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AfiSNULH III

I.ANSUASE NEYHLSPIfi ENT

Lesson 1 Language Development

Lesson ? Learning Disabilities

Lesson 3 Factors lnfluencing Language/

Speech Development

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Lesson 1

E.E
I LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

A. lleaning of Language
Language is the abitity to communicate with others. Thoughts and
-
feetings are symbotized so as to convey meaning in different forms of
communication such as written, spoken, sign, faciat, gestures, pantomime,
and art.
B, lteaning of Speech

1. Speech is one form of language in which articutate sounds or words

are used to convey meanings. But not atl sounds of human being are
speech. Vocalization, tike cries or exptosive sounds, does not become
speech untit meaning is associated with the sounds made.

2. Purposes
a. lt is a means of communicating thoughts. feelings and emotions.
b. lt is used to secure information.
c. lt is used to express the resutt of the individual's reasoning.
d. lt is used to express one's feeling and emotions.
e. lt is used to bring action to others.
f. lt is used to satisfy the human need for sociabitity.
g. lt is used to hetp the individuat develop and maintain a
feeting of importance of setf.
h. lt is used to terve as a bond that hotds peopte together.

IMPORTANCE OF SPEECH

Sotisfaction of needs and wonts

Eeing abte to explain their needs and wants to others instead of
having to wait for them to understand the meaning of their cries,
gestures or faciat expressions etiminates much of the frustration babies
experience when they cannot be understood.

> Attention from others

Atl chitdren tike to be in the timetight of attention' They soon
discover that they can achieve this goat by asking questions' by using
forbidden words, by expressing unconventionat ideas or merety by
dominating the conversation.

> Social RelationshiP

The abitity to communicate with others in a way they can
understand is essentiat to group betonging- Children who are able to
.orrrni.ut" wetl are bettel accepted by members of the sociat group
;A h";; ; better chance of ptaying teadership rotes than those who tack
the abitity to communicate or who are afraid to use it

EDUC roi- ehitd Adotescent DeYetoPment -Modute Ir-

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> Sociol Evoluation

chitdreil, tike adutts are evatuated by mernbers of the sociat group
in termsof what they say and how they ny it. sociat background, iacijt,
origin, sex appropriateness and many other personat charicteristics are
signated to others try speech"

> Self- Evalwtion

Chitdren can tett from the comments of their tisteners how
they feel about what theJ' have said and whether others are
favorabty or unfavorably impressed. This provides the basis of setf-
evatuation.

> Academic Achievement

Chitdren whose speech performance, in terms of pronunciation
and grammatical structure, is betow that of their ctassmates are usuatty
judged to be intettectuatly inferior to them and they tend to receive
grades betow their inteltectuat capacities. Size of vocabutary also
inftuences chitdren's abitities to express themsetves in speech and
writing, both of which are essentiat to schoot success.
> lnfluence on Thoughts and Feelings of Others
tulaking derogatory commenG or saying unpteasant things to and
about others makes children unpputar with their age-mates as wett as
with adutts. Saying unpteasant things, by contrast, increase chitdren's
chances of social acceptance.

> lnfluence on Eehoviar of Others

Chitdren who speak wett and with confidence can inftuence their
peers to behave as they want them to behave better than those whom
ipeak hesitatingty and with a timited vocabulary or poor grammatical
forms. One of the characteristics of a chitd teader is the abitity to speak
better than the other group members.

C. Criteria of Speech
1. Two criteria shoutd be apptied to determine whether the chitd has
emerged from the used of pre-speech forms of communication:
a.Thechitdmustpronouncehiswordssothattheyare
readityunderstandabtetoothersratherthan
compiehensibte onty to those who, because of
constantcontact-withhim,havetearnedto
understand him'
b. The it ito must know the meaning of the words he
u'*.nomustassociatethemwiththeobjectsthey
represent.

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PRELIJT{INAR| ES OF SPEECH
1
Pre-Speech Forms
1. Crying
a. Causes of crying among babies:
l) hunger
2) noise
3) tight
f 4) pain
5) uncomfortable positions
6) strong disturbances during sleep
7) fatigue
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8) inabitity to move due to restrictive ctothes

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9) removat of ptaything
10) Fear
b. lrtotor accompaniment of crying:
1) vigorous timb activity
2) strong ftexor tendencies
3) disorganizing of postures prevailing at the onset of
crnng.
c. Reactions of crying
ln the study of crying at home and in the nursery schoot, it
was found that adutts responded very differentty to crnng in these
two situations. ln the nursery school, cryrng was most frequentty
met by consoling the child, by censuring the chitd who caused the
cryrng, by suggesting arbitration in property disputes, and by
distracting the crying chitd. At home, crylng was most often
responded to by ignoring, reasoning, spanking, or by removing the
chitd from the sociat group.
Gesetl has stressed, "punctual attention to crying in the earty
weeks reduces the amount of crying."

d. Effects of crying
l) Excessive crying resutts in variabitity in gastro -
intestinal
furrctions, regurgitation, night watking, and general nervous
tension.
2) lt affects the baby's totat growth pattern; it is-harmfut to
heatthfut social adjustment; it leads to feelings of insecurity;
and it affects the baby's retationship with his parents
unfavorably.
3) Explosive sounds and babbting
a. ln the newborn infant, 50% of atl sounds uttered are the
aspirateh,associatedwiththeinfantsgaspingforbreathe.
b.Atfirstvowetsarecombinedwithconsonants,asda.ma-
na and tater, with practice these sounds are strung
together as ma - ma- ma.
c.Babbting.isaformofvocalgymnasticsvotuntarity

