resides on its surface. The reason is that the same kind of electrical
charges pushes each other. Pushing the same kind of electrical charges each other
causes to 90 them farthest from each other. ın this respect, there is no electric
load in the inner parts of the systems, even if conductive systems are electrically
charged.

(a) (b)

Charges in an electrically chaİged conductive body are col-

lected onüe outermost surface of üe conductoı

323
 A metal ball having a positive charge was lowered at the end of a silk
thread into an uncharged hollow conductor insulated from ground, as shown
in Figure b.

As the ball was lowered into the pail, the leaves of an electroscope at-
tached to the outer surface of the hollow was observed to diverge (Figure c).
The leaves diverged because the charged ball induced a negative charge on the
outer wall of the hollow conductoı which left an equal positive charge on the
inner wall. The position of the leaves does not change when the ball touched
the inner surface of the conductor (Figure e). After the ball had touched the
inside of the conductor and then been removed, the leaves still remained un-
changed, now the ball is uncharged. lf a neutral electroscope is connected to
the inside 5urface of the hollow after the experiment is run, there is no repulsion
between the leaves. lf we touch a negative|y charged object the inner surface
of the conductor, the negatiVe charges move toward outside of the conductor.

+
+
+
t +
_l_
+ -7 Y_
ö. -s§t
{a) (bl (c) (d} (e)

The net charge on a conductor resides on its suİface

A Faraday cage or Faraday shield is an enclosure formed by conducting

material or by a mesh of such material. Faraday cages shield their contents from
static electric fields. An electric field is a force field surrounding a charged par
ticle, such as an electron or proton.

since the difference in voltage is the measure of electrical potential, no

current flows through the space. Faraday cages are named after the English
l
scientist Michael Faraday, who invented them in '|836.

A Faraday cage operates because an external static electrical field causes

ı the electric charges within the ca9e'5 conducting material to be distributed
such that they cancel the field's effect in the cage's interior. Th|s phenomenon
is used, for example, to protect electronic equipment from li9htning strikes and
* electrostatic discharges.

Faraday cages cannot block static or slowly varying magnetic fields, such
/ as the Earth's magnetic field (o compass will still work inside).ro a large degree.

Faıaday cage prevents electİical efect the ingİeݧ

though, they shield the interior fİom external electromagnetic radiation if th€
or egress. conductor is thick enough and any holes are significantly smaller than th€
wavelength of the radiation. For example, certain Computer forensic test pro-
cedures of electronic systems that require an environment free of electromag-

:|rr4
netic interference can be carried out within a screen room. These rooms are
spaces that are completely enclosed by one or more layers ofa fine metal mesh
or perforated sheet metal. The metal layers are grounded to dissipate any elec-
tric currents generated from external or internal e|ectromagnetic fields, and
thus they block a large amount of the electromagnetic interference.

The reception or transmission of radio waves, a form of electromagnetic

radiation, to or from an antenna within a Faraday cage is heavily attenuated or
blocked by the cage.

EEEEIE .
A microwave oven is an example of a Faraday cage applied for motivation
inverse of the usual case: keeping the microwave energy within the cage rather
than keeping it out.

Elevators and other rooms with metalliC conducting frames famously sim-
I
ulate a Faraday cage effect, leading to a loss of signal and "dead zones" for users ,,)
of cellular phones, radios, and other electronic devices that require external c]oo
electromagnetic signals. Small, physical Faraday ca9es are used by electronics 6ooo
engineers during testing to simu|ate such an environment to make sure that
the device gracefully handles these conditions.

The shield of a screened cable, such as usB cables or the coaxial cable
used for cable television, protects the internal conductors from external electri-
cal noise and prevents the RF signals from leaking out.

These cages often look distinctly, well, cakelike. Some are as simple as
chain-link fences or ice pails. others use a fine metallic mesh. Regardless of
their exact appearance, all Faraday cages take electrostatic charges, or even
certain types of electroma9netic radiation, and distribute them around the ex-
terior of the ca9e.

El€ctİomagnetİ( İadiation is all around us. lt's in Visible and ultraviolet

light, in the microwaves that cook our food and even in the FM and AM radio
waves that pump music through our radios. But sometimes, this radiation is
undesirable and downright disruptive. That's where Faraday cages come in. As
a Faraday cage distributes that charge or radiation around the cage's exterioı
it cancels out electric charges or radiation within the cagel interior. ln short, a
Faraday cage is a hollow conductor, in which the charge remains on the exter-
nal surface of the cage.

