71 Von Neumann Algebras - Mazhe

Chapter 71
von Neumann algebras
71.1 Functional, representation and automorphism

Let A be an algebra and consider a linear functional Ï : A Ñ . That induces a GNS repre-
sentation fi : A Ñ EndpV q with
A
V “ (71.1)
tb tel que Ïpabq “ 0 @au.
If Ï is nondegenerate, the latter ideal reduces to t0u. Let us assume a sort of Riesz theorem: for
every linear functional Â : A Ñ , there exists a b P A such that Âpaq “ Ïpabq,
` ˘ If one fixes b,
@a.
one can see Ïpbaq as a functional for a, and thus define ‡pbq by Ïpbaq “ Ï a‡pbq .
One can check that this ‡ is an automorphism of A.
71.2 Commutant
Let M Ä BpH q be a collection of bounded operators on H . The commutant of M in BpH q
is
M 1 “ tS P BpH q tel que T S “ ST @T P M u. (71.2)
From now let M be a self-adjoint algebra of operators on an Hilbert space H which contains .
We have three lemmas.
Lemme 71.1.
If v P H and if P is the projection onto M v Ñ H , then P commutes with all operators in M .
Lemme 71.2.
If S P M 2 , v P H and ‘ ° 0, there exists a T P M such that }Sv ´ T v} § ‘. Moreover, in the
finite dimensional case, there exists a T P M such that Sv “ T v.
Proof. Consider P as in lemma 71.1, then P P M 1 , so that XP “ P X. Now, the fact that M is
unital gives v P M v from which we deduce P v “ v. Thus we have
Xv “ XP v “ P Xv P M v
because Xv “ P pXvq. The lemma now result from the fact that an element of the closure of M v
is as close as we want from M v.
Lemme 71.3.
If T P M 2 , v1 , . . . vn P H , and ‘ ° 0, there exists a T P M such that }Svi ´ T vi } § ‘ for all i.
Moreover if the finite dimensional case, there exists a T such that Svi “ T vi .
Proof. Apply lemma 71.2 to the set

N “ tT ‘ T ‘ . . . ‘ T P BpH ‘ . . . ‘ H q tel que T P M u.
2763
2764 CHAPTER 71. VON NEUMANN ALGEBRAS
Corollaire 71.4.
In the finite dimensional case, we have M 2 “ M .
Proof. Take a basis of H in the lemma 71.3.
Théorème 71.5 (Double commutant).

Let M Ä BpH q be a set of bounded operators on the Hilbert space H . The double commutant
M 2 is the strong closure of M , i.e. the set of strong limits of nets.
Proof. A first evidence is that M Ñ M 2 . Secondly, every commutant is strongly closed, so that
M 2 in particular is strongly closed. So it remains to be proved that for each S P M 2 is the limit
of some net in M in the strong topology. For that, consider the directed set of finite subsets of H
and consider the directed set
A “ tfinite subsets of H uˆs0, 8r
on which we say pF, ‘q • pF 1 , ‘1 q if and only if F 1 Ñ F and ‘ † ‘1 .
For each a “ pF, ‘q P A, we define TpF,‘q as in lemma 71.3, so we have, for all v P F ,
}TpF,‘q v ´ Sv} § ‘,
which proves that TpF,‘q converges to S in the strong topology.
Notice that the operator S is in general not a limit of a sequence.
Définition 71.6.
A von Neumann algebra is an unital ˚-subalgebra of BpH q which is equal to its double com-
mutant.
Let G be a group and fi, an unitary representation of G and M be the commutant of fipGq.

Since fipgq˚ “ fipgq´1 “ fipg ´1 q, we have that fipGq is self-adjoint and M is a von Neumann algebra.
We say that a von Neumann algebra is a factor if its center is trivial, i.e. reduces to Id.
Proposition 71.7.
Let fi be a unitary representation of G on H and H1 , an invariant subspace of fipGq. We have
— the orthogonal projection on H1 belongs to M ,
— if P P M is a projection, then P H is a subrepresentation of fi, i.e. the closed subspace
fipGqP H .
So, if fi is irreducible then M is made of multiples of identity.
Lemme 71.8 ([503]).

Let S be a selfadjoint part of BpH q. A closed subspace H1 of H is S -invariant if and only if
the orthogonal projection on H1 belongs to S 1 .
Proof. First, suppose that H1 is S -invariant. Thus for every v P H1 and w P H1K , we have
0 “ xSv, w, y “ xv, S ˚ wy
where S ˚ P S by assumption. We conclude that S ˚ w K H1 for every S P S . Since S ˚ “ S , we
have that H1K is S -invariant. Now if P is the orthogonal projector on H1 , we decompose x P H
as
x “ P x ‘ pId ´P qx P H1 ‘ H1K . (71.3)
since H1K is S -invariant, or every S P S , we have SpId ´P qx P H1K , so that P SpId ´P qx “ 0.
Thus, ùsing ˘the decomposition (71.3), P Sx “ P SP x ‘ 0 “ P SP x. But P x P H1 , then SP x P H1
and P SP x “ SP x. We have proven that P S “ SP , it is P P S 1 .
For the second part, assume that P P S 1 , then for every v P H1 , we have v “ P v and
Sv “ SP v “ P Sv P H1 ,
which proves that H1 is S -invariant.
71.3. EXAMPLES OF VON NEUMANN ALGEBRAS 2765
Proposition 71.9.
If H1 and H2 are equivalent subrepresentations of H , then the intertwining operator W : H1 Ñ
H2 determines on H a partial isometry such that P1 “ W ˚ W and P2 “ W W ˚ .
The following decomposition is the polar decomposition.
Proposition 71.10. ` ˘
There exists a partial isometry V : Image |T | Ñ ImagepT ˚ q such that T “ V |T |.
In other words, any element of a von Neumann algebra is the product of a positive operator by a
projection. A version of this decomposition for operators in Hilbert spaces is given in lemme 57.63.
` ˘
Proof. The operator V must satisfy V |T |v “ T v for every v P H . That operator is a partial
isometry because
› ›
›|T |v ›2 “ x|T |v, |T |vy “ x|T |2 v, vy “ xT ˚ T v, vy “ }T v}2 .
It remains to be proved that V P M .
Lemme 71.11.
Every von Neumann algebra is the commutant of an unitary representation.
Proof. Let M be a von Neumann algebra and consider that group G “ U pM 1 q, the group of unitary
operators on M 1 . Let T P M 1 , it reads as the sum of self-adjoint operators by
1 i
T “ pT ` T ˚ q ´ piT ´ iT ˚ q.
2 2
Thus we can restrict ourself to self-adjoint operators. Let S P M 1 , it can be written as a combination
of unitary operators:
1´ a ¯ 1´ a ¯
S“ S ` i 1 ´ S2 ` S ´ i 1 ´ S2 .
2 2
Notice that the square` root makes
˘ sense because 1 ´ S 2 is positive. So M 1 is spanned by U pM 1 q
1
and then M “ M 2 “ U pM 1 q .
71.3 Examples of von Neumann algebras

The very first example of von Neumann algebra is BpH q itself which is the commutant of the
identity.
71.3.1 Algebra L8 pXq

For the second example, consider an ‡-finite measure space pX, µq, and then define H “
L2 pX, µq and M “ L8 pXq, the set of measurable bounded functions on X. The algebra M acts on
H by pointwise multiplication and is therefore a ˚-subalgebra of BpH q. In order to prove that
L8 pXq is a von Neumann algebra, we prove that L8 pXq1 “ L8 pXq.
Assume for simplicity that µpXq † 8 for simplicity. Now consider T P L8 pXq1 and fq pxq “
1 P L8 pXq because the measure is finite. For each g P L8 pXq, we have
T g “ T pgf0 q “ gT f0 “ gh
where h “ T f0 . So an element of L8 pXq1 reveals to be a multiplication by a function. We have
}gh}2 “ }T g}2 § }T } · }g}2
That proves that }h}8 § }T } because if }h}8 “ }T } ` ”, then we have a set (of non vanishing
measure) on which h is bigger than }T }. We conclude that h P L8 pXq.
71.3.2 Countable direct sum of Hilbert spaces

∞
Consider H8 “ H ‘ H ‘ . . . “ tf : Ñ H tel que }f pnq}2 † 8u. One can show that it
is an Hilbert space. Let
M “ tT8 tel que T P BpH qu
` ˘
where pT8 f qpnq “ T f pnq . One claims that this is a von Neumann algebra.
ˆ ˙
T 0
Let us see that of a direct sum of two copies of H . In that case an element of M reads
0 T
ˆ ˙
A B
with T P BpH q. An element of M 1 must be of the form with rA, T s “ rB, T s “ rC, T s “
C D
rD, T s “ 0 for every T P BpH q. Thus we have
"ˆ ˙ *
A B
M “1
tel que A, B, C, D P . (71.4)
C D
In turn, one can see that the commutant of the right hand side is M itself.
Let us now go back with the case of H8 . The map T fiÑ T8 provides an isomorphism M »
BpH q as ˚-algebras. But it is not sufficient to conclude that M is a von Neumann algebra because
the topologies do not correspond. A net T– strongly converges in M when T– f converges for every
f P M . But f is an infinite list of vectors in H , so that the strong topology in M is something like
an infinite collection of strong topology on BpH q. Every strongly open set in BpH q is strongly
open in M , while the reciprocal is not true.
71.3.3 Direct limit

Let us take the example of direct limit of vector spaces given on page 2070. We are considering
the matrix algebras Mk “ nk p q, and An “ M1 b . . . b Mn , together with the maps
‡n : An Ñ An`1
(71.5)
T1 b . . . b Tn fiÑ T1 b . . . b Tn b .
We pose A “ limÑ An .
Lemme 71.12.
If fi1 and fi2 are ˚-homomorphisms from A to BpH q, then
}fi1 paq} “ }fi2 paq} (71.6)
for every a P A. In other words, there is an unique way to close A in the norm topology.
Problèmes et choses à faire
If one does not ask fii to be faithful, I can take fi1 pAq “ 0 as counter-example. Thus I think that I have to add the faithful assumption.
Proof. One has }fii paq}2 “ }fii pa˚ aq}, so that we only have to prove (71.6) in the case of self-
adjoint elements of A. Using` what ˘ is said in the proof of proposition 69.63, we have (with obvious
notations) }fii pbq} “ rBpH q fii pbq . Since b belongs to one of the Ak “ nk p q and dim Ak † 8.
Now we ask the question of an actual way to represent A on an Hilbert space. First, as matrix
algebra, Mk “ BpHk q for a certain finite dimensional Hilbert space Hk . We form the Hilbert
space
H1 b . . . b Hk
with the inner product
xv1 b . . . b vk , w1 b . . . b wk y “ xv1 , w1 y . . . xvk , wk y. (71.7)

71.3. EXAMPLES OF VON NEUMANN ALGEBRAS 2767
Now pick unit vectors vk P Hk and define the maps

H1 b . . . b Hk´1 Ñ H1 b . . . b Hk
(71.8)
w1 b . . . b wk´1 fiÑ w1 b . . . b wk´1 b vb vk k
that can be shown to be isometries. Finally, we consider the Hilbert space
8
â
H“ pHk , vk q “ completion of limpH1 b . . . b Hk q. (71.9)
Ñ
1
Notice the dependence in the vectors vk . Now we define the map fi : A Ñ BpHq by
fipT1 b . . . b Tk qpw1 b w2 b . . .q “ T1 w1 b . . . b Tk wk b wk b wk`1 b . . . (71.10)
Â `Â ˘
More intrinsically, fi : Mk Ñ B pHk , vk q ,
` ˘
fi b Tk pbwk q “ bTk wk . (71.11)
One can show that the strong closure of fipAq is BpHq. The strong topology on BpH q is generated
by the open sets
UpS, v, ‘q “ tT P BpHq tel que }T v ´ Sv} § ‘u
with S P BpH q, v P H and ‘ ° 0. The direct limit H “ limÑ pH1 b . . . b Hk q, is given by a
vector space H and maps Ïk such that
‡
H1 b . . . b Hk / H1 b . . . b Hk`1
Ï Ïk`1
& w
H
commutes where ‡pw1 b . . . b wk q “ w1 b . . . b wk b vk`1 . The space H is the free vector space
generated by symbols of the form w1 b . . . b wk b vk`1 b . . . and we pose Ïi pw1 b . . . b wi q “
w1 b . . . b wi b vi`1 b . . . and the Hilbert space H is the completion of H .
The definition of A proceeds in the same way: Mi are matrix algebras and we pose An “
M1 b . . . b Mn with the map ‡pT1 b . . . b Tn q “ T1 b . . . b Tn b , and
‡
An / Ak`1
Ïn Ïk`1
|
A
with Ïi pT1 b . . . b Ti q “ T1 b . . . b Ti b b . . ., the space A being the free vector space generated
by the symbols T1 b . . . b Tj b b . . .
Now an element of H reads
8
ÿ
w1i b . . . b wki i b vki i `1 b . . .
i“1
with wli P Hl , and we act on it by an element of A by

8
`ÿ ˘
fipT1 b . . . b Tk b b . . .q w1i b . . . b wki i b vki i `1 b . . .
(71.12)
i“1
8
ÿ
“ T1 w1i b . . . b Tki wki i b vki i `1 b . . .
i“1
where some of the Tj are subject to actually be . We are now going to prove that the strong closure
of fipAq is BpHq. Let E be the set of finites sets of elements of the form w1 b . . . b wk b vk`1 b . . .
and the directed set I “ Eˆs0, 8r.
I’m not sure of the next affirmation.

Let T P BpHq. For each pF, ‘q P E, there is a TpF,‘q P fipAq

}TpF,‘q Xk ´ T Xk } † ‘ (71.13)
for all Xk P F . In that case, the limit of the net pF, ‘q Ñ TpF,‘q is T , which shows that the strong
closure of fipAq is BpHq.
So that example does not provide new example of von Neumann algebra.
Proposition 71.13.
Let Â
Vk “ nk endowed
`Â with ˘the standard representation of nk p q. Then the representation
fi: k nk Ñ B k pVk , vk q fulfils
` ˘2 `â ˘
fipM q “ B pVk , vk q
k
Â
where M “ k nk .
Proof. No proof.
Â Â8
Notice that 8 1 nk can differ from 1 n1k when the nk and n1k do not agree. In fact, we
have
8
â 8
â
nk “ n1k
1 1
± ±
if and only if k nk “ k n1k in the sense of generalised products: each prime factor arise the same
number of time in both side. For example, 2 b 2 b . . . “ 4 b 4 b . . . ‰ 3 b 3 b . . ..
Take for example Vk “ 2 for every k and then vk “ v, vk1 “ v 1 . In this case, the representations
fi and fi 1 are equivalent if and only if v “ ⁄v 1 . This provides an Hilbert sphere of inequivalent
irreducible representations.
71.4 Continuous dimensions

Let A be a ˚-algebra with a faithful state Ï defining the inner product xa, by “ Ïpa˚ bq. We
define a representation fl of A on itself by flpaqb “ ab.
Let us take the situation and the notations of proposition 69.53, and for n “ 2, consider the
choice ˆ ˙
⁄{p1 ` ⁄q
s⁄ “
1{p1 ` ⁄q
with 0 § ⁄ §Â 1.
Let M “ 8 1 2 p q and consider the positive continuous form Ï⁄ on M defined by
Ï⁄ pa1 b a2 b . . . b ak b b . . .q “ Ï⁄ pa1 qÏ⁄ pa2 q . . . “ Trpa1 s⁄ q Trpa2 s⁄ q (71.14)

Notice that the product is finite because from a certain point, ai “ . It is on the other hand not
difficult to see that the Ï⁄ paq “ 0 only if ai “ 0 for every i. The purpose now is to follow the GNS
construction of proposition 69.73. The remark we just made says that there is no ideal to quotient
with in order to have the Hilbert space of representation.
The representation of A we get is the simple flpaqb “ ab of A on its completion. Let M⁄ be the
double commutant in this representation.
Théorème 71.14 (Powers).