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produced, but with no real meaning or association for the

baby.
d. The age of babbting is between the third and twel,fth
months. How soon the baby witt begin to babbte and he witL
abandon babbting in favor of rnore rnature
communication in the form of speech watt depend targely
upon the devetopment of his vocal mechanisms for speaking
instead of babbting.

e. Babbting is not a real speech but serves as a pteasure on

the part of the child. lt serves as an opportunity to tearn to
control the different musctes connected with the vocat
mechanism.
4) Gestures

a. The baby uses gestures as a substitute for speech, to abte

him to express wants, feetings and emotions for which he
has no other means of expression. Adutt uses gestures as
a supptement to speech, to emphasize the meaning of
words and to make them forceful and effective.

b. chitdren of tower socio-economic groups often use gesture

than words. ln the upper ctasses, chitdren use more words
than gestures.

Learni to
Specch lc e rkilt; lt murt be lerracd'

A. HOW CHILDREN LEARN TO SPEAK

1.' The abitity to produce certain sounds in combinations

that are
i"."g"izab[e as wbrds - the motor aspect of speech
2.Theabititytoassociatemeanings.withthesewords.thementataspect
codrdination needed to produce sound
of speech. fne--muscGrecognizaute
combinations that ;;; as words are certainty as
and requires as mwh
conrpticateO as tnl molt intriiate motor skitts
associatinlmeanings with
time and practice'to learn. The necessit,.ol to the comptexitv of the
words and [earnin;-g;;;.ii;it ro*t iaa
speech skitts.

l"Speechisaskitl.andmustbetearned.ltdevetopsmorestowty
thanthemotorskitts.Thereisnosingtespeechorganreadyfor
use at birth or even shortly afteruard'
2. Speech i, proau."a by th! coordinated
activity of the tip, tongue
as by the tarynx and tongue-
and tnroat'm-uscies as'wett
3. Babies, at birth, cannot speak because:

a. The orat cavitY is smatl'

b- The patate is ftat and tacks the arch'

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c. The infant's tongue is too large and even protruding much

of the time.
d. The nasat passage is very smalt.
e. The absence of front teeth makes him unabte to produce
sounds of consonants.

4. Speech readiness - is the period when speech is more easity

acquired by the young chitd than at other times. This period
occurs between the ages of 12 and 18 months. lf the baby does
not make use of this period he witt be emotionatty disturbed"

5. Detayed speech is usua[ty due to t}te tack of opportunity to [earn or

from the tack of motivation to learn.

B. lmitation
l. ln the presence of other peopte, babies imitate them by "tatking
back", but they do not imitate the sounds they are making. fhey are
merety imitating sound-making in generat. This is catled the "echo-
reaction stage" of imitation.
2. "Readiness to imitate" occurs toward the end of the first year of tife'
This time, the baby attempts to imitate the specific sounds he hears.
During the fortieth week oi tife, the baby tries to imitate the words of
his mother.

C. Association of }teanings

t. when a word is said by another and an object is given to a baby, the

baby tearns, i"rirat repetitions, thai particular combination of
sounds stands"ft"i
for that object presented'
2. Twoways in which a chitd associates meanings with words:
a.Directorexpticitway.theaduttnamesathingordefines
a word for the chitd'
b. lndireci or lmpticit way - through. experiences with
meanings'
.on.."i* or reiUut context, the chitd associate
3.Theabil,itytoassociatemeaning.withwordsdevelopsstightty
later than ihe abitity to imitate sounds heard'

D. Motivations
and he discovers
l. When crylng or gestures serve as.purpose adequatety his incentive to
that he ..n i"t=**nit-n" wants Uy ri.silS thgm, then
learn to,p"u'ft *eit speech devetopment'
eneO and this detays the

2. When "baby tatK is not tolerated by parenis 1n9

when the baby
discovers that his ptaymates cannot get what he is tatking about, this
teads him to speak in an understandabte manner'

3. The prime "needf of the young chitd which act as incentives to this
learning to tatk are:
a. The desire to secure information regarding his

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environment, and tater about himsetf or his friend.

b. To give commands or express wants.
c. To bring the child into socia[ relationships with others.
d. To express his thoughts and ideas.

ESSENTIALS IN LEARNING TO SPEAK

> Physicol Reodiness toSpeak

The abitity to speak depends upon the maturation of the speech
mechanism. At birth, the orat canat is smatt, the patate is ftat and the
tongue is too large for the orat cavity. Until they take on a more mature
shape, the nerves and musctes of the vocal mechanism cannot produce
the sounds needed for words.

> lAental Reodiness to fieak

Mental readiness to speak is dependent on the maturation of the
brain, especiatty the association areas of the brain. This readiness
usuatiy devetopa between the age of 12 and 18 months and is regarded
as the "teachabte moment'in speech devetopment.

> A Goad ltodel to lmitate

lf chitdren are tearn to pronounce words correctty and tater to
combine them into correct sentences, they must have a modet of good
speech to imitate. This modet may be peopte in their environment,
sieakers on radio or tetevision or actors in the movies. tf they lacf a
giooa moOel, tearning to speak witt be difficutt and the end result below
their potentiats.
> Opportunities For Proctice
lf deprived of opportunities to practice speaking for whatever
reason, crritdren become angry and frustrated wlren they cannot make
others understand them. fnii 6ften weakens their motivation to tearn to
speak.