That basic function has plenty of fascinating uses in our electrically clut-
tered and technology-packed world. And although Faraday would eventually a
have his day, the backdrop for his invention actually has its roots in earlier
times. So, where did the idea for these ultra-useful cages come from?

325
 Electıification in insulators
REsEARCH A similar effect of charging by induction in conductors is also seen in in-
sulators. ln most of the neutral atoms or molecules, the positive and negative
ınvestigote about the developments that led
charge distributions are in the same region. Thus they have a neutral effect
to the dPpeorance of the Foraday cage and
against the outdoors. That is, they cannot show an electrical effect as seen in
other areas of doiıy use. Share the informa-
figure a. However, when the insulators are under a charged object effect (elec-
tlon you hove obtoined in the classroom by
trification by induction), the positive and negative charge distributions slide
a presentotion.
slightly to each other and shift to different regions. ln this way, one side of the
molecule is more posatively or negatively charged than the other side. This is
also called polarization. The rearrangement of the molecules at this position
creates an electrical charge by induction on the surface of the insulator (5e€
Figure b.).

DlD YoU KNoW?

ln insulotors, the meosure of polorizing pro-
+
)
perty takes its ploce as o dielectric constant + )
in physics. The lorge dielectric constont me- non-polarized +
charged
ans that the insulator will be better polari-
zed. For this reoson, it is important to know
insulator
molecule
body + l........**fltr
mole€ule
the dielectric constants of the insulators in + )
the stoges of production, development, etc. + )
of e l ectro nic m ot e ri al s. )
(a) (b)

Through this feature of the insulators, you can better understand why i
electrically charged ebonite rod attracts a neutral ebonite rod. Charged eb
onite rod attracts and pushes due to the polarity of neutral ebonite rod. How
ever, since the opposite polarity region, that is, the attracting region is closeı
the attraction force is more dominant than the pushing force of the same kin<
of charged polar region. For this reason, the charged ebonite attracts neutra
ebonite. The same applies to the pulling of pieces of paper by the comb whert
it is rubbed to your hair. Here, the pieces of paper are polarized. However, tht
pieces of paper are pushed by the comb as they will be charged with the sam(
type of comb as they touch the comb.

(d2 > dr)

charged ebonite d2 neutral ebonite

(loaded body) (insulator)
 9.6.1.2, Ele(trostatic Forces between Charged Particles
You know about three dafferent forces in nature: gravitationa| force, electric
force, and nuclear forces. All play their special and indep€ndent part in the nature
ofthings.

The gravitational force is a force of attraction, between two objects due to

their masses. Compared with the other two natural forces, it is a very weak force.
But it has a 9reat significance if wedealwith enofmous masses like moons, or plan-
_.ts, or stars.

The way electric forces operate was not discovered until the middle of the
l fth century. An electric force differs from a gravitational force in two ways. First,
ın electric force may be either a force ofattraction or a force of repulsion. Second, it
a much stronger force than 9ravitation.This force ac(ounts for the endless variety
DlD YoU KNoW?
s

)f substances in the world, even for plants and animals.

Nuclear forces were discovered in the early part of the twentieth century. A fil,.lnı
ıuclear force is a very powerful force of attraction, at least 'l00 times a5 strong as t
ln electri( force.The most surprisin9 thing about a nuclear force is extremely short
The grovitotionol force is proportional tothe
listance through which it acts. productofmosses ond is inversely proponio-
This summary ofthe three forces has raised some qu€stions. (1) What causes a nalto the square of the distonce between the
latural force? Nobody knows.(2) Why do Protons repel protons? Why do electrons centers of the objects.
epel electrons? Why do protons attract electrons? There are no answers to these
Iuestions. (3) How did the three forces come about? Did theyjust happen, or were
hey created?

Some ofthese questions cannot be answered by experiments. Therefore they

re outside the field of science. But some of these questions can be investigated.
üs the search for knowledge goes on, someone may eventually find the answers.

a. Dependen(€ of Force on the Amount of Charge

We learned that parti(les with like charges repel each other, and partİcles
Jith unlike charges attract each other.This attraction or repulsion is called an elec-
.ic force.