The von Neumann algebra M⁄ are all distinct for different values of 0 § ⁄ § 1.
Proof. No proof.
Let us see an example of that result. When ⁄ “ 0, we get the standard representation of
matrices on n , so that M0 “ BpH q. When ⁄ “ 1, we can show that
TrpT q “ xV, T V y
where V “ v b v b . . . b v b . . . is a trace on M1 while there does not exist any trace on BpH q.
We conclude that M1 ‰ M0 .
71.5. CANTOR 2769
71.5 Cantor
À
Let M “ 8 k“1 Mk with Mk “ nk p q that can be seen as SpantT1 b . . .u with Tk “ for
sufficiently large k. Now take the case nk “ 2 for all k. The algebra M naturally acts on the space
of locally constant functions on the Cantor set.
More generally, for arbitrary nk , one
± can think of M as an algebra of endomorphisms of the
space of locally constant functions on nk . Problèmes et choses à faire
Still to be developed.
71.6 More general state

Let Ïi be state on Mi . We define
Ï: M Ñ
(71.15)
T1 b T2 b . . . fiÑ Ï1 pT1 qÏ2 pT2 q . . .
where the product is finite because Tk “ for sufficiently large k. One can prove that Ï fulfills
(1) Ïp q “ 1,
(2) ÏpT ˚ T q • 0,
(3) ÏpT ˚ S ˚ ST q “ }S}2 ÏpT ˚ T q,
so
ÂNthat Ï is in particular a state on ÂNM . The normn1}S} is the nfollowing. We know that S P
1 M k Ñ M but, by construction, 1 Mk “ Endp b ... b N q. The norm of S is taken as
the operator norm in the sense of that endomorphism space.

The property (3) shows that the multiplication by S is a bounded operator. We can build the
GNS representation and define MÏ to be M 2 is that representation.
Définition 71.15.
A factor of type II1 is an infinite dimensional factor M which accepts a non vanishing linear
functional Tr : M Ñ such that
— TrpST q “ TrpT Sq,
— TrpT ˚ T q • 0,
— the function Tr is continuous for the ultraweak topology.
71.7 Group measure space construction

Let pX, µq be a measured space that we assume to be ‡-finite, and G, a discrete countable
group acting on X in such a way that for every g P G,
(1) if E Ä X is measurable then gE is measurable,
(2) if µpEq “ 0, then µpgEq “ 0.
We
! do)not impose the action to preserve the measure. As an example we take G Ä SLp2, q“
cx`d acting on
ax`b
Y t8u “ P 1 .
71.7.1 First attempt

Take L2 pX, µq as Hilbert space and, to f P L8 pX, µq, we associate the pointwise multiplication
operator Mf : L2 pX, µq Ñ L2 pX, µq. We also introduce the new measure gµ by
pgµqpEq “ µpg ´1 Eq, (71.16)
and the action of G on the functions by
pgf qpxq “ f pg ´1 xq. (71.17)

So we have ª ª
pgf qpxqdpgµqpxq “ f pxqdµpxq. (71.18)
X X
Notice that if f P L8 pX, µq, we have gf P L8 pX, µq, but when f P L2 , there are no guarantee
that gf P L2 .
Let µ1 and µ2 be two measures on the set X. One says that µ2 is absolutely continuous
with respect to µ1 if every µ1 null set is µ2 null.
Théorème 71.16 (Radon-Nikod˝m).

Let µ1 and µ2 be two ‡-finite measures on X. The measure µ2 is absolutely continuous with respect
to µ1 if and only if there exists a measurable positive function f such that µ2 “ f µ1 .
The useful statement in our case is:
Proposition 71.17.
There exists an unique function
df µ
: X Ñs0, 8r
dµ
such that ª ˆ ˙ ª ª
dgµ
pgf qpxq pxqdµpxq “ pgf qpxqdpgµqpxq “ f pxqdµpxq. (71.19)
dµ
´ ¯
Applying g ´1 to the function pgf qpxq dgµ
dµ pxq and applying the theorem, we see that for every
function f , we have ª ˆ ˙ ˆ ´1 ˙ ª
dgµ dg µ
f pxq pgxq pxq “ f pf qdµpxq,
dµ dµ
so that ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
dgµ dg ´1 µ
pgxq pxq “ 1. (71.20)
dµ dµ
Using the function provided by that theorem, we define
ˆ ˙1
dgµ 2
Ug f “ pgf q · , (71.21)
dµ
so that }Ug f }L2 pX,µq “ }f }L2 pX,µq . Moreover we have the following two important relations
(1) Ug Uh “ Ugh ,
(2) Ug Mf Ug´1 “ Mgf
where Mf stands for the operator of pointwise product with f . The second relation implies
Ug Mf “ Mgf Ug , thus we have
n
ÿ
M :“ tMf , Ug u2 “ t Mfi Ugi u (71.22)
i“1
(because the double commutant is the strong closure) which is a ˚-algebra of operators. Notice
that Ug Ug˚ “ 1 because Ug is an isometry.
We say that an action G ˆ M Ñ M is ergodic when gf “ f for every g P G implies that f is
constant almost everywhere.
Lemme 71.18. ` ˘
If the action G ˆ X Ñ X is ergodic, then M “ B L2 pX, µq .
Proof. Let us first study the commutant tMf , Ug u1 which is of course contained in tMf u1 . But we
know that the commutant of L8 pX, µq is L8 pX, µq, so that
tMf u1 “ tMf tel que f P L8 pX, µqu.

71.7. GROUP MEASURE SPACE CONSTRUCTION 2771
Is there an element in L8 pX, µq which commutes with all the elements of the form Ug , or in other
words, is there a f P L8 pX, µq such that Mf “ Ug Mf Ug˚ “ Mgf ? The only element f such that
Mf “ Mgf for every g P G is f “ 1, since the action is ergodic.
That lemma shows that we didn’t construct any interesting von Neumann algebras in the
ergodic case.
71.7.2 Second attempt

Let H “ L2 pX ˆ G, µq. Notice that G ˆ X is nothing else than a countable number of copies of
X, on which each of them we consider the measure µ. The multiplication operator is now replaced
by
Mf : H Ñ H
(71.23)
pMf Ïqpx, hq “ f pxqÏpx, hq,
and the unitary operator Ug is replaced by
Ug : H Ñ H
ˆ ˙1 (71.24)
dgµ 2
´1 ´1
pUg Ïqpx, hq “ Ïpg x, g hq pxq
dµ
The introduction of the Radon-Nikod˝m function serves to preserve the norm. The so defined
operators have the following properties:
(1) Ug Mf Ug˚ “ Mgf ,
(2) Ug Uh “ Ugh ,
(3) Ug´1 “ Ug´1 “ Ug˚ .
Now we define n
ÿ
M pG, Xq “ tUg , Mf u2 “ t Mfi Ugi u, (71.25)
i“1
and we will show (later) that
Théorème 71.19.
If the action is ergodic, then M pG, Xq is a factor.
Proof. No proof up to now.
We emphasize the progress: lemma 71.18 says that the commutant is trivial while now the
center only is trivial.
As an example, take X “ S 1 Ä and G “ , the action being g · z “ e2fii◊g z for some
irrational ◊. One can prove, using Fourier transform, that this equation is ergodic.
Let us now define
Ï : M pG, Xq Ñ
(71.26)
T fiÑ xf0 , T f0 y
where f0 P L2 pX ˆ G, µq is defined as follows
#
µpXq´2 if g “ e
f0 pg, xq “
0 otherwise.
We show that the so defined Ï is a trace over M pG, Xq, i.e. it satisfies ÏpT Sq “ ÏpST q for every S,
T P M pG, Xq. We know that M pG, Xq is generated by expressions of the form Lf Ug . When g ‰ e,
the functions f0 and Ug f0 have disjoint support, so that ÏpMf Ug q “ 0. If g “ e, the computation
is easy and we finally find
# ≥
1
µpXq X f pxqdµpxq if g “ e
ÏpMf Ug q “ (71.27)
0 if g ‰ e.
∞
It is easy to check that this expression is a trace on t i Mfi Ugi u. Since BpHq has no trace, we
know that M pG, Xq is a non trivial von Neumann algebra. Stated in a different way, what we
just proved is that, provided that µ is a G-invariant probability measure (i.e. µpXq “ 1), the
formula ª
`ÿ ˘
Ïµ Mfh Uh “ fe pxqdµpxq. (71.28)
hPG X
extends to a trace state on M pG, Xq.
Proposition 71.20.
If µ is not invariant (but still µpXq “ 1), then Ïµ is still a state, but no more a trace.
Proof. By definition, Ïµ pT q “ xf0 , T f0 y where f0 peq “ 1 and f0 pgq “ 0 otherwise. We have

´` ÿ ˘˚ ` ÿ ˘¯ ´ ÿ ¯
Ïµ Mfh Uh Mfh Uh “ Ïµ Uh˚1 Mf˚h Mfh2 Uh2
1
h1 ,h2
´ ÿ ¯
“ Ïµ Mf˚h Mfh2 Uh´1 Uh2
1 1
h1 ,h2
because Ug˚ “ Ug´1 “ Ug´1 commutes with the Mf . Now, according to the expression (71.28), the
function Ïµ pick up the identity component and integrates. So we have
´` ÿ ª
˘˚ ` ÿ ˘¯ ÿ
Ïµ Mfh Uh Mfh Uh “ h´1 pfh˚ fh qdµ
h X
ÿ ª
“ `h |fh |2 ph´1 xqdµpxq • 0.
X
71.7.3 First generalisation

Let us replace the space L8 pX, µq by any von Neumann algebra N of operators on the Hilbert
space H . As Hilbert H space we take the completion of H ˆ l2 pGq and we assume to have
an action of G over N . We know that the metric of a C ˚ -algebra is determined by its algebra
structure, so that the action must be isometric. We assume the action to be via strongly continuous
automorphisms. We have H b l2 pGq “ l2 pG, Hq. For t P N , we define
pMT Ïqpgq “ g ´1 pT qÏpgq
where Ï P l2 pGmHq. We also define
pUh Ïqpgq “ Ïph´1 gq.
Notice that the group does not act on H while in the previous constructions, it did act on X. We
still have the relation
Uh MT Uh˚ “ MhT . (71.29)
Now, we form the von Neumann algebra
M pG, N q “ tUh , MT u2 . (71.30)
71.7.4 Second generalisation

Now we replace the discrete group G by a second countable locally compact topologicalˆgroup.
˙
a b
Typical examples are p , `q or the group “ax ` b” generated by matrices of the form
0 1
with a ° 0 and b P , acting on the real line by affine transformations. Each such group has an
71.7. GROUP MEASURE SPACE CONSTRUCTION 2773
unique (up to constant multiple) Borel measure m such that each compact set has finite measure
and which is in the same time the Haar measure: for every compactly supported functions on G,
ª ª
f phgqdmpgq “ f pgqdmpgq.
G G
The measure on “ax ` b” is dm “ a12 da db.

We consider on G ˆ N the product topology and we assume the action G ˆ N Ñ N to be
strongly continuous. Now, we proceed as before: we take the Hilbert space H the completion of
H b L2 pG, mq “ L2 pG, H q,
and MT is defined by the same formulas as before. The von Neumann algebra that we obtain is
denoted by M pG, N q.
71.7.5 One particular case

` ˘
Take a discrete group G, so that M pGq is generated by the operators Ug P B l2 pGq who are
defined by
pUh Ïqpgq “ Ïph´1 gq. (71.31)
Consider the function #
1 if g “ e
fe pgq “ (71.32)
0 otherwise.
We have #
1 if g “ h
pUh fe qpgq :“ fh pgq “
0 otherwise,
so that tfh u is an orthonormal basis of l2 pGq and Uh1 fh2 “ fh1 h2 . We conclude that Uh is a
permutation of the basis vectors.
Proposition 71.21.
The module l2 pGq over M pGq is projective and finitely generated.
Proof. The fact that l2 pGq as module over M pGq is finitely generated comes from the fact that fe
by itself generates the basis tfh u as we just said.
In order to prove that the module is projective, we will prove the condition (2) of proposi-
tion 52.13. Let M be a M pGq-module and fl : M Ñ l2 pGq be a surjective module map. Consider
any › P M such that flp›q “ fe , define spfe q “ › and extend by linearity and action of M pGq. The
so defined map s obviously fulfils fl ˝ s “ Id |l2 pGq .
That statement and the proof are correct uhm? I use them on page 2814.
For each S P M pGq1 , we define fS “ Spfe q P l2 pGq. Now if S P M pGq X M pGq1 , we have
(1) SUh “ Uh S,
(2) SUh fe “ Uh Sfe .
The operators Wk defined by
pWk f qpgq “ f pgkq
commute with Uh . So they commute with M pGq and with S. Therefore we have
Wk Sfh “ SWk fh “ Sfhk´1 ,
and taking h “ k, we find

fS phgq “ fS pghq (71.33)
for every g, h P G. That means that fS is constant on the conjugacy classes because g and hgh´1
are two elements of the form g1 g2 and g2 g1 with g1 “ h and g2 “ gh´1 .
If G has no finite conjugacy class (except teu), then fS has to be a multiple of fe because its
norm would contains infinitely many constant non zero terms. But when S1 and S2 belongs to
M 1 pGq with fS1 “ fS2 , then S1 “ S2 because S1 fh “ S1 Uh fe “ U1 S1 fe “ Uh fS1 , while the same
computation with S2 gives S2 fh “ Uh fS2 . So S1 and S2 agree on a basis.
For this reason, if we assume that G has infinite conjugacy class, we have M pGq1 XM pGq “ .
The most famous example of such a group is G “ Fk , the group of formal words of 1 . . . k with
k ° 1.
Now fix an element of finite order h P G, and the natural homomorphism Ñ G given by
n fiÑ hn . The group G has a natural equivalence relation g1 „ g2 if and only if there exists a n P
such that g1 “ g2n . We denote by G{ the quotient of G by this relation. One class of this space is
g “ tg n tel que n P u,
and we have à
l2 pGq “ l2 p g q. (71.34)
gPG{
The operator Ug acts on l3 p gq by translation: Ug g n “ g n`1 . Now we fix a g P G and we make the
identifications
l2 p gq » l2 p q » L2 pS 1 q, (71.35)
the latter identification being given by the Fourier series of a function on the circle (seen as a
periodic function on ). In that framework, Ug acts by translation of 1 on l2 p q:
Ug pxi qiP “ pxi ` 1qiP .
A function f P CpS 1 q is bounded (since S 1 is compact), to that if s P L2 pS 1 q, the product function

pf sq still belongs to L1 pS 1 q and then corresponds to an element of l2 pS 1 q. Thus we have a map
` ˘
CpS 1 q Ñ B l2 p g q .
If one acts separately on each of the “fixed” g, we obtain an action