> lAotivatiqt
lfyoungchitdrendiscoverthattheycangetwhattheywantwithout
asking ?or i[ uni-ii,ruititutes for speech .such as .*ne
and .gestures
witt be weakened'
serve this prrporlr, tf*ir in.entive to tearn to speak

a good
The best ways to guide tearning to speak are first, .t3 Rrovide
modet; secona'lo iiy *otat and- distinctty enough that
chitdren can
to in.fottowing this modet by
understand tn.*; and tnira, provide hefp
the modet.
correcting any m.i'stakes chitdren may make ih imitating

E. Pattern of DeveloPment

l.SpeechDevetopmentfoltowsapatternmuchthesameforatlchil'dren.

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2. The pattern to tearning speaks:
a) cooing ano vocitiiing come between the second and
months.
third
begins berween the sixth and sevenrh monrhs.
?l!.lbbjing
c) I he first word is said at the end
of the year.
d) The chitd begins to en{arge his vocabutary
and to combine two to
three words into rudimentary sentences at the fifteenth
eighteenth months. or

3" The. pattern of speech deve{opment is marked by spurts

and resting
periods occurs whenever a new motor act is aeing'e$tiutished,
likJ
reaching and grasping, standing or watking.

tdajor Task in Speech Devetopmeat

A There are four major tasks that rnust be mastered by the chitd when
tearning to speak.

1, Comprehensive of the speech of others

a, Baby does not understand at once the words of people
conversing but understands their actions and gestures.
b. According to Bossard, there are disiinct forms of
communication between the mother and her baby; her speech,
facial expression and actions.
c. Chitdren tearn to cornprehend the meaning of commands srrh
"corne here", or "tie down", through the gestures of the
person commanding.

2. Building Vocabulary
a. Two forms maybe recognized in the devetopment of vocabutary:

1. General vocabulary- consists of words with a general

meaning that can be used in a variety of different situations
such as man, beautifut, etc.

a. baby tearns first word that are nouns, like mama,

dada; verbs which designate action, tike give then
adjectives, adverbs, preposttion, and tastly pronouns.
b. Pronouns are learned tast because the baby can easily
substitute nouns or gestures for pronouns.
c. The size of the child's vocabutary depends upon his
inteltigence, opportunity to learn new words, and
incentives given to the chitd.
d. lt is estimated that a fir:t grader knows 20,&0 to
24,000 words and six grader knows 50,000 words and a
high schoot student knows 80,000 words.

2. Speciat vocabulary - consist of words with specific rneaning,

which can be used onty for certain situations
There are different kinds of speciat vocabutary.

EDUC 101- Child and Adolescent Devetoprnent -Modute lll-

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a. Trick - this consists of word with pronounced correctty

by the child in response to the request of another.
When a child learns to say a tong'and compi;;t";
word like ,,ldississippi',, he spea6 this in iorm of
"showing off"
b. Etiquette - such as ..ptease',, ,.thank you,', etc.
c. Color
d. Number - this is usuaU.y ,,parrot speech,, because they
cannot understand the meaning of the words they are
using.
e. Time
f- Irdoney - chitdren
of poorer environrnent have, as rute,
larger money vocabutar,ies than chitdren from the
better neighborhoods because they are often
entrusted with money when sent on errands by their
parents.
g. ttang - slang or swear vocabutaries are used by
children to identify themsetves with th€ otdei
chitdren or to identify themselves with the otder
chitdren or to show off by shocking the adutts of their
environment. Stang vocabutary atso serves as means
of expressing feelings and emotion for which the chitd
has no adequate form of vocat expresdon. Slang is
larger in the poorer neighbortood than in the better
neighborhood.
h. Secret language - this is in the form of ',pig [atin',
written symbols, or signs made with the fingers. The
purpore of this is to enabte the chitd to communicate
with the other members of the gang secrets made
known to those outside the gang. Secret language
gives satisfaction and feetings of security and
be{onging to the chitd.

3. Forming sentences
a. Single word sentence * this is noun or verfu which
when combined with a gesture, expresses a comptete
thought. The chitd understands "give" for example,
together with. The pointing of the batt would be ctear
t0 the child.
b. When the chitd is two years otd, he can combine
wards into sentences, rno$t of wtrich are incomptete
e.g. "go to bed."
c. Bright chitdren and those from better neighborhood
can construct longer sentences than those from
poorer ctass homes. Girts are superior to boys in
making sentences.
d. The errors of chitdren are in the used of verbs and
pronouns: in verbs the use of "can'and "may"; in the
agreement of subject and verb, "it don't": in the use
of past tense, "l rided" for "l rode", etc.

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4. Pronunciation

a. Tfe chitd copies the sound he hears and pronounces

the words as he hears others pronounce thern.
b. studies reveat that consonant and consonantr btends
are more difficutt for chitdren to pronounce tfran aie
vowets and diphthongs. The consonants difficutt to
pronounce are z, w, d, s, and g. The difficutt
consonants blends are st, str, sk, dr, and ft.