Q+FO
FC Q...+
<-O @+
Electrostatic fo.ces between chalged particles

Let's investigate the factors on which the electriC force depends.

327
 EXPERİMENT 5

lnvesti9ation of the Relation between the ElectriC Foİce and the Amount of charge

Purpose: To show the electrostatic force between charged particles depends on the amount of charge

EquiPment

ı. stand ball
2. Pith 3.Thread a. Glass rods
5. Beaker 6. clamp
'.Ful
procedure

1. suspend the pith ba|l with a nylon thread as shown in the figure.
2. Charge a glass rod by rubbing and touch the pith ball.
3. Place the glass rod on a glass beaker, as the charged end is against thecharged pith ball. Does the ball go away? How much?
ıı. Now chaıge another glass rod and p|ace it on the beaker as the first one. what happened?
5. Repeat the exP€riment by using rubber rods instead ofglass rods. First, e|ectriry the ballwith charged rubber rod.

l
.ı
Questions
ı. what does the increment of the angle between the thread and the Vertical mean? what kind of dependence does this sug-
gest?
2. what happens if the amount ofcharge on the ba|l is increased?
3. Does the force between electrically charged bodies depend on the kind ofcharge?

we see in the ExPeriment, when two glass rods are used (the amount o]

charge is increased) the angle between the thread and the Vertical mean increases
Both the ball and the rod are positively charged and they rep€I each other. The in.
crease in the angle is caused by the increase of the force of the repulsion. The forct
between electrically charged bodies depends on the magnitude of their charges
lf the charges on the ball and the rod are q, and q, respectively, then the electro

static force betvveen them is dırectly proportional with q1 X q2. or

Fctq] xq2

32a
 q1 q2

F F
o.--------
2F 2F

4F 4t

<- d ---------------->
la
]

)
The force depends on the magnitude ofeach charge; if eiüer charge is doubled, the
force doubles too, and ifboth charges are doubled, üe force increases fourfold. /

Y
t

L1
b. Force Versus Distance t
The way in which the attraction or repulsion between charged spheres q

iepends on distance was established experimentally by the French physicist

]harles Coulomb in 1785. ln his experiment, Coulomb used a torsion but we ,

,vi|l do a simple experiment to show the force as a function of separation. chaİles Augustin de coulomb (1736-1806)

ExPERlMENT 6

lnvertigation of the Relation Betw€en the Ele(tİic For(e and the DistanCe

Purpose:To show that the e|ectrostatic force between charged particles depends on the separation

Equipment

1. stand 2. P|th balı 3.Thread 4. Glass rod 5. Beaker 6. clamp 7.tul

procedure

1. suspendthe pith ball and charge itwith the 9las5 rod.

2. Now charge another glass by rubbing and bring it near the baİl.
Since the glass and the ball are positively charged, they will repel
each other.
3. change the distance between the ball and rod, and observe what
happens.
\
Questions
1. what happened in the experiment when the distance between the
rod and the ball is increased or decreased?
2. what kind of relationship i5 there between the electrostatic force and the distance?
3. lf oppositely charged substances were used in the experiment, what would happen?

329
 As you see in the experiment, when the distance between the charged ob-
jects is decreased, the electrostatic force one exerts on another increa5e5. or Vice
versa. Using both positivelyand negatively charged spheres, Coulomb showed that
the electric for(e i5 always inversely proportional to the square ofthe distance be-
tween the charges. He established this result with an accuracy ofabout 3 percent.

rcl
d2

F *-o qr
d
o
q2
F

d/2
4F 4F
c_..-------------
q] q2

The force between two charges varies inversely as the square oftheir separa-
tion; increasing the distance reduces the force.

c. Force Versus Permittivity of Medium

The ele(trostatic force between char9ed particles also depends upon the
media. There has been air in the experiments you performed. lf these experi-
ments were done in space, approximately the same results would be obtained.
If there is ebonıte between the charged.