` à 2 ˘
CpS 1 q Ñ B l p gq .
gPG{
À
We define the operator U P gPG{ l2 p gq as acting on l2 p gq with Ug . That allows us to consider
CpS 1 q Ñ M pGq
(71.36)
z n fiÑ U n
that can be composed with the trace Ï to give

ª
f fiÑ f pzqdmpzq
S1
for each f P CpS 1 q.
71.8 More about projections

Let M be a von Neumann algebra and p, q, two projections in BpH q. We define
p _ q “ projection onto Imageppq ` Imagepqq (71.37)

p ^ q “ projection onto Imageppq X Imagepqq (71.38)
A projection is determined by the closed space of its range, so one can order the projection by
ordering the closed subspace of H .
71.8. MORE ABOUT PROJECTIONS 2775
Lemme 71.22.
We have
dimpR1 _ R2 q “ dim R1 ` dim R2 ´ dimpR1 ^ R2 q (71.39)
for any two projections R1 and R2 in M .
Proof. Left as an exercise.
For two projections p and q, we write that p ® q if there exists a partial isometry V such that
(1) V ˚ V “ p,
(2) V V ˚ § q.
One proves that this determines a partial ordering on the projections.
Proposition 71.23.
If p and q belong to M , then the projections p _ q and p ^ q belong to M too.
Proof. There exists an unitary representation fi : G Ñ EndpH q whose M is the commutant:

M “ fipGq1 by lemma 71.11. Since p is a projection, proposition 71.7 says that pH is an invariant
subspace of fipGq. The same being true for q, we have that the spaces Imageppq ` Imagepqq and
Imageppq X Imagepqq are invariant too. Now the proposition 71.7 assures that the corresponding
projections (namely p _ q and p ^ q) are part of M .
Before to define the infinite case p1 _ p2 _ . . ., we need a lemma.
Lemme 71.24.
If tT– u is a net of selfadjoint bounded operators such that
(1) sup– }T– } † 8,
(2) if – ° —, then xv, T– vy ° xt, T— vy for every v P H .
Then tT– u strongly converges to an operator T , see condition (57.63).
Proof. We want the limit T to fulfil xv, T vy “ lim–Ñ8 xv, T– vy. From weak-compactness of the
unit ball, that formula defines the quadratic form Qpvq “ lim–Ñ8 xv, T– vy with }v} “ 1. The form
Q is then defined on the whole space H by homogeneity: Qp⁄vq “ ⁄2 Qpvq. The polarization
identity
4 Rexv, T– wy “ xpv ` wq, T– pv ` wqy ´ xpv ´ wq, T– pv ´ wqy
defines Qpv, wq and then defines the value of xv, T wy for every v and w. This is the candidate to
be the strong limit of T– . The question is now to know if this is an actual strong limit.
Since the net is increasing, we have xv, pT ´ T– qvy • 0, so that T ´ T– is positive which implies
that pT ´ T– q1{2 is well defined. We have
}pT ´ T– q1{2 v} “ xv, pT ´ T– qvy Ñ 0,
so that the strong limit of pT ´ T– q1{2 is zero.

It is not true in general that, in the strong topology, a– Ñ a and b– Ñ b imply a– b– Ñ ab. But
it is true when a– and b– are contained in a ball. Since sup }T ´ T– }1{2 † 8, we can thus make
` ˘2
s limpT ´ T– q “ s lim pT ´ T– q1{2 “ 0. s limaÑ0 f paq
In short, that lemma claims that M contains the limits of all bounded increasing nets of
selfadjoint operators. In particular, for a net of projections P– P M with – P X,
™ ©
P– P M, P– P M.
– –
Proposition 71.25.
Let tP– u and tQ– u to be two nets of projectors on the same directed set, and suppose that we have
operators T– : ImagepP– q Ñ ImagepQ– q such that
(1) sup– }T– } † 8,
(2) T– |ImagepP— q “ T— ,
`ö ˘ `ö ˘
then there exists an operator T : Image – P– Ñ Image – Q– with
T |ImagepP– q “ T– .
If moreover P– , Q– and T– belong to M , then T P M .
Proof. No proof.
I think that p1 _ p2 _ . . . is now well defined when pi are projections. Indeed,
ö the projections Pk “ p1 _ . . . pk form a net and, by the proposition,
the limit belongs to M . More generally, if A is a set of projections, for pPA p, one considers the set of parts of A (which is partially ordered)
ö
and then the net p– “ pP– p where – is a part of A.
Now, one has to understand why the result is still a projection.
Lemme 71.26.
Let M be a factor. If P and Q are nonzero projections in M , then there is a T P M such that
P T Q ‰ 0.
Proof. Let U pM q be the unitary group of M . We saw that if T commutes with U pM q, then it
commutes with all M . Assume that P T Q “ 0 for every T P M , then in particular it holds for
T “ U P U pM q and we have U P U ˚ Q “ 0.
ö
Consider the operator R “ U PU pM q U P U
˚ which is a projection in M . Since the set
tU P U ˚ tel que U P U pM qu is invariant under the adjoint action of U pM q, we have U RU ˚ “ R,

or U R “ RU for every U P U pM q. That proves that R P M 1 . So R P M X M 1 and is thus a
multiple of identity by the fact that M is a factor: R “ Id (the multiple has to be 1 because R is
a projection).
We said, on the other hand, that U P U ˚ Q “ 0, which means that the range of U P U ˚ is
orthogonal to the one of Q for every U P U pM q, so that the range of R has to be orthogonal too.
That contradicts the fact that R is a multiple of identity.
Lemme 71.27.
Let M be a factor and P , Q two nonzero projections in M , then there exists a nonzero partial
isometry V P M such that V ˚ V § P and V V ˚ § Q.
Proof. Let T be such that P T Q ‰ 0 (by lemma 71.26), and V be the partial isometry part of
QT P . The image of V ˚ V is at most the one of QT P which is smaller (or equal) to the image of Q,
so V ˚ V § Q. For the same reason, the image of V V ˚ is contained in P ˚ T ˚ Q˚ H “ P Y ˚ QH Ñ
ImagepP q. Then V V ˚ § P .
Proposition 71.28.
Let M be a factor and P , Q two nonzero projections in M , then there exists a nonzero partial
isometry V P M such that
(1) V ˚ V § P ,
(2) V V ˚ § Q
and either V ˚ V “ P , or V V ˚ “ Q or both.
Proof. Let X be the set of partial isometries V such that V ˚ V § P and V V ˚ § Q. We write
PV “ V ˚ V and QV “ V V ˚ . We define a partial ordering on X by V1 § V2 if PV1 § PV2 , QV1 § QV2
and V2 PV1 “ V1 . In that case, V2 is some kind of extension of V1 .
If one considers an increasing sequence V1 § V2 § . . ., the Zorn’s lemma assures the existence
of a V bigger than all the elements of the sequence. We claim that this V is the solution of the
71.8. MORE ABOUT PROJECTIONS 2777
proposition. Indeed, suppose V ˚ V ‰ P and V V ˚ ‰ Q. Then the operators P 1 “ P ´ V ˚ V and

Q1 “ Q ´ V V ˚ are nonzero projections. Now, lemma 71.27 provides a partial isometry which
contradicts maximality of V .
The dimension of the von Neumann algebra M is the set of equivalence class of projections
in M . This is a linearly ordered set.
Let M “ M pGq where G is a group with only infinite conjugacy classes (but the one of identity).
We saw that there is a trace · : M Ñ , and that @t P r0, 1s, there exists a projection whose trace
is t.
Proposition 71.29.
If T • 0 is an element of M such that · pT q “ 0, then T “ 0.
Proof. We know the injection M Ñ l2 pGq defined by T fiÑ fT “ T fe . Since the right translation
commutes with every T1 (because T1 pgfe q “ gpT1 fe q), we have T1 fg “ 0 for every g if T1 fe “ 0.
On the other hand,
· pT1˚ T1 q :“ xfe , T1˚ T1 fe y “ }T fe }2
which is positive. So if · pT1˚ T1 q “ 0, then T1 fe “ 0, and so T1 fg “ 0 which proves that T1 “ 0.
This concludes the proof that T • 0 and · pT q “ 0 imply T “ 0 because every positive element
reads as a product T1˚ T1 .
Now let define · 1 : dim M Ñ r0, 1s by

` ˘
· 1 rP s “ · pP q. (71.40)
It is well defined because if P „ Q, then we have a u such that P “ uu˚ and Q “ u˚ u, so that
· pP q “ · puu˚ q “ · pu˚ uq “ · pQq by cyclic invariance of the trace. The map · 1 preserves the order
because P ´ Q is positive when P • Q.
Proposition 71.30.
The map · 1 is a bijection
Proof. What we have to prove is that P „ Q if · pP q “ · pQq. Let V ˚ V “ P and V V ˚ § Q and

compute
· pQ ´ V V ˚ q “ · pQq ´ · pV V ˚ q “ · pQq ´ · pV ˚ V q “ · pQq ´ · pP q “ 0.
The fact that · pQ ´ V V ˚ q “ 0 implies Q ´ V V ˚ “ 0, which in turn proves that V implements the
equivalence P „ Q.
71.8.1 Comparison of projections

In this section we follow [503]. Let M be a von Neumann algebra and p, q, two projectors.
Equivalence of projectors is given by p „ q if there exists a partial isometry u P M such that
u˚ u “ p and uu˚ “ q. If p is equivalent to a subprojection of q, we write p † q.
Proposition 71.31.
If p “ ‘i pi and q “ ‘i qi are orthogonal sums of projectors with pi „ qi , then p „ qi . If moreover
pi † qi for every i, then p † q.
Proof. No proof.
Let T P BpH q. The closed spaces ImagepT q and ImagepT ˚ q are the left support and right
support of T .
Théorème 71.32.
Let T be an invertible operator, then it reads under the form
T “ |T |U
where U is unitary. This decomposition is the unique one of the form T “ SU with S positive and
U unitary.
?
Proof. Let T “ P U , then T T ˚ “ P U U ˚ P “ P 2 , then P “ T T ˚ and then U “ P ´1 T . That
proves unicity of the decomposition. For existence, we pose U “ pT T ˚ q´1{2 T and P “ pT T ˚ q1{2 .
Then we check
U U ˚ “ pT T ˚ q´1{2 T T ˚ pT T ˚ q´1{2 “ . (71.41)
Now, the operator U is the product of two invertible operators, so that it is invertible. Thus the
fact that U U ˚ “ forces U ˚ U “ .
When T is not invertible, we have a weaker result of decomposition.
Proposition 71.33.
Every T P BpM q can be written under the form
T “ |T |V
V : ImagepT ˚ q Ñ Imagep|T |q is a partial isometry whose final projection is the support of

where ?
|T | “ T T ˚ .
Proposition 71.34.
The left and right support of any operator in BpH q are equivalent projections.
Proof. Let T “ |T |V be the decomposition of T by proposition 71.33. By definition, e “ V ˚ V is

a projection and we have p1 ´ eqV ˚ V p1 ´ eq “ 0 as can be checked by developing the expression
and using e2 “ e. Since e “ e˚ , the latter equation rewrites
` ˘˚ ` ˘
V p1 ´ eq V p1 ´ eq “ 0,
so that V p1 ´ eq “ 0 and V e “ V (we used lemma 57.12). Now look at f “ V V ˚ , we have
f V “ V V ˚ V “ V e “ V,
so f is a projection such that f V “ V . We deduce that V : eH Ñ f H is an isometry. The

projectors e and f are the initial and final projections of V .
This proof is not finished.
Using lemma 57.61, we have in particular

` ˘K
ImagepT ˚ q “ pker T qK “ kerpT ˚ T q1{2 “ ImagepT ˚ T q1{2 . (71.42)
71.9 Type I factor and factorization

Lemme 71.35.
Let M be a von Neumann algebra and P P M , a projection. Then
pP M 1 P q1 “ P M P, (71.43)
and
pP M P q1 “ P M 1 P (71.44)
where we see P M P as an algebra of operators on P H Ñ H .
Let us give an intuitive argument with matrices

ˆ ˙before to give
ˆ a proof.
˙ For the first claim,
a b 1 0
consider M as the set of two by two matrices , and P “ . In that case, P M P “
c d 0 1
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
a 0 – 0 – 0
while M “ t
1 u with r–, as “ 0. Thus we have P M P “
1 .
0 0 0 — q 0
71.9. TYPE I FACTOR AND FACTORIZATION 2779
For the second claim, suppose Q P pP N P q1 . We are looking for a R P M 1 such that Q “ P RP .
Notice that Q itself does not belong to M 1 in general. Take for example
¨ ˛ ¨ ˛ ¨ ˛
‹ 0 ‹ 1 1
M “ ˝0 ‹ 0‚, P “ ˝ 1 ‚, Q“ ˝ 0 ‚.
‹ 0 ‹ 1 0
¨ ˛
a
we have M 1 “ ˝ b ‚, so that Q does not lie in M 1 , but
a
¨ ˛
1
Q“P˝ 0 ‚P
1
anyway. We see on that example that the matrix R to be chosen is bigger than Q.
Proof of lemma 71.35. Let Q P pP M P q1 and R be the projection onto the closure of M QH . The
latter space being invariant under M , the projection R belong to M 1 by lemma 71.8. We are
now going to prove that Q “ P RP . Since P “ P 2 commutes with R, the operator P RP is
the projection onto the intersection of the target spaces of R and P , because P RP “ P R “ RP .
Therefore Q is smaller than P , so that M QH “ M P QH . That proves that P RP is the projection
on
P M QH “ P M P QH “ QP M P H “ QP H “ QH
where we used the fact that Q P pP M P q1 . That concludes the proof that Q “ P RP .
Lemme 71.36.
If M is a factor and P , a nonzero projection in M , then the map
M 1 Ñ P M 1P
(71.45)
S fiÑ P SP
is a ˚-algebra isomorphism.
Proof. The fact that the map is multiplicative and surjective is clear. The only point to prove is
injectivity. So we will prove that S “ 0 under the assumption SP “ 0. We have 0 “ M SP “ SM P ,
so that S vanishes on M P H .
The latter subspace is obviously invariant under M , but also under M 1 because for every
S1 P M 1 , we have S1 M P H “ M P S1 H Ñ M P H . We conclude that the projection onto M P H
lies in M 1 X M . Hence that projection must be a multiple of the identity or zero. Since that
space contains at least P H , the zero possibility is ruled out. Thus the projection onto M P H is
the identity and M P H “ H . Now, SM P “ 0 implies S “ 0 which concludes the proof of the
lemma.
A projection P P M is a minimal projection P if if 0 † Q § P implies Q “ P . In other

words, the projection P is minimal if P M P “ P because the projection onto P M P is of course
smaller or equal to P . A minimal projection is always finite, indeed, a projection Q such that
Q „ P and Q § P (which exists when P is infinite) contradicts minimality of P .
Définition 71.37.
Let M be a factor. It is
— of type I if M contains a non vanishing minimal projection,
— of type II if M contains a non vanishing finite projection (and is not of type I)
— of type III if no projection in M is finite (but the vanishing one).
A type II factor is of type II1 if it is finite and of type II8 if it is not finite.
Let us now examine what are the type I factors. Suppose that M is a factor of type I and P P M
is a minimal projection. Then P “ P M P Ñ BpP H q, and formula (71.44) in lemma 71.35 makes
pP M P q1 “ P M 1 P “ BpP H q. Now the map of lemma 71.36 is an isomorphism, then
M 1 » BpP H q
as ˚-algebra. Thus M 1 is a factor. This factor is moreover of type I because BpP H q has minimal
projections, namely projections on one dimensional spaces.
If we repeat the same argument with M 1 instead of M , we obtain that
M » BpP 1 H q (71.46)
where P 1 is a minimal projection in M 1 .