COi{TAON GESTURES OF BABYHOOD

Gesture lileaning
Atlows food to run out of rnouth Satisfied or not hungry
Pouts 0ispteased
Pushes nippte from mouth vrith you Satisfied or not hungry
Pushes object away DoEs not want it
Reaches out for object Wants to have it
Reaches out for a person wants to k picked up
Srnack lips or ejects tongue Hungry
Smiles and hotds out armi Wants to k picked up
Sneezes excessivety Wet and cotd
Squirmt and trembles Cotd
Squirms, wiggtes and cries during Resents restrictions on activities
dressing or bathing
Turns head from nippte Satisfied or nqt hungry

A. Speech Disorders

1. A speech diprder is usuatty devetoped at the time chitd is earning to

speak. This is because of his difficulty tn controtl,ing his speech
mechanism.

These are some after effects of ryeech disorders:

a, Ridicu{e from ctassmates develops shyness and feetings of
inferiority. This resutts in withdrawal frorn the group.
b. Children with such defects have tittte or no opportunity to
devetop into teaders in their schoots.
c. They often suffer from constipation, enuresB, sleeptessness,
exaggerated fears and nightmares.

B. Causes of Disorders

1. Some of the Causes cf the disorders are:

a. Heredity
: b. Tongue-tied condition or deformed teeth, tips or jaws.
c. EnYilonmentat causes

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i d. Fautty learning
I e- lmitation of a poor modet such as foreign accentr, or atternpts
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to speak quickty because of excitement.
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f . lmperfect hearing and muscutar weakness of the tongue and
[ips, owing to lack of use excessive neffousners,
1.

Types of Spemh Disorders

A. Two Classes of Speech Disordar

1. speech errors - caused by fautty tearning. ,'Baby talk" persist
because the parents regard this as cute and they attlw the biby to
tatk this way.
2. speech defects - caused by emotionality and matformation of the
mouth. Speech defects are of different kind.
a. Lisping - consist of letter-sound substitution tike ,.th, for ..s",
"r" for ttu", etc.
1) The causes of this are:
a. deformation of the jaw teeth or tips
b. tendency to cting to infantile

b. Slurring or indistinctness of speech

1) the causes of this are:
a. Paralysis of the wcat organs or tack of development
of tongue
b. Emotional attitude at timidity
c. Rapid speech
c. Stuttering - this is hesitant, repetitious speectr accompanied by
spasms of the muscte of the throat and diaphragm.

1. Stutterers do not stutter at atl times; they may stutter

in talking but it is possible that they may not stutter in
singing, etc.
2. Atmost all chitdren stutter at sometime or other during
the per-schoot years.
3. Possibte causes of stuttering are
a) Heredity
b| left to right handedness
Handedness - change from
c)Learned reaction, psychotogical in origin - resulting
from pressures.
4. Types of stutters
a) The retativety heatthy chiLd whose environment is
confused.
b) The severely disturbed chitd with slutteriflg as only
one symptom.
c) Dependent, confused, fearfut, Shy, anxious and
resttess chitd.
d) Ctuttering - is rapid, confused and iumbted type of
speech which is often mistaken for stutteing. lt is
accompanied by motor awkwardness and it is found
among chitdren whose speech development has been

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detayed. Ctutterers can improve their speech when

they are careful and pay attention to what they want
to say.

THE CONTENT OF SPEECH

1' A. The cootent of children,s speech tells us:

1. The size of his vocabutary and abitity to combine words into
sentenceS.
2. it gives clue as to the personality and the dominant interests
of the
chitd.
3. it tetls how he feets about himsetf. His relationships Mth others, and
how he compares himsetf with his peers.

8. Types of Speech
1. Egocentric - chitd either tatks for himself or for the pteasure of
associating with anyone who happens to be present- Atso cal,ted
"pseudo conversation" or a form of ..co[ective monologue,'
2' Socialized ' occurs when sociat contacts are estabtished between the
chitd & his social environment.

FOR'*S
'1. Adopted information- thoughts ft ideas are exchanged or a common
aim
to be pursued.
2. criticisrn - lnvolves child's remarks the work or behavior of others, g
specific in retatisn to an audience.
3. Commands, request and threats
4. Questions
5. Answers made to real guestions
r The tendency is for the kids to tatk more to other peopLe
and less to themselves as they grow otder.
r Children's conversationat topics center on clothes [ikes and
distikes where one lives and other matter of everyday
routine
o Young chitdren love to boast about their materiat
possessions.
r lt ir natural for children to make criticism & very often
these criticisms are unfavorable. Their criticism take the
form of tattling, in which tfiey comptain about the other
per$ons behind his back" But otder children criticize the
person concerned directty.
r Name catl,ing is very common form of criticism among
children, which fcr them, shows their superiority to others-
It is one method of exprersing their egos'
FAfiORS IilFLUENCIi{G HOW l,lUCH YOUNG CHILDREH TALK

A. lntelligence - Studies show that the lower the intellectuat rating is,

-fitodute ill-
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the poorer the speech.

B. Health - Severe and prolonged ittness detays devetopment of speech.
A deaf or hard -or-hearing kid is atso stow in learning to talk.
C. Sex - At 2 years, girls show a greater mastery of speech sounds, even
before they begin to tatk, than do boys. Since the father is atways
away from home, boys have [ittte contact with him. The closeness of
the mother-daughter relationship throughout childhood hetps the girt
learn to speak sooner and better than the boys.
Speech defects are more in boys, excePt lisping, which is more
common in girls because boys are more emotionauy insecure, have
troubtes and are punished more harshly than girts.