EXPERİMENT 7

lnvestigation of the Effect of Medium on the ElectriC Force 8etween Two charged obje(ts

Purpose:To show that the e|ectrostatic force between charged panicles depends on the media

EquiPment

1. Stand ball
2. Pith 3. Rubber rod 4.Thread
5. clamp 6. Beaker 7. silk Cloth 8.Wooden,9lass, cardboard Plates
procedure

1.suspend the pith ball and charge it wıth the rubber rod.
2. Place the charged rubber rod on a glass beaker as shown in the figure. Does the ball go away? How much?
3. Now place wooden,9lass and cardboard plates between the ball and rubber rod one byone.The plates touch neitherthe ball
nor the rod. what happened?

33o
 Questions

1. wa5 the angle between the thread and the Vertical changed when
the plates wer€ placed between the ball and rubber rod?
2. can you say that the electrostatic force betlveen charged particles l
depend5 on the media.

c. Reıation§hıp between the Ele(trostati( Force, charge,

Distan<e and Media (Coulomb's Law)
The e|ectric force on a charge q., is proportional to the charge; F o q1.
F
Vhen this force is the force of interaction on the charge qr by another small
ıody of charge q2, the force is also proportional to the other charge. We can
r'rite this proPortionality to both the charges as Fo q, x qz
Now that we know how the electric force depends on the charges, we can
ombine this knowledge with coulomb's experiments. They tell us that the
)rce is inversely proportional to the square of the separation, d between the
harges. so we arrive at the complete expression for the force of interaction Qı'Qz
etween two charges. The magnitude of the force between two charges in air
F
; proportional to the product of two charges, qr and qz and inversely propor-

onal to the square of the distance between them. ln other words

Qı 'Qı
F=k
d2

,here the proportionality factor, k depends onıy on the units in which we d2

reasure forces,separation5, and charges. F i5 the force in newton, q! are the The relationshiP between electric force,
,ıarges in coulombs, and d is the distance between the charges in meters. lf char8e and separation

, and q, have the same sign, the forces are repulsive and the forces on each
ıarged body points outward along the line joining the two bodies. on the
ther hand, if q1 and q2 have opposite si9n5. the forces are attractive and the
ırce on each body points inward along the line joining them. we shall call the
<pression for the magnitude of the force Coulomb's law and the forces which
bey it Coulomb forces. The sl unit of charge is the coulomb, abbreviated c. ln
ıe sl system k = 8.9874 x i09 Nm2/c2 - 9 x 109 Nm2/c2.

331
 @E,
The electrostatic force between two particles that are separated by a distance of
disF.
What is the effect on the foıce if the charge on ea<h is doubled and the dis-
tan(e between the centers ofthe chaİged paİti(les is tİiPled?

o-
q1 q2

F .--o d
F

29, 2o,)

F ._-o 3d
o--------*
F

@
lf the initialcharges ofthe particles are qt and q2, then

q, .q.
F=k. ':'

when the charges are doubled and the distance i5 tripled,

. 2q, .2q" q, .q"

F'=k. -_-' =4k. .'
(3d)l 9d2

By approproportionating F and F'term by term gives,

q,.q.
K,-----:-
F
F
q, '
=1=9
44 r-,- 4F
---
4k. :, 9
9d2

ExERclsE

How many times is the initial distance between two point charges to be increased without changing the magnitude of charges,
to make the force i 6 times the original one?

(1/4 times)
 9.6.1.3. Electric Field Due To Charge
Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction
of the field is taken to be the direction of the force it would exert on a positive
test charge. The electric field is radially outward from a positive charge and
radially in toward a ne9ative poınt charge. The concept of an electric field was
introduced by Michael Faraday.

O
+
+ +
+++ qo

+++ ++
E

+++++
+ +
+

Electric feld is the electric force acting on üe Positive

unit charge.

The electric field is a Vector field. The field Vector at a given point is de-
'ined as the force vector per unit charge that would be exerted on a stationary
:est charge at that point. An electric field is generated by electric charge (also
:alled source charge), as well as by a time-varying magnetic fie|d. The electric
ield intensity, E at any point in an electric field is the force per unit positive
:harge at that point. That is, E = F/q

Where E is the electric field intensity (it is a Vector quantity), F is the elec-
ric force, and q i5 the test charge. The units of F, E, and q are N, N/c, and c
espectively.