What we proved is
Proposition 71.38.
If M is a factor of type I, there exists a separable Hilbert space H such that
M “ BpH q. (71.47)
When M “ BpH q is of type I says that M is of type In if dim H “ n where 1 § n § 8.
Proposition 71.39.
If M is of type In with 1 § n † 8, then M » np q and the unique trace is the ususal matrix
trace up to renormalization:
1ÿ
n
TrpT q “ Tii . (71.48)
n i“1
Proof. No proof.
In particular we have that the composition of the two minimal projection P P 1 “ P 1 P is a rank
one projection in BpH q. Now consider Q “ P P 1 and v be the unital vector in the target space of
Q, i.e. Qv “ v and }v} “ 1.
Proposition 71.40.
Let M be a factor of type I and P , a minimal projection. In the same way, let P 1 be a minimal
projection in M 1 . Let Q “ P P 1 and v P QH such that }v} “ 1. Then
M 1Q Ñ P H
(71.49)
SQ fiÑ Sv
is an isomorphism.
Proof. Since Q projects on the space spanned by v, the fact that S1 v “ S2 v implies S1 “ S2
and the injectivity is proved. For surjectivity, we know that, M being a factor of type I and P a
minimal projection, we have P “ P M P Ñ BpH q where the last equality has to be understood in
the sense of that T P P M P restricts to an operator on P H , and that this restrictions completely
defines T . But as operators on P H , we have pP M P q1 “ P M 1 P (lemma 71.35), while lemma 71.36
assures that the latter algebra is M 1 . Thus M 1 “ BpP H q and M 1 v “ P H .
Proposition 71.41.
In the same way, we have that
M Q Ñ P 1H
(71.50)
T Q fiÑ T v
is an isomorphism
Proof. No proof.
71.9. TYPE I FACTOR AND FACTORIZATION 2781
Proposition 71.42.
Let M be a factor S P M and T P M 1 , then if ST “ 0, then S “ 0 or T “ 0.
Proof. Let P be the projection on the right support of S, i.e. onto ImagepS ˚ q “ pker SqK . This
operator is equal to the limit 1
P “ lim pS ˚ Sq1{n .
nÑ8
So P is a strong limit, and then belongs to M . Since, by assumption, ST “ 0, we have S ˚ ST “ 0,

and then P T “ 0. Since M is a factor, it implies that P “ 0 or T “ 0.
Proposition 71.43.
Let M Ñ BpH q be a factor. Then the map
M b M 1 Ñ BpH q
(71.51)
S b T fiÑ ST
is an injective ˚-homomorphism. Its image is strongly dense in BpH q.
Proof. First, as M is a factor, we have
tST tel que S P M and T P M 1 u1 “ Id,
so that tST u2 “ BpH q, which proves that tST u is strongly dense in BpH q.
We have elements Si P M and Ti P M 1 (i “ 1, . . . , n) such that
n
ÿ
Si Ti “ 0, (71.52)
i“1
and we are going to prove that the set tSi u is not linearly independent, so that all the Si , or all
the Ti vanish. An element of M b M 1 can be decomposed under the form (71.52) in several ways.
Let Q be the projection on the closure of the space
(
pT T1 v, . . . T Tn vq P H ‘ . . . ‘ H tel que T P M 1 , v P H . (71.53)
This space is invariant under the algebra

¨ ˛
! T 0 )
1pnq ˚ .. ‹
‚ tel que T P M 1 , (71.54)
M “ ˝ .
0 T
´ ¯1
so that Q P M 1pnq . Since tT1 T v tel que v P H , T P M u “ tT1 T Sv tel que v P H , T P M, S P
M 1 u the space (71.53) is also invariant under
¨ ˛
! S 0 )
˚ .. ‹
‚ tel que S P M , (71.55)
˝ .
0 S
On the other hand, the operators which commute with all M 1pnq are element of n pM q, then
´ ¯1
Q P M 1pnq “ n pnq,
and for the same reason, the operators which commute with all (71.55) are elements of n pM
1 q,
so that
Q P n pM X M 1 q “ n p q.
1. To be proven.
consider now the operator ¨ ˛

S1 . . . S n
˚ 0 ... 0 ‹
˚ ‹
R“˚ . .. ‹ .
˝ .. . ‚
0 ... 0
We havea ¨ ˛ ¨ ˛ ¨ ˛
S1 . . . S n T T1 v S1 T T 1 v ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` S n T T n v
˚ 0 . . . 0 ‹ ˚ T T2 v ‹ ˚ 0 ‹
˚ ‹ ˚ ‹ ˚ ‹
˚ .. .. ‹ · ˚ .. ‹ “ ˚ .. ‹.
˝. . ‚ ˝ . ‚ ˝ . ‚
0 ... 0 T Tn v 0
The first component is
`ÿ ˘
T Si T i v
i
which vanishes by assumption, so that RQ “ 0. Let us write Q “ pqij Idq as element of n p q.

The relation RQ “ 0 says that
ÿn
Si qij “ 0 (71.56)
i“1
for every j. Since Q is a non vanishing projector, at least one of these relations is nontrivial. That
nontrivial relation shos that the Si ’s are vanishing. If not, we have Q “ 0, which means that
Ti “ 0.
71.9.1 Tensor product of von Neumann algebras

Let M1 Ñ BpH1 q and M2 Ñ BpH2 q be two von Neumann algebras. We define the tensor
product
M1 b̄M2 “ tS1 b S2 tel que Si P Mi u2 Ñ BpH1 b H2 q (71.57)
71.10 Dimensions
71.10.1 Finite and infinite projections
A projection in a factor is infinite if it is equivalent to a proper subprojection; it is finite is
it is not infinite. The notion of finite and infinite projections descents to the equivalence classes.
A factor is finite when the identity is finite.
Proposition 71.44.
If P and Q are projections with P § Q and Q is finite, then P is finite.
Proof. Assume that P is infinite, that is there exists a projection P 1 † P with P „ P 1 . So we

have P 1 † P § Q and there exists a v P H such that Qv “ v, P v “ v and P 1 v “ 0. Thus we have
Q “ P ` pQ ´ P q „ P 1 ` pQ ´ P q † Q,
the last inequality being assured by the vector v. What we proved is that Q is equivalent to a
subprojection of itself, which contradicts the fact that Q is finite.
Corollaire 71.45.
Let –, — P dim M . If – is finite and — infinite, then – § —.
If – “ rP s and — “ rQs with P Q “ 0, we define – ` — “ rP ` Qs. We denote by n– the sum
n– “ – ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` –,
looooomooooon (71.58)
n times
71.10. DIMENSIONS 2783
nP . If n– exists for every positive integer n, we write

8
™
8– “ n–.
n“1
Proposition 71.46.
The sum – ` — fulfils
(1) If – ` — exists, then it is independent of the representative P and Q in – and —,
(2) It is commutative and associative: – ` — “ — ` – and – ` p— ` “q “ p– ` —q ` “,
(3) zero is the neutral: – ` r0s “ –.
Proof. No proof.
Lemme 71.47.
If – and — are finite, then – ` — is finite when it exists.
Proof. No proof.
Lemme 71.48.
If – is finite and — is infinite, then
(1) 8– exists,
(2) 8– “ —.
In particular, all the infinite projections are equivalent each other.
Proof. Since — is infinite and – is finite, the projection — contains a subprojection equivalent to –.
What remains in — is still an infinite projection, and thus still contains a subprojection equivalent
to –. Let – “ rP s and — “ rQs. We have
`ÿ ˘
Q“ Pn ` R
n
where for each n, the projection Pn is equivalent to P , and R is a finite projection which does not
contain a subprojection equivalent to P . Thus P contains a subprojection equivalent to R.
Notice that — can only contain a countable number of copies of – because one only has a
countable number of basis vectors in a separable Hilbert space.
Let us consider the projection
ÿ
— 1 “ rQ ´ Rs “ r Pn s “ 8–. (71.59)
One can construct a partial isometry implementing an equivalence between — and — 1 using an
Hilbert hotel argument. Problèmes et choses à faire
This proof has to be finished.
Lemme 71.49.
If P is a projection and if V ˚ V “ P , then V vanishes on the target space of P K .
Proof. It is evident that V ˚ does not vanish on the range of V (apart on zero) because
xv, V ˚ V vy “ xV v, V vy ‰ 0.
Thus, in order V ˚ V to vanish on the range of P K , one requires V to vanish on ImagepP K q.
Lemme 71.50.
Let M be a finite factor, the every partial isometry V reads
V “ UP (71.60)
where U is unitary and P is a projection.

Proof. Consider the equivalent projections P “ V ˚ V and Q “ V V ˚ and their complement P K ,

QK . First, we remark that P K and QK are equivalent. Indeed, if they are not equivalent let say
that QK is equivalent to a subprojection of P K , in this case, the identity “ P ` P K “ Q ` QK
provides an equivalence between and a subprojection of , which is in contradiction with the
assumption that M is a finite factor.
Thus P K „ QK and wet set W ˚ W “ P K and W W ˚ “ QK and then U “ V ` W is the answer
because
pV ` W qP “ V P ` W P,
but P is the projection on the target space of V , so V P “ V and, by lemma 71.49, we have
W P “ 0.
Notice that the decomposition V “ U P is a special feature of the finite factor case. In the
general infinite case, we have for example the operator which shifts the basis vectors
¨ ˛
0 0 0 0 ...
˚1 0 0 0 . . .‹
˚ ‹
S “ ˚0 1 0 0 . . .‹
˚ ‹
˚0 0 1 0 . . .‹
˝ ‚
.. .. .. .. . .
. . . . .
It has S ˚ S “ while SS ˚ ‰ .
Proposition 71.51.
Every element T of a finite factor reads
T “ U |T | (71.61)
with U unitary.
Proof. One guess the form of U by the decomposition (71.61): U “ T pT ˚ T q´1{2 . One checks that
U ˚ U “ . Since we are in a finite factor, the unit cannot be equivalent to something else than
itself, so U U ˚ “ is forced, and U is thus unitary.
Proposition 71.52.
If N is a finite factor, then so is 2 pN q.
Proof. Let us suppose that we have a partial isometry V P 2 pN q such that V V ˚ “ 2 . We have
to prove that V ˚ V “ 2 ; if not, the identity would be equivalent to a subprojection. In other
words, we have to prove that V is invertible. It will be done by constructing an invertible operator
W such that V ˚ W ˆ is invertible.
˙ In that case, V ˚ is invertible and so is V .
a b
If we set V “ , with a, b, c, d P N , the relation V ˚ V “ 2 imposes among others
c d
relations
a˚ a ` c˚ c “ Id (71.62a)
b a`d c“0
˚ ˚
(71.62b)
Relation (71.62a) says a that |a|2 ` |c|2 “ 1, so that in the sense of the continuous functional
calculus, 2
‰ we have |a| “ 1 ´ |c| . We deduce that |a| is a limit of polynomials in 1 ´ |c| and that
2
“
|a|, |c| “ 0.
Since a and c belong to a finite factor, proposition 71.51 provide unitary elements u and v of
N such that a “ u|a| and c “ v|c|. Now we consider the unitary element
ˆ ˙ˆ ˙
u 0 |a| ´|c|
W “
0 v |c| |a|
Using relations (71.62), we find

ˆ ˙
1 á˚ u|c| ` c˚ v|a|
V ˚W “ ,
0 x
but a˚ u|c| “ |a|u˚ u|c| “ |a||c| “ |c||a|, so that the upper-right element is actually zero. We are
left with ˆ ˙
˚ 1 0
V W “
0 x
in which we want to prove that x is invertible. Using the fact that W is unitary, we have
pV ˚ W qpV ˚ W q˚ “ V ˚ V “ , then
ˆ ˙ˆ ˙ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
“ .
0 x 0 x˚ 0 xx˚ 0 1
Thus we have xx˚ “ in N , which in turn imposes x˚ u “ because N is a finite factor. We have
finished to prove that V ˚ W is invertible.
Lemme 71.53.
If P and Q are projections with P Q “ 0, then P is equivalent to a subprojection of Q, or Q is
equivalent to a subprojection of P .
Proof. No proof.
Proposition 71.54.
If R is not a minimal projection, then there exist subprojections S, T of R such that S „ T and
S K T.
Proof. Since R is not minimal, we have a non vanishing projection S † R. Let consider S1 “ R´S.
One checks that SS1 “ 0. Now S or S1 is equivalent to a subprojection of the other. Let
S „ T § S1 . Now, we have S „ T and ST “ 0 which means S K T .
Let P and Q be two projection in M such that P Q “ 0. In 2 pM q, we have

ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
P `Q 0 P 0
„
0 0 0 R
where R is a subprojection of P which is equivalent to Q. Define the partial isometry V by

V ˚ V “ Q and V V ˚ “ R. We have
ˆ ˙ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
P V˚ P 0 P `Q 0
“ ,
0 0 V 0 0 0
and ˆ ˙ˆ ˚ ˙ ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
P 0 P V˚ P PV ˚ P 0
“ “
V 0 0 0 V P˚ R 0 R
ˆ ˙
P 0
because ImagepV q “ ImagepQq implies P V “ V P “ V P “ 0. Now,
˚ ˚ ˚ is a subprojection
0 0
ˆ ˙
P 0
of because R is a subprojection of P . Thus we have
0 P
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
P `Q 0 P 0 P 0
„ § “ finite. (71.63)
0 0 0 E 0 P
So we deduce that P ` Q is finite. ö

A factor is semifinite if there are projectionsöP– such that P– “ Id. Notice that if
tP1 , . . . , Pn u is a finite set of finite projections, then Pi is a finite projection. A factor is purely
infinite if 0 is the only finite projection.
Proposition 71.55.
If P ∞is any finite projection, one can find a sequence of equivalent projections tPi u such that
“ Pi .
Proof. No proof.
A consequence of that proposition is that any factor is semifinite or purely infinite, while a
finite factor is always semifinite.
Remarque 71.56.
A factor of type I is semifinite because a minimal projection is finite. Indeed, when P is infinite,
the projection Q such that Q „ P and Q § P contradicts minimality of P .
Proposition 71.57.
A factor is semifinite if and only if it reads pfiniteqb̄ptype Iq.
Proof. If a factor reads pfiniteqb̄ptype Iq, the type I part is a BpH q in which one can take as
approximation of the identity the sequence of projections Pi given by
#
ej if j § i
Pi ej “ (71.64)
0 otherwise
where tei u is an orthonormal basis of H .