D. Socio-economic Status - Chitdren betonging to low and poor sociat

status are detayed in speech devetopment as compared with children
of better environments.
Environmental factors inftuence much to chitd's speech
devetopment. A chitd who is exposed and confined with severat books
has opportunity to speak ahead than those who have limited books'
E. Bitingualism - Learning two languages simuttaneousty necessitates
the tearning of two words for every object the chitd wishes to name
or every thought he wishes to express and this retards his speech'
F. Family relati6nships - lmportant in speech deYelopment' Babies in
institutions cry moie than those at home, but babbte [ess and make
fewer different sounds than do famity babies even those from
famities in the lowest economic groups. Their lack of close personal
retationship with the mother or mother substitute resutts in general
retardation.
itre onty chitd has been discovered to be b€tter in speech skitt'
be€ause he his tonger period of accumutation and assimitation
of
such skitl.

Module lll- Lesson 1

€f.**n,nc AcrrvtrY
1. lnte rview a chitd and an adolescent concerning his/her speech abitity.
Take note of their weaknesses and strengths in view of
communication abititY.

-modute
101- rd Devetopment

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:. Lesson 2
.:

.)

i LEARNI}IG DISASILITIES

I Children with Learning Disabilities

j
i
I
Learning disability refers to a specific disorder in ranguage, perception,
reading, spetling, writing, or mathematicat reasoning,
---"'-*'
:
:

:
a. Aphasia - probtems with language

b. Dyslexia - probtems with perception and reading

c. Dysgraphio probtems with spelling and writing

d- Dyscalculia - problems with mathematicat reasoning cr

computation

Dystexia is by far the most common form of tearning disabitity,

accounting for approximatety 80 percent of a[ tearning-dis*bted chitdren.
Thus, leorning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous
group of disorders manifested by significant difficutties in the acquisition
and use of tistening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical
abitities.
A few generatizations can be made from this definition. The tearning
disabitities concept provides a canopy coverage for atl those chitdren who
are not performing as expected. The chitd with learning disabitities is
affected in different areas of function not ina generatized inabitity to leam.
There is generatty a significant discrepancy between the chitd's estimated
intettectual potential and their actual levet of performance. These chitdren
are achieving considerabty less than the composite of their lQ age, and
educationat opportunity. Children who are severety brain damaged are not
categorized as [earning disabted.

Characteristics of Chitdren with Learning Disabilities

1. disptay difficutty in abstract thinking

2. have poor organizationat skills, are unabte to pick out significant
information
J. have difticutty with concepts of right and left and time retationships,
and have troubte getting their ideas on paper.
4. lack good judgment
5, make snap judgments, reach conclusions that do not fotlow from the
facts
6. fait to use problem-sotving skitls.

,. 1
-_ -A{odute lll-

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Ccuses

1. lrlay have a genetic basis. Parents of chitdren with dystexia, for

exampte, may be dystexic as wett. Further, chitdren with dystexia
show chromosomat i rregutarities on chromosome.

2. Various forms of subtte brain damage have atso been tinked to

learning disabitities. For exampte, it aPpears that chitdren with
detayed language or reading skitts are unabte to distinguish certain
sounds such as "ga" or "da," suggesting that the child's brain simpty
does not register the difference between these sounds.

3. Probtems in tearning are extremety diverse as are their probabte

causes; undoubtedty tearning disorders are influenced by both
biotogicat, genetic, and psychosociat inf luences.

Helping Chitdren with Leorning Disobi{itfes

Educational efforts for chitdren with tearning disabitities generatty

invotve educational intervention. For exampte, they are taught visuat,
auditory, and perceptuat skitts that witt enabte them to sotve problems more
effectivety. Further, educational intervention programs focus on the child's
cognitive competence by improving tlreir tistening, comprehension, and
*"*ory skitts. Finatty, sbedfic skitis are targeted that witt may enable these
chitdren to compen#t"'fo, specific probtems that they have-in
particutar areas such as reading, mathematics or written expression' For
are taught how re-read certain
Lxampte, chitdren with reading [robtems !o
materiat and ask questions aSout what they read. chitdren with
tearning
disabitities are not a homogeneous group; each chitd has his or her own
O"tutop*untal stage, personatity structure, and needs'

*lodule lll- Lesson 2

6 ,*RNtNc AcrtvtrY
l. lnterview a chitd/adotescent with disabitity'