Qı 'Qz
The value of F was, F = k
d,
As a result, the electric field of any charged object ıs E = k , I

qo
E

The direction of üe electric 6eld

5ince electric field is a Vector quantity, it can be represented by a vector

rrow. For any given location, the arrows point in the direction of the electric
eld. Electric field Vectors are always directed towards ne9atively charged ob-
:ct.
 (al (b)

Representation of the etectric 6eld lines

Electric field lines always extend from a positively charged object

to:
negatiVely charged object.

Electric 6eid lines is trıre from positive (+) charge to negative (-) char8€.

Electric field lines for objects with unequal amounts of cha.ges. Electİic
field li]ıes shoul
never cross,
 (a} +9z > +Qı (b)

a_ Electıic 6eld lines ofan object with the positive charge ofqı
b. Electıic 6eld lines ofan object wiü üe posiüve charge ofq2

The electric field lines in the Vıcinity of two equal positive or negative
charges are shown in the following figure.

_-----}-

you learned that the electric field inside of a hollow conductor is zero. A
:haracteristic of charged conductors is that the electric field upon the surface
]f the conductor is directed perpendicular to the surface. lf the conducting
trbject is spherical, the perpendicular electric field Vectors are ali9ned with the
:enter ofthe sphere. Field lines cannot pas5 into conductin9 sphere (Remember

'araday's coge).
 . Electric fields are the strongest at location5 along the surface where the
object is most curved.

+ + +
+ +
+ ++
+
+ +
+
+ + + +
+
+ +
+ + + ++
+ ++
+

(a) (b)

@Eil

lf a Positively charged spheıe is closer to a neutral sphere how is the electıit

field lines?

E@il,
The neutral spher€ i5 electrified by induction.
Direction of electric field lines is from positive
char9e to negative charge. See the fi9ure.

ExERcl5E ]
where the magnitud€s ofcharges are q* and qy and d, > d2, what i5

the relation between q* and q,, and what are the kinds of charges ac-
cording to the given fi9ure?

d1 d2

336
CHECKYOURSELF

A. True and False

each one ofthe statements if iı is true oİ"F" if it is false.

'rite"T"nea.
1 . ( ) static electri(ity is the electric charge that is stationary, usually acquired by a body by means of friction only.

2. ( ) An object whose positive and negative charges exactly balance out is said to be elect ically neutral.

3. ( ) lfa rubbed glass rod ishung up and another rubbed glass rod is brought near it, attraction occurs.

a. ( ) nn instrument for detecting and finding the sign of an electric charge is called an ammeter.

5. ( ) lfa charged sphere i5 touchedtoan electrically neutralsphere, charge isequallyshaüed between the spheres ifthey aıe identical.

6. ( ) charging a conductor substance by a charged material without touching is called charging by induction or elect.ostatic in-
duction.
7. ( ) ıt is possıble to charge an object completely by induction.

B. ( ) ühere isn't electrostatic induction between an electrified object and a neutral insulator.

9. ( ) ııonmetallic solids are insulators because all their electrons are tightly bound to particular atoms or groups of atoms.

). ( ) coulomb showed that the electric force is always directly proportional to the square of the distance between the charges.

B. Fill in the Blanks.

Fill in the blanks with the words given in the box.

repel proton electrification magnitude negatively electron

negatively divergence static attract positively conservation

1. i5 th€ proces5 ofestablı5hing an ele(tric charge on an object.

2. When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, the glass rod is charged

3. Like charges (+ and + or - and -) ..............,........,..............., unlike charges (+ and -)

4. The greater the charge on the leaves, the greater the

5. lf a charged sphere is touched to an electrically neutral sphere, some charges passes from one to the other. But the total charge
remains the 5ame, because ofthe of electric charge.

6. To charge the metal rod by induction a positively charged glass rod is used.

7. Photocopiers also work with the help of ......,.........,............-......... electricity.

8. The smallest unit of charge known in nature is the charge on the .....,............,..................., or

9. The force between electrically charged bodies depends on the oftheir charges.

l o. Electric field Vectors are always directed towards charged object.

337
 c. Questions and Problems

1
+ + +++ 4.
qK +,l 0q -2q

in5ulator
@@M Figuİe l Figuİe ll

A positiVely charged rod is touched the conducting object 1. The charges of identical K, L, M spheres are qK + 10q and
-2q as in Figure l. When the spheres are touched together as
show the final sign of charge on the objects ı and 2.
shown in Figure ll, the charge of K does not change.