Now if M is semifinite, let Pi be a sequence of finite projections with Pi Pj “ 0 and Pi „ Pj
such that V Pi “ Id. Then we have H “ ‘i Pi H , but each of the Pi is equivalent to P1 H , so that
H “ ‘i Pi H “ ‘P1 H “ P1 H b l2 p q.
Under that isomorphism, an operator T P M acts on P1 H by P1 T P1 , so that
` ˘
M “ P1 M P1 b̄B l2 p q . (71.65)
Thus, in order to understand the semifinite factors, it is sufficient to understand the finite
factors.
71.10.2 Finite factor

Lemme 71.58.
Every factor without minimal projection contains a projection P such that P „ P K .
Proof. Consider the set Z of triples pP, Q, V q with

— P and Q are projections,
— P K Q,
— V is a partial isometry such that V ˚ V “ P and V V ˚ “ Q.
The set Z is endowed with a partial order given by pP1 , Q1 , V1 q § pP2 , Q2 , V2 q when P1 § P2 ,
Q1 § Q2 and V2 P1 “ V1 . The Zorn’s lemma provides a maximal element that we denote by
pP, Q, V q. Let us suppose that P ` Q † (strictly). Then we write R “ ´ P ´ Q and by
proposition 71.54 we have subprojection S and T of R such that S „ T and S K T .
We put W ˚ W “ S and W W ˚ “ T , then pP ` S, Q ` T, V ` W q contradicts maximality of
pP, Q, V q, and P ` Q “ Id with P K Q and P „ Q.
Lemme 71.59.
Let M be a finite factor. If P „ P K and Q „ QK , then P „ Q.
This lemma means that there is only one way tu cut H in two equal subspaces.
Proof. Let us suppose that P is not equivalent to Q, thus it is equivalent to a subprojection of Q.

What is the exact statement which says that a projection is equivalent to a subprojection of the other, or the contrary?
Since P „ sub Q, we have P K „ sub QK and P ` P K „ subpQ ` QK q. That means that Id

is equivalent to a subprojection of itself, which is impossible because of the assumption of finite
factor. We deduce that P „ Q.
71.10.3 Rational and real dimensions

We consider a factor of finite type M without minimal projection. Lemma 71.58 ensures the
existence of a projection P such that P „ P K while lemma 71.59 says that every such projection
lie in the class rP s. We define 12 P dim M by
1
“ rP s P dim M (71.66)
2
1 1
where P „ P K . Now we look at the algebra P M P , which posses its own 2 that is called 4 in M .
So we set the definition
1
“ rQs P dim M (71.67)
4
3
where Q § P and Q „ P ´ Q. Notice that P ´ Q “ QK in P H . In the same way, we define 4 by
3
“ rP ` Rs P dim M (71.68)
4
with R § RK and R „ P K ´ R. Continuing the process, we can define

r
for r P t0, . . . , 2n u,
2n
and we define · : dim M Ñ r0, 1s by
!r r )
· pP q “ sup tel que § rP s P r0, 1s. (71.69)
2n 2n
Théorème 71.60.
The map · : dim M Ñ r0, 1s is a bijection for every finite factor without minimal projection.
Proof. No proof.
71.10.4 Summary
When M is a finite factor, it has two possibilities: it contains or not a minimal projection.
71.10.4.1 Finite factor with minimal projection

We saw at page 2780, and more precisely on equation (71.46) that if P 1 is the minimal projection
of M 1 , then M » BpH q, so that the possible dimensions are
dim M “ t0, 1, . . . , N u (71.70)
where N can eventually take the value 8, as shows the example M “ Id.
71.10.4.2 Finite factor without minimal projection

In the case of finite factor without minimal projection, we saw by theorem 71.60 that
dim M “ r0, 1s. (71.71)

71.10.4.3 Semifinite factor
If the factor is not finite, there are two possibilities: it is semifinite or purely infinite. In the
semifinite case
71.10.5 Purely infinite factor

One still has to see what are the dimensions for a purely infinite factor.
Lemme 71.61.
Let P be an infinite projection in a factor and P “ R ‘ S (orthogonal sum) with R „ P and S ‰ 0.
Then rP s “ 8rSs.
Proof. Let R „ P and P “ R ` S with S ‰ 0. Since R „ P , we can decompose R in the same

way as P is decomposed, namely
R “ R 1 ` S1
with R1 „ R „ P and S1 „ S. Explicitly, if V ˚ V “ P and V V ˚ “ R, we put R1 “ V RV ˚ and

S1 “ V SV ˚ . Proceeding, we decompose R1 “ R2 ` S2 , R2 “ R3 ` S3 , and so on. Since R K S, we
have S1 K R1 , and S2 being a subprojection of R1 which is orthonormal to S1 , we have S1 K S2 .
What we get is finally is a set S “ tS, Si uiP of projections two by two orthogonal and
equivalent. Let Z be the set of sets of projections two by two orthogonal and equivalent which
contains S. This is the set of extensions of S. The Zorn’s lemma provides a maximal element in
Z that we name Q “ tQn u. By very definition, S Ñ Q.
∞ ∞
We
∞ want to prove that n Qn “ P , so that P § 8rSs because 8rSs § n Qn . Let E “
P ´ n Qn . By maximality, it does∞not contain∞ a subprojection equivalent to S, so we have E ® S.
We are going to prove that E ` n Qn „ Qn . The argument is once again an Hilbert hotel
construction.
Let Qi “ Ai ` Ei with Ai „ Aj and Ei „ E. That decomposition is nothing else that the fact
that E is equivalent to a subprojection of Qi . Now consider the following equivalences:
E „ E1
A1 „ A1
E1 „ E2
A2 „ A2
E2 „ E3
..
.
∞ ∞
On the left
∞hand side
∞ we have E ` n Qn∞while on the right hand side we have n Qn . Thus we
have E ` n Qn „ n Qn and then P „ n Qn .
Corollaire 71.62.
If M is a purely infinite factor, then dim M “ t0, 8u
Proof. In a purely infinite factor, zero is the only finite projection, thus any projection reads
P “ R ` S with P „ R and S ‰ 0. The aim is to prove that rP s “ Id, in such a way that there
exists only one infinite.
We have Id “ Q ` S for a certain Q „ Id. The S here can be chosen the same as the S of
P . Indeed Id “ P K ` P “ P K ` R ` S. Using the equivalences P K „ P K and P „ R, we see
that Id “ P K ` P „ P K ` R, so that Id “ Q ` S with Q “ P K ` R. Using lemma 71.61, we
have rP s “ 8rSs, and then using the lemma again on rP s, we get rP s “ 8rSs, which proves that
rP s “ rIds.
71.11. TRACIAL FUNCTIONAL 2789
71.11 Tracial functional

References: [555, 569]. This section is related to section 69.18 about trace on C ˚ -algebra.
A linear functional · : M Ñ is
a state when · pA˚ Aq • 0 and · p1q “ 1;
tracial when · pA˚ Aq “ · pAA˚ q;
faithful when · pA˚ Aq “ 0 if and only if A “ 0;
∞
normal
∞ when if A “ n An exists for a sequence tAn u of positive operators, then · pAq “
n · pAn q;
semifinite if for every non zero A P M ` majorizes some non zero B • 0 with · pBq † 8.
Lemme 71.63.
A linear tracial functional on a von Neumann algebra is a trace.
Proof. Let U be unitary, using the tracial property we find · pU ˚ A˚ AU q “ · pAA˚ q, so that
· pU ˚ BU q “ · pBq (71.72)
for every positive B. Since any element of M reads as composition of four positive, the relation
(71.72) holds in fact for every B in M . Since every element C P M can be written as C “ U ˚ B,
we have
· pCU q “ · pU ˚ BU q “ · pBq “ · pU Cq,
and we have · pCU q “ · pU Cq for every C and U unitary. Now, every element is a combination of
four unitary, so that · pCDq “ · pDCq for every C and D, which means that · is a trace.
Notice that the existence of a faithful normal trace on M implies that M is finite because if
V ˚ V “ 1,
· p1 ´ V V ˚ q “ 1 ´ · pV V ˚ q “ 1 ´ · pV ˚ V q “ 1 ´ · p1q “ 0,
which, from faithfulness, implies that V V ˚ “ 1.
Let ‘ ° 0, an ‘-trace is a normal state Ï : M Ñ such that
ÏpA˚ Aq § p1 ` ‘qÏpAA˚ q. (71.73)
Lemme 71.64.
A normal state on a finite factor is an ‘-state if and only if P „ Q implies ÏpP q § p1 ` ‘qÏpQq.
Proof. No proof.
Lemme 71.65.
If Ï is an ‘-trace, then we have
1 dimpP q
ÏpP q § § p1 ` ‘qÏpP q (71.74)
p1 ` ‘q dimp q
for every projection P .
Proof. Let us first suppose that

dimpP q “ dimp q{n, (71.75)
and decompose “ P1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` Pn with Pi Pj “ 0 (i ‰ j) and Pi „ Pj for every i. So we have
Vi˚ Vi “ P and Vi Vi˚ “ Pi . In that case
nÏpP q “ ÏpV1˚ V1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` Vn˚ Vn q § p1 ` ‘qÏpV1 V1˚ ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` Vn Vn˚ q

(71.76)
“ p1 ` ‘qÏp1q “ 1 ` ‘,
thus
1`‘ dimpP q
ÏpP q § “ p1 ` ‘q . (71.77)
n dimp q
The other sense is obtained by the same computation:
1 “ ÏpV1 V1˚ ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` Vn Vn˚ q § p1 ` ‘qÏpV1˚ V1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` Vn˚ Vn q “ p1 ` ‘qnÏpP q.
The lemma is now proved with the assumption (71.75). If that assumption
∞ does not hold, we can
build projections Pi with Pi Pj “ 0, dimpPi q “ dimp q{ni and P “ i Pi . Then we can use the
fact that Ï is normal and carry on the same computation as before.
Corollaire 71.66.
If Ï1 is an ‘1 -trace and Ï2 is an ‘2 -trace, then
}Ï1 ´ Ï2 } Ñ 0
when ‘1 , ‘2 Ñ 0.
Proof. No proof.
The interest of this lemma resides in the fact that if Ïk is an ‘k -trace with ‘k Ñ 0, we have a
Cauchy sequence, so that limkÑ8 Ïk is an actual trace. We are thus not obliged to build traces,
but ‘-trace are sufficient.
Lemme 71.67.
Let Ï be a faithful normal state. If ‘ ° 0, there exists a non vanishing projection P P M such that
ÏpA˚ Aq § p1 ` ‘qÏpAA˚ q
if A P P M P . In other words, Ï is an ‘-trace on P M P .

∞ ∞
Proof. Let Q “ – Q– and Q1 “ – Q1– where tpQ– , Q1– qu is a maximal set of projections pairs
such that
(1) Q– K Q— and Q1– K Q1— if – ‰ —,
(2) Q– „ Q1– ,
(3) ÏpQ– q † ÏpQ1– q.
From normality of Ï, the third condition implies that ÏpQq “ ÏpQ1 q. Since Q ‰ , we have
ÏpQ1 q § 1 and thus
ÏpQq † ÏpQ1 q § 1.
Let us now choose a pair pR, R1 q such that R K Q, R1 K Q1 and R „ R1 . By maximality, that pair
cannot fulfil the third condition of tQ– , Q1– u:
ÏpRq • ÏpR1 q.
Now we consider the number
m “ mintk tel que kÏpRq • ÏpR1 q for every pR, R1 qu. (71.78)
We just saw that 1 belongs to the set, so m § 1. Let us suppose that m “ 0. One typical projection
orthogonal to R is ´ R, but Ïp ´ Rq ‰ 0 because Ï is faithful and ´ R ‰ . So we conclude
that m cannot be zero and
m Ps0, 1s.
Now, take ‘ ° 0 and choose a pair pR, R1 q which fulfils the two conditions and such that
mÏpRq † p1 ` ‘qÏpR1 q. (71.79)
Existence of such a pair is ensured by

∞ minimality 1of m.∞ 1
We build the projections S “ – S– and S “ – S– where tS– , S–1 u is maximal for the
properties
71.11. TRACIAL FUNCTIONAL 2791
(1) S– § R and S–1 § R1 ,

(2) S– K S— , S–1 K S—1 if – ‰ —,
(3) S– „ S–1 ,
(4) mÏpS– q • p1 ` ‘qÏpS–1 q.
Using normality, the last condition sums to
mÏpSq • p1 ` ‘qÏpS 1 q. (71.80)
We also have S „ S 1 and S ‰ R. Indeed, suppose that S “ R. Then S „ R, but S „ S 1 , so

R „ R1 . Since S–1 § R for every –, we have S 1 § R1 . We conclude that S 1 “ R1 because M is a
finite factor: in this case, S 1 § R1 and S 1 „ R1 imply S 1 “ R1 . Now the fourth condition over S–
becomes mÏpRq • p1 ` ‘qÏpR1 q which contradicts the condition (71.79) that we made on the pair
pR, R1 q. Thus we conclude that S ‰ R.
Let take P “ R ´ S and choose projections E and E 1 such that E § P , E 1 § P 1 with E „ E 1 .
In this case we have
mÏpEq † p1 ` ‘qÏpE 1 q,
if not pE, E 1 q contradicts maximality of tS– , S–1 u. On the other hand, minimality of m provides
mÏpEq • ÏpE 1 q, so that we are left with
ÏpE 1 q § mÏpEq † p1 ` ‘qÏpE 1 q, (71.81)
which shows that Ï is an ‘-trace and that P 1 is the answer to the lemma.
An example of faithful normal state is