t-
EDUC and

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Lesson 3

FACTORS INFLUENCING LANGUAGE

/SPEECH DEVELOPMENT
FACTORS INTLUENCING HOW MUCH YOUXG CHILDREN TALK

lntelligence
The brighter the chitd, the more quickty speech skitts witt be
mastered and, consequently, the ability to tatk.
Type of Discipline
Chitdren who grow up in homes where discipline tends to be
permissive, tatk more than those whose parents are authoritarian and who
betieve that "chitdren should be seen but not heard".
Ordinol Position
Firstborn children are encourased to tatk more than their later-born
sibtings and their parents have more time to talk to them.
Family Size
Onty-chitdren are encouraged to talk more than chitdren from targe
famities and their parents have more time to talk to them' ln targe
i"riti"t, the disciptine is tikety to be authoritarian and this prevents
chitdren from taLking as much as they would tike to'
Socioeconomic Stotus
ln lower-ctass famities, famity actiYities tend to be tess organized
tnan iiioie in middte and upper'ctass families' There is for the
also less
;;;;*;;. imong the famity members and tets encouragement
chitd to tatk.
"--'-'in"
Raciol Status
quatity of speech and conversationat skitts of many
p*."r young
grown up in homes
cniUren miv ue due in part io the fact that they have
*t tt" father is abient, or where famity tife is disorganized because
"i" are many chitdren, o, b"t"ut" the mother must work outside the
there
home.
Bilineualism
'""'"t'ii",orng chitdren from bitinguat homes may tatk as
much at home
very timited
as chitdren from monolinguai h""il tt'"i'
speech is..usuatty
peer group or with adutts outside the
when they are with."*Uurs'oi ift"it
home.
*^ '; TYPingit
Sex-Role tvping on
tn" preschoot year, there are effects of' sex'rote
chitdren's"iltv .'" 'f,-""iiiJ.
speech. Boys i" tatk tess !!a-n girts' but what they
say, and how thev sav it,
"iplit"if f" f differ-e:l Boastins and
for ur.rpro, ionsidered more appropriate for boys
-h;;;; others,
criticizing "i"
ttre reverse is true of tattting'
irit, white

-ModuLe l[-
EDUC 1 01- Chitd and addescent
Devetopment

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III{PROVETIENTS lN SPEECH DURTNG EARLY CHTLDHOOD

By the time children are two years otd, most of the prespeech forms
of communication they found so useful during babyhood have been
abandoned. Young chitdren no tonger babbte, and their crying is greatly
curtailed. They may use gestures, but mainty as supplements to speech-to
emphasize the meaning of the words they use-rather than as substitutes for
speech. However, they continue to cornmunicate with others by emotional
expressions which, on the whole, are less subject to sociat disapprovat and
tess likety to be judged as "babyish" than other prespeech forms.
During earty chitdhood, there is a strong motivation on the part of
most children to learn to speak. There are two reasons for this:
First, tearning to speak is an essentiat tott in sociatization. Chitdren
who can communicate easily with their peers make better sociat contacts
and are more readity accepted as members of the peer group than chitdren
whose abitity to communicate is timited. Young chitdren attending
preschools witt be handicapped both sociatty and educationatty untess they
speak as wett as their classmates.
second, tearning to speak is a totl in achieving independence.
Chitdren who cannot make known their wants and needs, or who cannot
make themsetves understood, are tikety to be treated as babies and fail to
achieve the independence they want and they feet capable of handting
successfutty. tf cnitdren cannot tett their parents or other caretakers that
they want to try to cut their own meat or brush their own hair, the adutts
are tikety to continue these tasks on the assumptions that the children are
too yorng to be interested in mastering them. This keeps the chitd from
becoming setf-retiant and independent.

SPECIAL VOCABULARIES OF LATE CHILDHOOD

Etiquette YocabularY
------By at home
the end or'irre first grade, chitdren who have had training
etiquette
in usin-g such words ii "pt"ui"1' and .'thank you" have as targe
vocabularies as those of the adutts in their environment'
Color YocabularY
Chitdrentearnthenamesofaltcommoncolorsandmanyofth€less
common ones shortir after they enter schoot
and beginhave formal to
training in art.
Number YocabularY
Fromtheirstudyofarithmeticatschool,childrentearnthenames
and meaning of numbers'
tftoney YxabulorY
Bothinschootandathome,olderchitdrenlearnthenamesofthe
vatue of the various denominations
different coins andlhuv-rJ"tttuni trt"
of bitts.
Time YocabularY
Thetimevocabulariesofotderchitdrenareastargeasthoseofadults

ilr-
EDUC 1 and

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with whom they come in contact but their understandin g of time words
is
sometimes incorrect.

Slang-Word and Sweo r-tllord yocabulories

(hitdren learn slang words and swear words from
.from the otder chitdren in
otder sibtings and
the neighborhood. Using srlch woids makes them
feet."grown-up" and they soon discover that, in ;ddition, ihe use
of such
woros has great attention vatue.

Secret Yocabulary
Children use secret vocabutaries to communicate with their intimate
friends. These can be written, consisting of codes formed by symbots or the
substitution of one tetter for another; verbol, consisting of distortions of
w:lgs-piS Latin, for example; or kinetic, consisting of geitures and the use
of fingers to communicate words. lilost chitdren-starl to use or more of
these forms at the time they enter the third grade, and their use reaches a
peak just before puberty.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPIAENT DURING ADOLESCENCE

After reading this section, you wilt be able to

. Examine language achievements during the adotescent period
. Recognize communications that ctose the door to further
communication.
. Describe effective ways of communicating with others.

Refined Understandings of Longuoge

Atthough tanguage acquisition is basicalty complete by the beginning

of adotence, important refinements continue. There is greater precision in
speaking, more sophistication in writing, and better comprehension in
reading.
Beginning around age 13, children no tonger focus on the literat
meanings of metaphors, parabtes, and proverbs. For example, in
interpreting the proverbs, "Peopte in glass houses shoutdn't throw stones, "
a s-year-otd might comment, "Because it break the glass"; a 7-year-otd
might comment retate, "You know peopte don't tive in gtass houses"; and a
9-year-otd might say, "l you buy a glass house, expect to have a window
broken. "However, a l3-year-old might say,"lf you hurt people, you may
get hurt yoursetf. " Thirteen-year-otds are abte their reference to physicat
objects.
Adotescence continue to increase their vocabutary and refine their
understandings of word meanings as wett. Their definitions are more
abstract, and they often include the super ordinate category to which the
object betongs. An adotescent, for exampte, might define a chair as a piece
of fumiture on which peopte sit. A younger wilt indicate that a chair is for
sitting but would not mention the ctass of things-furniture-to which it
belongs.