Accoİdingly, what is the initİal Cha]9e of K, qK?

2 kıc)

5 +Q KLM tQ
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +

d d

The container z is negatively cha19ed, the spheres X, Y and L K, L, M conductive spheres touching each other on the insu-
are uncharged initially.The sphere X is touched the outer wall latin9 table. The spheres are separated from each other after
of Z and the sphere Y i5 touched the inner wall of Z as shown
the identical rods with a charge of+Q are placed on the sides
in the figure.The sphere L which is grounded is brou9ht near
ofthe K and M.
z,
What arethe final (harges ofX, Y and L? A(Coİdingly, what can be said foİ the final Charges ofthe
spheres K, L, M?
(X, negotive; Y neutrol; L positive)
h r= 9 -q, qr= a2q1
"=

3
X
Y 6. The object K, which is fi-
xed on the insulator pla- I
ne, is grounded and the
positively charged ob-
ject is placed as shown insulator
in the figure.
grouno
lfthe ea]th (onnectlon
The spheres X and Y with the radii of r and 2r are uncharged. =
is Gut off and the Positively Chaİged object is ıemoved,
A sphere Z with the radius of 2r and a charge of 5q i5 touched
what İs the final (harge of the K?
the spheres X and Y at the same time and then taken away.

what is th€ fınal (harge ofthe spheıe Z in q? (2.ı)

(negotive,
7 10. The charges of the neutral,
K identical X, Y and
Tr T2 T3
Z spheres hang-
ü ing with weightless
+q -q X Y z
ropes are like the
q notr +q
fi9ures.

since identical
Conductor K and L spheres are charged with + q and - q res-
spheres are equally spa<ed fıom the negatively charged
pe(tively, and conductive M cylinder is uncharged. First, the
İod, what is the relationship between Tl, Tz and T,
K sphere is touched off from the outside of M. Then the L
stresses in the ropes?
sphere touches the inner surface of M.
(T3> T2>T,ı)
ln thls (asq what are the charge signs of K, L and M?

tK(+), L(o), M(-)]

}, when a negatively (har-
ged rod, x touched to a
positively Charged elect-
ros<ope, which events can
be observed on the lea-
ves?
11. E E
X
+ +
+ + Electric freld l|nes between the Charges X and Y and be-
+ + tween the charges z andT are given.

l. close a little so what (an be said about the sign of the charges of x,
ll. Fully closed -_. Yzand T?
lll. closing first and then opening a bit
Ix : {+), Y - (_), z - (-), T
- (+)1

(l or lı or ııı)

). X z

<dü 2d
--;
12. What is the order of the mag-
The charge Y placed between the charges X and z is in ba-
lance. nitudes of ele(tri( fields at the
A<coıding to thi, points x, Y and z in a hollow X z
sphere given in the figure asi-
l.The sign ofX and z charges are the same. de?
ll. The quantity of charge z is four time5 the charge X.
lll. The sign of charge Y is the same as X and z charges. r(
whlch oftheseJudgmen$ i, absolutely tıue?
(ı ond ıı) (E2> Er=E"=Q)

339
 D. Multiple Choice
ı |. lf a neutral atom gains electrons, it is negatively charged. 3
L
K

ll. The reason for the electrification is to gain or lose elect-

rons for any reason.
lll. conductive mate]ials are substances on which electrical
wire
charges can move easily.

+] 2q
whi(h of the above statements is/aıe corıect?
The neutral conductor spheres M and L are connected to
each other with conductor wire.The conductor sphere K with
A) Only l B) only ll C) Only ll
a change of +12q is touched to the L and then taken away.
D) l and ll E) |, ll and lll
Later the wire is cut.

The spheıe K i5 touched to the L on(e more and taken

away. whiCh i3 the ratio between the final <harges of the
sPheres L and M?

A)1
,3 B)l
,3 c) 1 D)ğ
,4 E)

4. Y

2 K L 8 7

Three identical and neutral metal b|ocks K, L and M are in

contact. ldentical and positively charged rods A and B are
brought near to the metal block as shown in the figure. The
X, Y Z spheres are conductive and loaded. The sphere X touc
blocks are poked apart with an insulating rod while A and B
hed Y first and then z. lf the charge of sphere z is zero afte
are nearby. Finally the rods A and B are removed.
this process, which ofthe following statement5 is true?