ÿ
ÏpT q “ 2ń xvn , T vn y (71.82)
n
where tvi u is an orthonormal basis of H .
Proposition 71.68.
There is an ‘-trace on M .
Proof. We just saw that normal states do exist, so we apply lemma 71.67 and we find a projection
P for which we suppose dimpP q “ 1{n, and we choose P1 , . . . Pn such that Pi Pj “ 0 (i ‰ j) and
Pi „ P . We define the partial isometries Vi by
Vi˚ Vi “ P, Vi Vi˚ “ Pi .
Now we define ÿ
ÂpAq “ ÏpVi˚ AVi q
i
where Ï is the normal faithful state on P M P . Thus we have
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ
ÂpAq “ ÏpVi˚ AVi q “ ÂpVi˚ AVi q “ ÂpAVi Vi˚ q “ ÂpAPi q,
and we find
ÿ
ÂpA˚ Aq “ ÏpVi˚ A˚ AVi q
i
ÿ
˚ ˚ ˚
“ ÏpV i A Vj V
looomooon j AVi q
loomoon
ij
PP M P PP M P (71.83)
ÿ
§ p1 ` ‘q ÏpVj AVi Vi˚ A˚ Vj q
˚
ij
§ p1 ` ‘qÂpAA˚ q,
which means that Â is a trace.
Proposition 71.69.
Every finite factor accepts an unique faithful, normal and tracial state. Moreover, if P and Q are
projections and · is the trace, then
P „ Q ô · pP q “ · pQq. (71.84)
Proposition 71.70.
If M is a factor of type II1 , then
t· pP q tel que P P PpM qu “ r0, 1s. (71.85)
where · is the trace given by proposition 71.69.
Proof. No proof.
71.12 Modules over von Neumann algebras

Let X be a topological space and denote by fi the group fi1 pXq. We denote by X̃ the universal
covering of X, and the group fi acts on X̃ by the monodromy action defined in subsection 48.8.2.
We denote by Cp pXq the space of p-chains over X and Cp pX̃q the one of X̃ from which we build
the complexes
b / Cp pXq b / Cp´1 pXq b
... / ...
and
b / Cp pX̃q b / Cp´1 pX̃q b
... / ...
with b ˝ b “ 0. The chain space Cp pX̃q is not only a group, but a module over rfis.
We are now going to look at the tensor product von Neumann algebra
Mp pX̃q “ M pfiq b rfis Cp pX̃q. (71.86)
In the right hand side, M pfiq is the` von Neumann
˘ algebra described in subsection 71.7.5, which is
generated by the operators Ug P B l2 pfiq defined by Ug pÏqpgq “ Ïph´1 gq, and the tensor product
is the one defined in equation (52.12).
We can then look at the complex of M pfiq-modules
b/ b b / Mp´1 pX̃q b
... Mp`1 pX̃q / Mp pX̃q / ...
and look at the corresponding Betty numbers which are integers numbers associated with any
topological space.
71.12.1 Modular conjugation and factor of type II1

The results presented here partially come from [503], section 9 and [570], proposition 2.2.6.
A module over a von Neumann algebra M is an Hilbert space 2 E for which there exists a
` ˘˚
weakly continuous map fir : M Ñ BpEq such that fir pT q “ fir pT q and fir pST q “ fir pSqfir pT q. If
E and F are two modules over M , a map a : E Ñ F is linear if
apS›q “ Sap›q (71.87)
for every S P M and › P E. We denote by 3 LM pE, Fq the set of M -linear maps from E to F.
When E “ F, we write LM pEq. By definition of linearity, we have LM pEq “ fipM q1 . The same
notion exists for linearity at right, and in the general case, we denote by LM,N pE, Fq, the set of
M -left-linear and N -right-linear maps from E to F.
We say that the modules E and F are isomorphic if there exists an unitary M -linear map
between them.
When M is a type II1 factor, we denote H1 “ L2 pM q and H8 “ H1 b l2 .
2. Hilbert space are generally denoted by H , while modules are denoted by E or F . Here, the notation will
depend on what aspect we are focusing on.
3. This is what [570] denote by M LpH q
71.12. MODULES OVER VON NEUMANN ALGEBRAS 2793
Proposition 71.71.
Let M be a type II1 -factor and E be a separable M -module. There exists a projection P P 8 pM q
such that E » H8 P . All such projections are Murray-von Neumann equivalent.
Proof. No proof, explanations can be found in [570], theorem 2.2.2.
When E is a separable M -module (M is a type II1 factor), we define
dimM E “ Tr p (71.88)
` ˘ ` 2 2
˘
where p P P 8 pM q is the projection such that L pM q b l p » E and whose existence is given
by proposition 71.71.
Let M be a factor of type II1 with the unique trace · given by proposition 71.69. We denote
by L2 pM, · q the Hilbert space of its GNS representation, and fi· the representation. Since · is
unique, we will simply denote them by L2 pM q and fi. We denote by P L2 pM q a cyclic vector. If
fipT q “ 0, we have
· pT ˚ T q “ }fipT q }2 “ 0,
so`that T ˘ “ 0 and the representation
` ˘is faithful. We can thus identify T P M with fipT q P
B L2 pM q and we have M Ä B L2 pM q . The basics properties of the GNS construction say also
that M “ L2 pM q and · pT q “ xT , y for every T in M .
If T “ 0, then 0 “ }T }2 “ · pT ˚ T q, so that T “ 0. That means that is separating for M .
Lemme 71.72.
If M Ñ BpH q is a von Neumann algebra, a vector in H is cyclic for M if and only if it is
separating for M 1 .
Proof. A proof is given in [570].
Now, for every › P L2 pM q, we define the operators fil and fir by
fil p›qpT 1 q “ T 1 › (71.89a)
fir p›qpT q “ T › (71.89b)
` ˘ ` ˘
for T 1 P M 1 and T P M . The domains are dom fil p›q “ M 1 and dom fir p›q “ M . These
operations are well defined because is cyclic and separating for M and M 1 .
If fil p›q extends to a bounded operator on L2 pM q, one says that › is left bounded., and the
(necessarily unique) extension is still denoted by fil p›q. We do the same for fir . Let now the map
J: M ÑM
(71.90)
T fiÑ T ˚ ,
this is a conjugate linear isometry, so that it extends to an anti-unitary involution.
J : L2 pM q Ñ L2 pM q (71.91)
That map J is the modular conjugation operator for the factor M of type II1 .
The algebra JM J acts on L2 pM q as well as on L2 pJM Jq. If › P L2 pM q, the action is
pJSJq› “ ›S ˚ . (71.92)
That one is inspired by the fact that JSJT “ JpST ˚ q “ T S ˚ . Since J 2 “ 1, the action of JM J
on L2 pJM Jq is given by
pJSJqpJT Jq “ JpST qJ. (71.93)
Let M be a type II1 factor. We denote H1 pM q “ L2 pM q, or simply by H1 when no confusion
is possible, and H8 “ L2 pM q b l2 . The algebra M acts on H1 by
fi1 pSq› “ S›, (71.94)

and M acts on H8 by
fi8 pSq “ fi1 psq b Idl2 . (71.95)
We also note 8 pM q “ M b Bpl2 q, that has to be understood as infinite matrices with elements
in M . It is a type II8 factor, and the trace is a follows. If p P 8 pM q “ ppij q, then
8
ÿ
Trppq “ TrM ppii q. (71.96)
i“1
With that formula, when q P Ppl2 q has rank 1, then Trp1m b qq “ 1. Let q P n pM q and consider
the element of 8 pM q given by the following:
ˆ ˙
q 0
. (71.97)
0 0
∞ ∞
It’s trace, in 8 pM q, is ni“1 Trpqii q, but the trace of q in n pM q is n1 ni´1 Trpqii q. The normal-
ization is not the same in n pM q and in 8 pM q.
We denote by e11 , the element of n pM q given by
ˆ ˙
1
e11 “ . (71.98)
0
´ ` ˘¯
We have Trpe11 q “ 1{n, and fie pe11 q P P fir n pM q .
Lemme `71.73. ˘ ` ˘
The LM L2 pM q -modules LM L2 pM q and L2 pM q are isomorphic.
` ˘
Proof. The result comes from the fact that an element of LM L2 pM q is uniquely defined by its
value at 1 P M .
As a consequence of that lemma, we have
dim ` ˘ L2 pM q “ 1, (71.99)
LM L2 pM q
because ´ ` ˘ ¯
LM L2 pM q b l2 p “ L2 pM q (71.100)
when p “ Id be11 , whose trace is 4 1.
Lemme 71.74.
We have the isomorphism
L2 pJM Jq » L2 pM q (71.101)
as JM J-module.
Proof. Let us prove that the map which extend the following is an isomorphism:
Â : L2 pJM Jq Ñ L2 pM q
(71.102)
JSJ fiÑ S ˚
So we have to prove that for every a P JM J and › P L2 pJM Jq, we have Âpa›q “ aÂp›q. Using
the actions (71.92) and (71.93), if a “ JSJ and › “ JT J, we find
Âpa›q “ ÂpJSJJT Jq “ ÂpJST Jq “ T ˚ S ˚ , (71.103)
while
aÂp›q “ pJSJqÂpJT Jq “ pJSJqT ˚ “ T ˚ S ˚ . (71.104)
That prove that L2 pM q » L2 pJM Jq as JM J-modules.
4. it is not 1{n or anything like that because of the remark we did bellow the definition (71.96).
Lemme 71.75.
We have ` ˘
LM L2 pM q “ LM,fir pe11 q pEn q (71.105)
where En “ L2 pM q ‘ ¨ ¨ ¨ ‘ L2 pM q (n terms).
Proof. An element in the right hand side of (71.105) is a right-linear map with respect to fir pe11 q,
i.e. a map f : E Ñ E, ` ˘
f p›1 , . . . , ›n qfir pe11 q “ f p›1 , . . . , ›n qfir pe11 q. (71.106)
Since the left hand side only depends on ›1 , the right hand side shows that f p›1 , ¨ ¨ ¨ , ›n q only
depends on ›1 . Now, the right hand side takes its values in L2 pM q, so that the left hand side
shows that f takes its values in L2 pM q.
The following is the proposition 2.2.6 in [570].
Proposition 71.76.
Let H be a separable Hilbert space and M Ñ BpH q, a factor of type II1 . We have
(1) for every d P r0, 1s, there exists a M -module Ed such that dimM Ed “ d.
(2) There exists an unique d P r0, 8s such that H » Ed as M -module.
(3) The algebra M 1 is a factor of type II1 if and only if dimM H † 8.
(4) dimM L2 pM q “ 1.
(5) If tFn unP is a set of separable M -modules, then
` ˘ ÿ
dimM ‘n Fn “ dimM Fn . (71.107)
M
(6) If dimM H † 8 and if P 1 P PpM 1 q, then

` ˘´1
dimP M P pP H q “ TrM pP q dimM H . (71.108)
(7) If P is a projection in M , then

` ˘´1
dimP M P pP H q “ TrM pP q dimM H . (71.109)
(8) We have
dimM 1 H “ pdimM H q´1 (71.110)
if M 1 is a factor of type II1
Proof. For (1), let begin with d “ n P , and define

2
En “ L pM q ‘ . . . ‘ L2 pM q
looooooooooooomooooooooooooon (71.111)
n factors
` ˘
which can be seen as an element of 1ˆn L2 pM q . This is a M - n pM q-bimodule, ` for the˘ matrix
multiplication. What we
` 2 have is˘ to compute dim M H n “ Tr p where p P P 8 pM q is the
2
projection such that L pM q b l P “ Hn .
Intuitively, P is the projection onto the first `n component
˘ of the space of
` infinite
˘ vertical
matrices. Indeed, the picture is that Hn “ 1ˆn L2 pM q while H8 “ 1ˆ8 L2 pM q . We are
searching for p P Pp 8 pM qq such that
` 2 ˘
L pM q b l2 p “ L2 pM q ‘ . . . ‘ L2 pM q. (71.112)
The answer is p “ IdM b projn where projn stands for the projection onto the first n components.
Using formula (71.96), we conclude that dimM En “ n.
Let us now consider d P r0, 8r, and an integer

` n • ˘d. Since n pM q is a factor of type II1 ,
proposition 71.70 provides a projection q P P m pM q such that Tr n pM q pqq “ d{n. Now we
look at
Ed “ En q. (71.113)
` ˘
In order to compute dimM pEd q, we have to find r P P 8 pM q such that
` 2 ˘ ` ˘
L pM q b l2 r » L2 pM q ‘ . . . ‘ L2 pM q q. (71.114)
The answer is ˆ ˙
q 0
r“ (71.115)
0 0
whose trace is
8
ÿ n
ÿ
Tr 8 pM q
prq “ TrM prii q “ TrM pqii q “ n Tr n pM q
pqq, (71.116)
i“1 i“1
because of the discussion bellow the definition (71.96). This concludes the proof of (1).
We pass to the proof of (8). Since dimM H † 8, we know that H is a factor of type II1
by (3). We can thus suppose that H “ Ed for some d. One knows that M 1 “ JM J, so that
dimM 1 Ed “ dimJM J Ed . ` ˘
Let` us first work with d “` 1. In order to ˘ compute dimJM J L2 pM q , we are searching for
2 2 2
pPP 8 pJM Jqq such that L pJM Jq b l p » L pM q as JM J-modules. From lemma 71.74,
P “ e11 works.
Let us now study the case d “ n P .
Corollaire 71.77.
When M is a factor of type II1 , two M -modules are isomorphic if and only if they have same
dimension.
This is a direct consequence of point (2) in proposition 71.76.
71.12.2 Dimension
We are going to associate any M “ M pfiq-module with a dimension in r0,
` 1s such˘ that for every
projection P P M , the dimension of the submodule M pfiqP is equal to dim M pfiqP “ TrpP q. We
will in fact give a dimension to every module over a von Neumann algebra accepting a trace. For
that, we use theory developed in section 52.4.
Théorème 71.78.
If M is a finite von Neumann algebra and if E is a finitely generated module over M , and if F is
any submodule, then the quotient map E Ñ E{ ClE pF q splits and furthermore the quotient space
E{Ē is projective and finitely generated.
Has one to add the assumption that F is projective?
Proof. Later.
As consequence of the this theorem, F » Ē ‘ pfinite projective moduleq. In particular,
F » ClF p0q ‘ pfinitely generated projective moduleq (71.117)
Théorème 71.79.
Let M be a finite von Neumann algebra with a normal faithful tracial state Ï. There is an unique
function
dimÏ : tM u Ñ r0, 8s
such that
(1) F1 » F2 implies dimÏ F1 “ dimÏ F2 ,

(2) (normalisation) if F is a finitely generated projective module, then the value of dimÏ pF q
coincides with the definition (52.41),
∞ in particular when E » M n P is finitely generated and
projective, we have dim E “ i ÏpPii q,
(3) (continuity)
` if˘ E is any submodule on a finitely generated module F , then dimÏ pEq “
dimÏ ClF pEq 5 ,
(4) (cofinality) given an exact sequence
0 / F1 /F / F2 / 0,
then dimÏ pF q “ dimÏ pF1 q ` dimÏ pF2 q.
Proof. later.
Notice that, since P “ P ˚ P for every projection, we have dim E • 0.