EDUC 101- Chitd and Adotescent oeveLopment .Modute lll-

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Varying one's language styte according to the situation begins early

but continues to undergo refinements throughout chitdhood and
adolescence. Learning the purpose and ways in which words and sentences
are used in conversation is known as pragmatics. Knowtedge about the
pragmatics of tanguage can range from taking turns in conversations to using
more format or potite language in appropriate situations (conversing with a
teacher, for exampte) and less formal and casual tanguage with friends,
Conversing with friends may atso invotve using stang words and body and
faciat expressions.

Nonverbol Behoviors
A tot can be communicated eyen when nothing is said; nonverbal
behaviors-gestures, postures, faciat expressions, and even the distance
between you and the other person-send a message. For exampte if you are
interacting with someone who stands far away from you, farther than you
think is normat, is this communicating something to you? What would
happen if you tried to move closer and the person moved farther away? You
might get the impression that this person did not reatty want to talk to you.
what about tatking with a person from another cutture? lf you are
unfamitiar with the tanguage you can took up key words, but there is not a
dictionary for the silent, nonverbal tanguages of the wortd. lvleanings of
words can change considerabty, depending on the accompanied nonverbat
behavion. ln Japan, hoi in most dictionaries means "yes". But the word
does not necessarily means yes when accompanied by various gestures. Hai
accompanied by a head nod means "l am listening". Without eye contact,
hoi means "no".
Eye contact, or tack of it, sends a powedul nonverbal message. lf
you are tatking with someone whose eyes are diverted from yours, you
probabty think tJtey are not interested in your conversation. ln Arabic
cuttures, however, eye gazing is done much more frequentty. ln fact, Arabs
tend to think Americans tend to gaze too littte. Even within the United
States, there are different ethnic groups. African Americans, for exampte,
tend to gaze tess direct(y than do European Arnericans when interacting with
50meone.
Gestures convey message as weu' Some cultures (ltatians, for
exampte) tend to be very expressive in their gestures when speaking"often
using'targe arm movements. Other cultures (Japanese, Thai) tend to be
mucl more reserved, using gestures as ittustrators. To more "reserved"
cultures, arm and hand gestures may be quite threatening. When we point
with oui index finger toward our head, it generatly means "l'm smart"' ln
some parts of thJwortd, however, it means 'l'm stupid"' Just as verbal
languages differ from cutture to culture, so do nonverbal languages, often,
,re-arJ so accustomed to sending and receiving nonverbat messages, we
ofien do so automaticalty and sometimes unconsciousty. Because nonverbal
language makes a tremendous impact on our verbal message, it is important
to recognize its valuabte rote in the communication Process'

-lrlodute lll-
ED 101- Chitd and Adolescent Devetopment

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C onmtn i ca t i an Po t t e r ns

ln comparing gender differences in communication pattern,

adotescents tatk more with ttreir mothers than their fathers. Adolescents
tend to see their mothers as both initiating more discussions with them and
recognizing and accepting their opinions more so than fathers. They
describe their communications as more open, despite the fact they report
more conftict with mothers than fathers. The higher [eve[ of conftict
mother is tikety to be related to the fact that the adotescent tends to have
more meaningfut communications with mothers than with fathers.

This atso has been found in samples of European American, African

American, and Latino adotescents and across other cuttures, such as in
China. Adotescents atso tend to discuss a wider range of topics with their
mothers than their fathers. Daughters report stronger relationships with
mothers than with fathers; are seen as being more open, understanding, and
accepting. Fathers are more tikety to impose authority, and as a resutt
adotescents tend to limit setf-disctosure to fathers. For exampte, in a
sampte of U.5 and Chinese chitdren from Hong Kong, China, fathers were
perceived to be less responsive and to demonstrate tess concern;
subsequentty, adotescents were less Likety to communicate with their
fathers.

Daughters more than sons communicate more frequentty with their

mothers about sexual attitudes and retationships. They tend to discuss their
interests, their retationships with others, sexual probtems, and general
problems with mothers more so than with fathers. The amount of
communicatiOn about the sexuat matters, however, is quite limited,
especiatly with sons. l,lany adotescents report that they woutd tike to have a
better sex.retated communications with their parents, and many parents
report that they want to be active resource agents for sex education.
However, many pareots report that they do not know how. lt seems
apparent that we need more resources in helping adotescents and parents
open up to one another on this important topic.

Typicat Ways of ResPoding

The most important aspect of tanguage is communication, an

interaction between two or more peopte that involves exchange of
information. When comrnunication probtems exist, adults sometimes remark
that teenagers just "ctam up and don't say anything anymore'" Adolescents
may remari<,
.'iarents bgss too much. My mom is atways tetting me what to
do.'sometimes lwant to ptug up my ears when she opens her mouth'" ilost
schotars agree, however, ttiat'good communication skilts between adutts
and chitdrEn siroutd begin when chitdren are young. The eartier effective
communication strategies can be apptied, the better adutt retation

ldany adotescents and their parents report good comrnunication

patterns. Otnet adotescents and their parents report good communication
patterns. Other adoteScents, however, experience probtems communicating

.. ,--, r E i ''- -'

-lrtodute lll'

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with their parents - particutarty parents who criticize them for being
disobedient, breaking famity rutes, not being ambitious enough, and being
messy and stoppy. The greater the tevel of parental criticism, the lower the
communication tevel and the personal retationship. When cornmunications
consist mainty of criticism, a vicious cycle is perpetuated: criticisms tead to
tow setf-esteem in adotescents, which teads to rnore negative behavior and
suhequentty more criticism for parents. Criticism is just one way in which
adult's responses can ctose door to further communication.