Whith aıe thefinalcharges ofK, L and M? l. At the beginning, the charge ofY and z are opposite.

ll. X sphere is uncharged in the last case.

K L M lll. After X touched Y, the charges ofY and z become opposit€
A) +q -q +q
B) -c +2q +q which of the following statements is absolutely co]ıect?
c) +q -2q +q
D) -q +2q -q A) Only I B) Only ll c) landl
E) +q +q -q D) ll and lll E) |, ll and lll

34o
5, 9ı =2q 9z=Q 9s=9 7. conducting spheres X,
Y and Z have charges of
z
-2q, +5q and - 8q res- X
pectively. All the sphe- Y

res are simultaneously

touched to each other.
Three point charges are placed as shown in the figure
what are the final
lf the fo]ce between ql and q2 is x N, what is the net foİce signs of the charges on x, Y and z?
on q2 exeİted by ql and q3 in teİms of x?
x z
A)0 B) l c)2 D) 3 E)4 A) +

B) 0
c) + +

D) + 0
E) 0 0 0

6.
X Y

Figure l Figure ll 8, ldentical electroscopes K and L are charged and thQ anglc be-
tween the leaves of them is 0. when the knob of k is touchıd
When the object X is approached the knob of the positively the knob of L, the angles between the leaves change.
charged electroscope a5 in Figure-l, its leaves collapse a little.
ln Figure- ll, when the objectY is approached the knob ofthe what Can b€ said about the new values of the anglıs be-
negatively charged e|ectroscope, its leaves diverge more. tween the leaves ofthe electıoscopes K ınd L?

what are the signs of the charges of the objects x and Y? A) Kl is zero, Us is smaller than 0.
B) K's is zero, rs is bigger than 0.

A)X(-),Y(-) B)x(+),Y(+) c)X(+),Y(-) C) Both ofthem are zero.

D) Both ofthem are bigger than
D) x (-),Y(+)
e.
E) X (-),Y(0)
E) Kl is smaller than 0, l]s is bigger than 0.

341 -
9 11.
l/
K

insulator
"-,__--"'
----'/

The electric fie|d lines around the K, L, M spheres are like in

The object K is insulator and the L is conductor. lnitially unc-
figure.
harged objects are on an insulated 5upport.The AB surface of
K is charged by rubbing a fabric piece.
A(cordingly, which one of the below can be the sign of
the chaİges of the spheıes?
How does the load distribution of k and L become?

qx qL qM
A)KL B)KLc)KL l. + +

ll. +

. lll. +

A) l only B) ll Only c) lll only

D)KL E)K L D) l and ll E) ll and lll

12.
Oe z

Electrically charged X and Z spheres are fixed on a horizon-

tal and insulated floor, and the charged sphere Y is movable.
10. The electrically charged metal
sphere K is suspended into A((oİdang to the assumption that Y i5 in balance, whi(h
the uncharged metal cylinder of the followings aıe the electric fields of the spheres?
L, and then the metal sphere
K l.
M is separated from L. I
L >-z_<
sin(e M is negatively ı ,,,.'
\
lİ l
Charged in thi3 case,
ll.

l.The sign ofthe charge ofthe K is (-). z

ll.The total amount of charge of L equals M.
lll.The inner 5urface of L is charged with G) outer 5urface (+)
lll. }
x z
which ofthe abovejudgments is/are true?
\
A) only l B) Only ll c) only lll A) l Only B) ll only C) lll Only

D) l and ll E) |,Il and lll D) l and ll E) ll and lll

342
ANsWERs

343
 UNıT 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. True and False
T F F F T T F T T F

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r0
8. Fil] in the Blanks
c e k f ) h b,a 9

c. Put the physical concepts on the tabıe as scaıaİ and vector quantities.