We will prove the following
Proposition 71.80.
If E is a finitely generated projective module over M , we have
` ˘
DimpF q “ Dim ClE pF q (71.118)
if F is any submodule of E.
One has to check that is it actually proved somewhere in the next pages.
We will not often explicitly write the trace Ï and simply write dimpEq. However, we will some-
times precise the ring over which we consider the module and denote by dimM pEq the dimension
of E as module over M .
71.12.2.1 Examples
Let M be a von Neumann algebra with a normal faithful tracial state Ï, and let us give some
examples of modules over M .
First, M itself is a free module of dimension 1 6 over M . If P is a projection, then M P is a
projective module and dimÏ pM P q “ ÏpP q. The fact that M P is a projective module comes from
the direct sum decomposition M “ M P ‘ M p ´ P q and the third characterisation if projective
module in proposition 52.13. Notice that M is a free module over M because M “ M .
Proposition 71.81.
For every element T P M , the set M T is a projective M -module.
Proof. Let P be the projection onto ImagepT q, so that P “ limnÑ8 pT T ˚ q1{n as already seen. We
are going to prove that M T » M P as M -module. For we define : M T Ñ M P by pST q “ SP .
In order to see that this is a good definition, suppose S1 T “ S2 T , then pS1 ´ S2 qT “ 0. But we
have
ST “ 0 ñ S|ImagepT q “ 0 ñ S|ImagepT q “ 0 ñ S|ImagepP q “ 0, (71.119)
so that SP “ 0. It shows that is a well defined M -module isomorphism between M T and

MP.
5. From an analytic point of view, that condition is not usual, as can be seen on the example dim “ 0 while
dim “ 1.
6. In fact that dimension is Trp q which is usually normalised at 1, see definition (52.40) and bellow.
By polar decomposition, we have M T “ M |T |, so we can suppose T • 0 without loss of

generality. We have the exact sequence
0 / MT / MP / M P {M T / 0,
so that by property (4) of theorem 71.79, we have dimÏ pM T q “ dimÏ pM P q ` dimÏ pM P {M T q.

Since the modules M P and M T are isomorphic, that means that
dimÏ pM P {M T q “ 0.
As another example, take projections Pm with ÏpPm q “ 2´m , and let F be the infinite algebraic
direct sum M P1 ‘ M P2 ‘ . . .. By cofinality, it has at least the dimension of each of its submodule.
In other words, we have
dim F “ sup dimpM P1 ‘ . . . ‘ M Pn q “ 1.

n
Since we can embed F into M , we also get dimpM {F q “ 0.
71.12.2.2 Summary
We want to define, for each module, a dimension such that
— if E is a projective left module with E » M n P (see proposition 52.14) and P “ P 2 P
n pM q, ÿ
dimpEq “ ÏpPii q,
and does not depend on the choices.
— If E is not a finitely generated projective module, then
(
DimpEq “ sup dimpF q with F . (71.120)
71.13 Position of submodules

Proposition 71.82.
Let M be a von Neumann algebra (not specially with trace). Every finitely generated submodule of
a finite generated projective module is projective.
Proof. Passing to the matrix algebra (lemmas 52.18 and 52.19), one can assume that the module
and the submodule are in fact singly generated.
A singly generated module over M has the form E “ M T Ñ M for some element T P M .
We saw during the proof of proposition 71.81 that M T » M P where P is the projection onto
ImagepT q. The fact that M P is a projective module was already argued on page 2797.
Proposition 71.83.
If E is a finite projective module over M and F is a submodule of E, then E{ ClE pF q is projective.
Proof. Once again, using the matrix trick, one can suppose that E is singly generated by an element
e. A left module map Ï : E Ñ M such that ÏpF q “ 0 is determined by the value of Ïpeq P M .
` ˘
The element Ïpeq is an operator on H and we define PÏ as the projection onto Image Ïpeq .
Now we define the module map
Ï̃ : E Ñ M
(71.121)
Ï̃pT eq fiÑ T PÏ .
This is well defined. Indeed if Se “ 0, then ÏpSeq “ SÏpeq “ 0, which implies that SPÏ “ 0. For
the same reason, kerpÏq “ kerpÏ̃q. We define
™
Q“ PÏ , (71.122)
Ï
71.13. POSITION OF SUBMODULES 2799
and
Â: E Ñ M
(71.123)
ÂpT eq fiÑ T Q
which is well defined because T Q “ 0 if and only if T P Ï “ 0 for every Ï, since the operator T is
bounded 7 . Problèmes et choses à faire
The explanation in the footnote is unclear; it has to be expressed in terms of nets. By construction, kerpÂq “ ClE pF q, while
ImagepÂq “ M Q, so that
E{ kerpÂq » M Q, (71.124)
while the latter is projective.
Corollaire 71.84.
When E is a finite projective module and F a submodule, we have an isomorphism
E “ ClE pF q ‘ E{ ClE pF q
as direct sum of modules.
Proof. If › P E, the class of › in E{ ClE pF q is
r›s “ t› ` ÷ tel que ÷ P ClE pF qu. (71.125)
Let us choose a representative r›s0 in each of the classes 8 . The following is the module isomorphism
we are searching for
Â : E Ñ ClE pF q ‘ E{ ClE pF q
(71.126)
› fiÑ ÷ ‘ r›s0
where ÷ is the unique element of ClE pF q such that r›s0 ` ÷ “ ›.
When E is a finite projective module over M , we say that ClE p0q is the torsion submodule
of E.
Let us see an example. Let
E “ M {M T (71.127)
with T • 0 and ImagepT q “ H . We claim that the torsion submodule of E is E itself. A module
map Ï : E Ñ M is a module map M Ñ M composed with a projection, or in other words a module
map Ï : M Ñ M such that ÏpT q “ 0. Since Ï is a module map, its fulfils
ÏpSq “ ÏpS q “ SÏp q “ SX (71.128)
for a certain X P M such that T X “ 0. Thus we have ImagepXq Ä kerpT q, but since T • 0 (in
particular T is self-adjoint) and ImagepT q “ H , we have kerpT q “ 0, and we conclude that X “ 0,
so that Ï “ 0. The question is to know if E “ M {M T has a finitely generated submodule or not.
Let P be a projective submodule of M {M T ; by the lifting property (52.34) we have a map ⁄̃ such
that the following commutes
;M (71.129)
✏✏ ⁄
P / M {M T
where the arrow from P to M {M T is injective. The image of P by ⁄̃ is a submodule M X that

has to be injectively 9 projected in M {M T , so that M X X M T “ H. Notice that it is not possible
when H is finite dimensional because T is invertible (from the fact that the closure of its image
is the whole space), so that M T “ M .
7.öIf T is not bounded, it can get bigger and bigger on the range of Ïk when k goes to infinity, so that the limit
of T ÏP– is not zero when – gets bigger.
8. This uses the famous axiom; it would be possible to do otherwise, isn’t?
9. How to say the fact to be injective in English? Does the word injectively exist?
Now we suppose that X is positive. This is done without loss of generality because from polar
decomposition, for every X P M , there exists a positive Y such that M X “ M Y .
Since T is positive, we can consider the spectral theorem 57.59 and the isomorphism
` ˘
◊ : C ˚ pT, q Ñ C SpecpT q . (71.130)
We define the following function on SpecpT q

#
0 if x † ‘
f‘ “ 1 (71.131)
p◊T qpxq if x • ‘
and then one defines the operator S‘ “ ◊´1 pf‘ q P C ˚ pT, q. Let us prove that P‘ “ S‘T is a
projection. We have P‘2 “ S‘ T S‘ T . Take an orthonormal basis of H of eigenvectors of T and
let’s call ⁄i the eigenvalues: T ei “ ⁄i ei . If ⁄k † ‘, then S‘ ei “ 0 and of course S‘ T S‘ ei “ S‘ ei .
Otherwise, we have
1
S‘ T S‘ ei “ S‘ T ei “ S‘ ei . (71.132)
⁄i
That proves that P‘2 “ P‘ , and so that this is a projection. We obviously also have P‘ Ñ in M T .
Similarly one can define Q, the projection onto ImagepXq and we have projections Q‘ Ñ Q
with Q‘ “ Y‘ X for some Y ‘ P M and Q‘ P M X. Now take ‘1 and ‘2 and look at the projection
Q‘1 _ P‘2 (71.133)
onto ImagepQ‘1 q X ImagepP‘2 q. The latter intersection is in fact 0 because A‘1 _ P‘2 P M Q‘1 X
M P‘2 “ M X X M T “ 0. Using lemma 71.22, we get
dim • dimpQ‘1 _ P‘2 q “ dimpQ‘1 q ` dimpP‘2 q. (71.134)
Recall that the trace used to define the dimension has to be normal, so that the dimension function
is continuous in such a way that taking the limit ‘1 Ñ 0 and ‘2 Ñ 0 provides the expected result
dimp q • dimpQq ` dimp q, (71.135)
from which one deduce that dim Q “ 0 and therefore X “ 0. This finish the proof that the module
E “ M {M T with a positive T and ImagepT q “ H has no projective submodules.
Proposition 71.85.
If E is a finitely generated module over M , then the torsion submodule does not contains non zero
projective finite submodules.
Proof. Later.
Lemme 71.86.
If E is a finitely generated submodule of a finitely generated projective module E, then F is pro-
jective and F » ClE pF q.
Proof. We assume as usual that E and F are singly generated. The singly generated projective
module E reads E “ M P while the general form of a singly generated submodule is F “ M T
for a positive T which vanishes on P K H and ImagepT q Ñ ImagepP q. We already proved that
M T » M Q where Q is the projection over ImagepT q.
We have ClM P pM T q “ M Q because of the direct sum decomposition M P “ M Q ‘ M pP ´
Qq from which we can build an homomorphism M P Ñ M which vanishes on M T , namely the
projection because M T Ñ M Q. Problèmes et choses à faire
I do not understand one single word about the latter justification : p
Corollaire 71.87.
If F is a finitely generated submodule of a finitely generated projective module E, then dimpF q §
dimpEq.
71.13. POSITION OF SUBMODULES 2801
` ˘
Proof. By lemma 71.86, we have dimpF q » dim ClE pF q while we know that E “ ClE pF q ‘
E{ ClE pF q. The latter makes that dim E is given by the trace of two projections:
dim E “ Tr PClE pF q ` Tr PE{ ClE pF q . (71.136)
Corollaire 71.88.
If E is a finitely projective module over a von Neumann algebra with a trace, then dimpEq “
DimpEq.
Proof. By very definition, DimpEq • dimpEq because E itself belongs to the set on which the
supremum is taken in the definition (71.120) of Dim. The corollary 71.87 provides the opposite
inequality.
If E is projective finitely generated and if F Ñ E, then dim ClE pF q “ DimpF q.
Proof. The case where F is finitely generated is already done by lemma 71.86. For the general
case, suppose that the proposition does not hold. In this case, the lemma 71.86 yields
` ˘ ` ˘
suptdim ClE pHq tel que H is finite projective u † dim ClE pF q . (71.137)
On the one hand, by corollary 71.84, the module ClE pHq is a direct summand of ClE pF q which is
itself (by the same result) a direct summand of E. On the other hand, being a finitely generated
module, it reads E “ M n P for some projection P by proposition 52.14. Combining both, we have
a projection PH § P such that ClE pHq “ M n PH .
Now the finitely generated projective submodules of F form a directed system. For every
finitely generated projective submodules H1 and H2 of F , there exists at least H3 ö “ H1 ‘ H2
which contains H1 and H2 . Thus the set of PH is directed too and one can look at H PH , the
smalest projection whose range contains the range of all of the PH .
ö
We have H PH † P because if not, using normality of the trace,
`™ ˘
dim PH “ sup dimpPH q † P. (71.138)
H H
ö
Now let Q “ P ´ HPH . If F is some submodule of E, one has
§
F “ tH Ñ F tel que H is finitely generatedu
§ (71.139)
“ tH Ñ F tel que H is finitely generated and projectiveu
because `HöÑ F Ñ
˘ E which is finitely generated projective. Such a H has the form M PH , sp
n
F ÑM H PH . Notice that this F lies in the kernel of the non zero map
n
ClE pF q “ M n P Ñ M n Q
(71.140)
V fiÑ V Q.
ö `ö ˘ ö
Indeed,
ö since
` ˘ P , we have
öH PH † H PH P “ H PH , so that for every T P M we have
n
T H PH P ´ H PH “ 0. By looking at the complement of V Q, one has a nonzero homomor-

phism ClE pF q Ñ M which vanishes on F . That contradicts the definition of the closure.
The three point in this demonstration that use the von Neumann algebra background (and not
only general module theory) are the following.
— First we used normality of the traceö to commute the dimension with the supremum,
— and second, we used continuity of with respect to the dimension.
71.13.1 Summary
We have two dimension functions dim and Dim such that
(1) dim E “ Dim E whenever E is a finitely generated projective module,
(2) for every finitely generated module E and every submodule F , the module E{ ClE pF q is
finitely generated and projective, Problèmes et choses à faire
Check if one does not need the assumption that E is projective too.
` ˘
(3) If F Ñ E and if E is a finitely generated projective module, then DimpF q “ Dim ClE pF q .
From now we do no more use the “von Neumann algebra” assumption. Instead we suppose to have
a ring R and two dimensions functions satisfying these three properties.
71.13.2 Properties of the dimension function