Thomas Gordon points out typica[ ways in which adutts respond to

adotescents and the subsequent feetings they arouse in them. Often adutts
simpty order or command: "As long as you tive in this house, you witt do as
you are totd to do." Many adutts moralize Or preach: "When I was your age,
my parents didn't hetp me with my homework. lt was up to me to finish it."
Ttiey judge and criticize; " You are such a messy kid; your room looks like
the'city?ump." They advice ond give solutions: "Listen to me: lknow
what's best. lf I were you I woutd spend more time studying." These kinds of
communications close the door to effective communication' They
communicate unacceptan€e of guitt and make the adotescent feel
inadequate and inferior.

Solution T ype llessoges

calts a
The typicat ways of responding are often used to send wfrat Gordon
mat not
"sotuiion-type message;' to thl adotescents. For exampte, adutts
they simpty bturt
wait for the adotescent to initiate appropriate behavior;
you respond
out what the adotescent must, ought, or shoutd do. How woutd
in the fottowing situations?"

The Put'Down l(essage

everything;
Simitarty, adutts tend to send "put-down" messages: "You tose
..John, you are never prepared for your math work;
il;;; iriesponsible.,, these put-
wny Oon't you wake up!" lt siems that most adul'ts do not use
their setf-esteem; the
downs to intentionaity woufO adolescents and destroy
statements are made with the hopefut expectation that they witt somehow
change the adotescents for the better. However, if adutts coutd
realty
unde-rstand just how devastating these comments can be, they woutd use
some other form of verbat message in an attempt to Change negative
behavior

Mutts can use a number of techniques to increase their effectiveness

as comrnunicators with chitdren and adolescents. Eeing a good tistener,
engaging in active listening, and sending "1" messges are important
tecnnlques that wilt hel.p to estabtish a positive retationship between adutt
and adolescent and open the door to further communication.

Applications:
C ommunica ti ng w ith Adolescen ts

One of the most effective and constructive ways of responding to

EDUC 101- Child and Adotescent Devetopment -i'lodu{e lll-

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adolescents is to offer them an invitation to say and more and to share their
own iudgments, ideas and feetings by giving responses that reftect their
thoughts - a technique known as a active listening, The (istener restates, in
his or her own words, the emotional feetings behind the message the
speaker has just sent. lt invotves paraphrasing the speaker's emotional
message, not parroting his or her words. lf the message is simpty repeated
verbatim, there is stitl a great chance that the listener might be
misunderstanding what has been said. Simpty feeding back a person's
emotions often helps the adolescent sort out and sotves the probtem.
For exampte, in responding to the adotescent who has just discussed
a boring work situation, one might say, "When you talk about att the pretty
task your boss gives you, I hear you saying that you're hurt and
disappointed that she hasn't given you more responsibility. " These
comments are phased tentativety, not dogmaticatty. Adults are sharing an
interpretation and attowing the speaker to decide whether or not it is
correct. Active tistening is a great way to get through the layers of hidden
meanings.
Ictive tistening is not meant to be used in att situations' Sometimes
adotescents are iust tooking for information and not trying to work out their
feetings. At times tike this, active tistening woutd be out of place' ln
additi6n, active tistening take5 a great deat of time. Therefore, if adults are
in hurry and do not hive time to tisten, it is wise to avoid starting a
conversation that cannot be finished-
Mutts, when communicating with teenagers, often send "you"
picking on your
messages, which impty sending a judgment- "You are atways
youngir brother." nYbu are being inconsiderate when you btast your stereo
to
iif" itrut." A more constructive apProach is to rephrase thesegetsentences with
bepin an "1" Dtus a description oi ihe speaker's feetings' "l upset
played so
utr"iiiir riet ti;g.; 'it .unnoi think straight when the music is being
behavior is
uriiv.'; iarrG simply say how the a?otescent's for and acknowtedging making them
i*i.'f tl ittii way ttre adutt is taking responsibitity The message focuses on
ip of tneir tnougnt, opinions, and feelings'
"*"L"t
the adutt, not on the adolescent.

REVIEWING KEY POINTS

The most important aspect of tanguage is communication'
naotut""*u- is a time
when many adutts comptain . oI a
6ilixaottn ln- .ommunication' lt has been suggested
that
adults' when
in communication mav occur because
;;;;'k;;;t many questlons'
communicating with teenagec, often ask too
;;:':i;il;:';e.' oii.ni "put'down" messases att or which
ctooe ihe door to further communication'
feetings in a
llsinq active tisteninq, reftecting the adotescent's
and using "r"
il;ilil;,;i';"J''"-iil"itwe ways to open
manner'
the door to further
;;t;sa effective
are
communication.

-Modute I lt-
EDUC 101- ehitd and Adolescent
Devetopment

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