sCalar quantity Temperature, Time, Volume, Heat, Mass, speed, Length, Distance, Energy

vectoİ quantity Weight, Displacement, Force, Velocity, ACceleration

D. Mat(hing
1 . Match the folIowing quantities with their unıts.
1-e, 2-a, 3-d, 4-g, 5-b, 6-c, 7-f
2. Match the measuring device with the physical quanti§.
1-d, 2-a, 3-e, 4-c, 5-b
,l3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ıo 11 12 14
E. Multiple Choice
c c c E c B B D c c E

uNıT2
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1o
A. True and False
F T T T F F F F T T

ı 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1o
B. Fill in the Blanks
c d m k b ) s e,h

ı 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1o ı1 12
D. Multiple Choice
B c c B B E B E E B C

tuNıT 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1o
A. True and False
F T F F T T F T F T
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ıo
B. Fill in the Blanks
e d b h m f n,k j a

D. Multiple Choice
ı 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r0 ı1 12 r3 ı4 ,l5
ı6 17 18 19 20 21

c c D D c E c D B D c c D E c c D

UNıT4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ı0
A. True and False
F T T T F T T T F F

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B. Fill in the Blanks
a C d t h j,k m e 9
D. Multiple Choice
,l0 r3 t5
t 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 14 16 17 18

c c B c D B E c B D E E D B B

uNıT 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1o 1,| 12
A. True and False
T F T T F T F T F F F T

t 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1ı 12
B. Fill in the Blanks
e f I c m p q h , n,r b d

D. Multiple Choice
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1l t2 ı3 14 15 r6 17 18 19 20

B D D D B E E D B D E E B E

uNıT6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. Tıue and Fa]se
F T F F T T T F T F

1 2 3 4 5 6 ? 8 9 10
B. Filı in the Blanks
c l a,k h m e l f,6 d 9

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ıo 11 12
D. Multiple Choice
E D E D B B c D D D E

345
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2- Breithaupth, Jim, Key science-Physics, StanleyThomas Limited, England, 1995.

3- stephen Gasiorowicz, Paul M. Fishbane, Temel Fizik 1-2, Yaylna Hazlrlayan Prof. Dr. cengiz Yalçln, Arkadaş Yaynclhk, 2006.

ıl- Chang Raymond, Genel Kimya Temel Kavramlar, ÇeviriTahsin Uyaı seİpil Akoy, Recai lnam, Palme Yayıncı|ık Ankara, 20l 1.

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6 Ayvacl, Hakan Şevki ve diğerleri, Genel Fizik, Pegem A Yaylnclhk Ankara, 2006.

7- orbay, Metin, Taşer, Mehmet Emin, Genel Fizik l, Pegem Akademi, Ankara, 201 'l.

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1G Balkan Naci, Erol Ayşe, Çevremizdeki Fizik, TÜB|TAK Popüler Bilim Kitaplan, Ankara 20t 2.

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12- Sezgin Fuat, islam'da Bilim veTeknik, Çeviri Abdurahman Aliy,lBB. Kültür A.Ş. Yayınları, lstanbU1,2008.

13- |köğretim Fen VeTeknoloji Dersi 6,7,8. slnfar Öğretim Programl, Ankara,2006.
rıL llköğretim Kurumlarl (llkokullar Ve ortaoku|lar) Fen Bilimleri Dersi (3, 4, 5, 6. 7 ve 8. sınıflar) Öğretim Programı, Ankara 2o13.

5- Polat Rahim, Ank Ahmet, Oran Physics '|, Oran Yayıncılık, lzmir, 'l998.
'
16 ortaöğretim Fizik Dersi (9, 'l0, 'l 1 ve l2. slnfar) Öğretim Programl, Ankara,2o'|3.

t7- Polat Rahim, cabu Fatma, Physics 9, oran Yayıncılık, izmir,2oo8,

18- www.bitek.tubitak.gov.tr
1 * http//www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/index.html

2G www.tubitak.gov.tr

2'l- fen.ege.edu.trlfizikl

22- http://dhgm.meb.9ov.trlyaylnlar/dergıler
23- kisi.edu.trlemine.cinar
2+ http//www.enerji.gov.tr

25- www.si5mo.sakarya.edu.tr

26- fen.ege.edu.trlfizikl
27 - hüp! lwww.eie.gov.trlyenilenebilir/ruzgar.aspx
28- http://lisanskimya.balikesir.edu.trl-f'l 0809/bohr.html

29- hop.9l/Kv9z34
NoTE

l
34a