Proposition 71.90.
If E is the union of a directed system of submodules E– , then DimpEq “ sup Dim E– .
Proof. A finitely generated projective submodule in E is generated by n elements, each of them

being contained in some E–1 , E–2 , . . . By definition of a directed set, the union of all the so defined
E–i is contained in a E— . Thus every finitely generated projective submodule in E is of the form
E— .
Lemme 71.91.
If one has a projective module map fl : H1 Ñ H2 , then DimpH1 q • DimpH2 q.
Proof. Let F be any projective module for which there exists an inclusion ÿ : F Ñ H2 . That map
can be lifted because F is projective. So among all the submodules of H1 , there is the one which is
the image of F be the lifted map. That one of course contains H2 itself. Thus H2 is a submodule
of H1 and the supremum defining the dimension in H1 is automatically bigger or equal to the one
defining the dimension of H2 .
Proposition 71.92.
If
p
0 / E0 / E1 / E2 /0 (71.141)
is a short exact sequence of modules, then dimpE1 q “ dimpE0 q ` dimpE2 q.
Proof. Using last proposition, we can assume that all of E0 , E1 and E2 are finitely generated.
Indeed when a module is not finitely generated, it is still the union of the directed system of all
its finitely generated submodules.
Let F be a finitely generated projective submodule of E2 , we have the exact sequence
0 / E0 / p´1 pF q /F / 0. (71.142)
The module F being projective, we have p´1 pF q » F ‘ E0 . We do not know if the dimension
function is additive with respect to direct
` ´1 sum,
˘ but by definition of a supremum, we have the
inequality DimpE0 q ` DimpF q § Dim p pF q , and the chain
` ˘
DimpE0 q ` DimpF q § Dim p´1 pF q § DimpE1 q (71.143)
which in turn provides the inequalities
DimpE0 q ` DimpE2 q § DimpE1 q. (71.144)
For the reverse inequality, let F be a finitely generated projective submodule of E1 , and consider
the following exact sequence of finitely generated projective module
0 / ClF pF X E0 q /F / F { ClF pF X E0 q /0 (71.145)

71.14. DECOMPOSITION OF OPERATORS AND REPRESENTATIONS 2803
The fact that F { ClF pF X E0 q is projective is proposition 71.83. Since F { ClF pF X E0 q is at most
a subset of F which is finitely generated, it has to be finitely generated too. We also know by
corollary 71.84 that F splits into
F » ClF pF X E0 q ‘ F { ClF pF X E0 q (71.146)
which is a direct sum of finitely generated projective module, so that we can use the definition of
dimension with traces (which sums up over direct sum) instead of the one with supremum. Thus
we have ` ˘ ` ˘
dimpEq “ dim ClF pF X E0 q ` dim F { ClF pF X E0 q . (71.147)
The `module F being
˘ projective and finitely generated, proposition 71.89 allows us to replace
dim ClF pF X E0 q by DimpF X E0 q and write
` ˘
dimpEq “ DimpF X E0 q ` Dim F { ClF pF X E0 q § DimpE0 q ` DimpF {pF X E0 qq (71.148)
where we also used lemma 71.91. Since F {pF XE0 q is a quotient of E2 , we have DimpF {pF XE0 qq §
DimpE2 q, and taking the supremum over all suitable F , we find the result
dimpE1 q § DimpE0 q ` DimpE2 q. (71.149)
If E is a finitely generated module and F Ñ E, then DimpF q “ Dim ClE pF q .
Proof. Hint: by the proposition, one can assume that E is actually projective.
That has to be completed.
71.14 Decomposition of operators and representations

71.14.1 Motivation
Let G be a compact topological group and consider the space L2 pGq (with respect to the Haar
measure), and M be the von Neumann algebra generated by the left regular representation
M “ tUg tel que g P Gu2 (71.150)
with pUg f qpf q “ gpg ´1 hq. Each Ug is an unitary operator in H. In this case, the commutant M 1
turns out to be the von Neumann algebra generated by the regular right representation.
The operator R given by
` ˘ f pxq
Rpf q pxq “ (71.151)
2
commutes with all the regular left representation, but is not part of the regular right representation. Do we impose unitarity conditions?
When ‡ : G Ñ EndpV q is a finite dimensional irreducible representation of the group G, the

character of ‡ is the function ‰‡ : G Ñ defined by the formula
` ˘
‰‡ pgq “ Tr ‡pgq . (71.152)
The representation ‡ thus defines the operator P‡ on H “ L2 pGq,

ª
dimp‡q
pP‡ qpf q “ ‰‡ pg ´1 qpUg f q dg. (71.153)
volpGq
Théorème 71.94 (Peter-Weyl).

The operator P‡ is a projection which belongs to M X M 1 and for which the following hold
(1) If ‡1 fi ‡2 , then P‡1 P‡2 “ 0,
∞
(2) in the strong topology, ‡ P‡ “ ,
(3) the algebra M X M 1 is generated by tP‡ u and each of the P‡ is minimal in the center,
(4) P‡ M P‡ is a factor on H‡ and we have pP‡ M P‡ q1 “ P‡ M 1 P‡ ,
(5) P‡ M P‡ is finite dimensional.
Notice that, because of point (1) and (2), if H‡ denotes the range of P‡ , then
à
H“ H‡ . (71.154)
‡
Proof. No proof.
71.14.2 Conventions and definitions

From now, all Hilbert space will be separable and measure spaces pX, µq will be as follows. The
topological space X will be an Hausdorff, secondly countable metrisable space and µ will be the
completion of a Borel measure which is finite on compact sets on X. By completion, we mean
that all subset of a null set are measurable of measure zero.
Now let X be a set. A field of Hilbert space over ó X is a set of Hilbert spaces Hx for each
x P X. A section of the field is a function V : C Ñ xPX Hx such that V pxq P Hx . We often
write Vx instead of V pxq. The set of sections is denoted by tHx u.
Let H be a (separable) Hilbert space. A direct integral decomposition of H is
— a measure space pX, µq,
— a field of Hilbert spaces over X,
— a function from H to the space of sections of the field that we denote by vx , the value at x
of the section associated with v P H
such that
(1) for every v and w in H, the function x fiÑ xvx , wx y is integrable and
ª
xvx , wx ydµpxq “ xv, wy, (71.155)
X
(2) if u is any section of the field such that x fiÑ xux , wx y is integrable for all w P H, then u is
almost everywhere equal to the section associated with a vector of H,
(3) the set of all decompositions of vectors in H is maximal.
I do not understand the precise signification if the maximality, cf problem 135.
Notice that the set of sections that are equal almost everywhere to sections obtained by de-
composition of vectors in H form a module over L8 pX, µq.
An technical fact that will be used in much of proofs is the following.
Lemme 71.95.
If tv1 , v2 , . . .u Ñ H has a dense span in H, then for almost every x P X, the set Spantv1x , v2x , . . .u
is dense in Hx .
71.14.3 Examples
71.14.3.1 First example
À Let Hx with x P X be a field of Hilbert space over a countable set X. Then define H “
xPX Hx . That Hilbert space decomposes by pX, µq with µ being the counting measure, and to
v P H corresponds a component vx in each Hx that are taken as the section associated to the
vector v.
71.14.3.2 Second example

Let pX, µq be the counting measure over the countable set X, and consider the Hilbert space
H “ L2 pX, µq. A decomposition of that Hilbert space is given as follows: first pose Hx “ for
each x P X. Then, for each vector v P H, we associate some choice of function f in the equivalence
class that defines v. Then we define the section associated with v is vx “ f pxq.
Let us check that this construction fulfils the axioms of a direct integral decomposition of
Hilbert space. First the function x fiÑ xvx , wx y has to be integrable. If f is the function associated
with v and g the one associated with w, we have xvx , wx y “ f pxqgpxq which is integrable by
Cauchy-Schwarz, and by the definition of the product in L2 , we have
ª
xv, wy “ f pxqgpxq dµpxq. (71.156)
X
Second, suppose that u is a section such that the map x fiÑ ux f pxq is integrable for every f
associated with a vector in H. The measured space pX, µq being countable, X is a union of finite
measure sets tXi u on each of them one can consider the characteristic function 1i . Then for every
i, the function x fiÑ ux 1i is measurable on Xi . That proves that u is measurable. We conclude that
it is square integrable and thus defines a function which is almost everywhere equal to the section
associated with a vector v P L2 pX, µq, namely the element of L2 pX, µq which is the class of u.
71.14.3.3 Third example

Let H “ L2 pX, µ1 q ‘ L2 pX, µ2 q and µ “ µ1 ` µ2 which is still a complete measure. By Radon-
Nikod˝m theorem 71.16, there exists positive measurable functions f1 and f2 such that µi “ fi µ.
We can decompose H as the direct integral
´ ¯
Hx “ l2 txu X tf1 ° 0u \ txu X tf2 ° 0u . (71.157)
Depending on the x, the set txu X tf1 ° 0u \ txu X tf2 ° 0u has zero, one or two elements. Now
if v “ pv1 , v2 q P H with v! “ rg1 s and v2 “ rg2 s, we define the section associated with v as
` ˘
vx “ f1 pxq1{2 g1 pxq, f2 pxq1{2 g2 pxq . (71.158)
As notation, if f1 pxq “ 0, we identify this with the element f2 pxq1{2 g2 pxq instead of with p0, f2 pxq1{2 g2 pxqq.
71.14.4 Decompositions of operators

Suppose that the separable Hilbert space H is provided with a decomposition over pX, µq. A
decomposition of the operator T P BpHq is a family of bounded operators Tx : Hx Ñ Hx such
that for every v P H, the condition
pT vqx “ Tx vx (71.159)
holds for almost every x P X.
Remarque 71.96.
The conditions 71.159 are in fact uncountably many conditions (one for each v P H) each of
them having the possibility to be wrong on a null set. One has thus to be prudent because an
uncountable union of null set might be a set of non zero measure.
Lemme 71.97.
The set of decomposable operators is a ˚-algebra.
Proof. If the operator T is decomposable, the rule pT ˚ qx “ pTx q˚ provides a decomposition of

T ˚.
Lemme 71.98.
Let T be a decomposable operator. We have T • 0 if and only if Tx • 0 almost everywhere.
Proof. In order to prove that T is positive, we have to evaluate xT v, vy from the decomposition of
T and v. We suppose that Tx • 0 for almost every X P X and we compute
ª ª
xT v, vy “ xpT vqx , vx ydµpxq “ xTx vx , vx ydµpxq • 0. (71.160)
X X
where we were allowed to change pT vqx by Tx vx because the equality holds almost everywhere.
For proving the contrary, let pick a dense, countable and rational vector subspace H0 Ñ H,
and assume that T • 0. If v P H and if E Ñ X is measurable, then by maximality of the Hilbert
space decomposition there is some vector vE P H such that
#
vx if x P E
pvE qx “ (71.161)
0 otherwise.

I do not see why to use the maximality. Indeed, one considers the section
#
vx if x P E
sx “ (71.162)
0 otherwise.
By definition of decomposition of v, the integral

ª
xvx , wx ydµpxq (71.163)
X
exists for every w P H. Now we have that

ª ª
xsx , wx ydµpxq “ xvx , wx ydµpxq (71.164)
X E
whose existence is assured by existence of (71.163), isn’t?
Existence of integral (71.164) assures the existence of a vector vE P H such that pvE qx “ sx almost everywhere. So we have the vE without
maximality axiom. Do we really want the condition (71.161) to hold everywhere and not only almost everywhere? Since we only use it in integrals,
I think that one does not care about a violation of condition (71.161) on a null set.
We have that ª ª
xTx vx , vx ydµpxq “ xTx vEx , vEx y “ xT vE , vE y • 0 (71.165)
E X
because T • 0 by assumption. So we proved that x fiÑ xTx vx , vx y is an integrable function on X

for which the integral over any subset is a positive real number. Then the function is real positive
almost everywhere. Thus we have
xTx vx , vx y • 0 (71.166)
almost everywhere. Therefore there exists a null set N Ñ X such that xTx vx , vx y • 0 for every
v P H0 whenever x P XzN . If x P XzN , then Spantvx tel que v P H0 u is dense in Hx because
of lemma 71.95. Notice that H0 is countable and there is one null set for each element of H0 on
which we are unsure of the sign of xTx vx , vx y.
By enlarging the set N we can assume that
pa1 v1 ` a2 v2 q “ a1 pv1 qx ` a2 pv2 qx (71.167)
for every x P XzN and ai P ris. Indeed the equalities are an equation for each ai P ris and
vi P H0 . That is thus a countable set of equations; thus the set where the equations are not
satisfied is a countable union of null sets.
What we have now is that every vector in Hx (with xinXzN ) can be written as a limit if
vectors in H0 , and then xTx vx , vy • 0, so that Tx • 0.
Lemme 71.99.
We have
}T } “ ess- sup }Tx } “ mintc tel que }Tx } § c almost everywhereu. (71.168)
Proof. The inequality }T } § ess- sup }Tx } comes from the fact that
ª
}T v} “ xTx vx , Tx vx ydµpxq (71.169)
X
which gives the bound. For the inverse inequality, remark that }T }2 “ }T ˚ T } and pT ˚ T qx “
pTx q˚ Tx almost everywhere, so that one can replace T by T ˚ T , or more simply we can assume
that T • 0. Now consider the positive and self-adjoint operator }T } ´ T . The “component”
operator is positive almost everywhere: }T } “ Tx • 0 for almost every x P X. We know that the
maximum of the spectrum of Tx is }Tx }, so that the number }T Y } ´ }Tx } is almost everywhere
positive because it is an element of the spectrum of }T } ´ Tx which is positive.
71.14.5 Diagonal and decomposable operators

An operator S is diagonal if it is decomposable and if Sx is multiple of identity for almost
every x P X.
As motivation, consider the example H “ n1 `n2 “ n1 ‘ n2 , the measure space being two
points with the counting measure. A diagonal operator looks like
ˆ ˙
⁄1
, (71.170)
⁄2
while decomposable operators are

ˆ ˙
T1
. (71.171)
T2
One sees that these two sets are mutually commutant. We will see in theorem 71.101 that this is
a general fact that decomposable operators and diagonal operators are mutually commutant.
Théorème 71.100 (Kaplansky density theorem).

If A is a ˚-algebra of operators on H, then every strong limit of net in A is a strong limit of a
bounded net of elements in A. In other words, if T “ limÑ T– , then there exist a net S— with
}S— } § M (fixed M ) such that T “ limÑ T— .
A complete proof is given in [511].
Sketch of proof. First, a convex subset of BpH q is strongly closed if and only if it is weakly
closed. So, using what is said on page 2434 about the fact that weak topology is compatible with
the involution, we know that if T lies in the strong closure of A, and if T “ T ˚ , then T is the
limit of a net of self-adjoint elements in A. That allows us to focus the proof of the theorem on
self-adjoint elements of A.
For me, the fact that this reasoning actually allows to restrict ourself to self-adjoint elements. But I suppose that it would become more clear
when one understands the link between the statement here and the statement of Kaplansky’s theorem in [511], page 32.
Consider the function f pxq “ 2x{p1 ` x2 q that provides an homeomorphism from r´1, 1s to
r´1, 1s. Thus by continuous functional calculus, if T “ T ˚ and }T } § 1, we have T “ f pSq where
S “ S ˚ and S belongs to the norm closure of the algebra generated by T .
Now if T is the strong limit of the net T– of self-adjoint operators, then S is the strong limit
of S– with S– P A and S–˚ “ S– . Indeed one can prove that S– Ñ S implies 10 f pS– q Ñ f pSq.
Since }f pS– q} § 1, thus }T } § 1.
Théorème 71.101.
The algebra of decomposable and diagonal operators are mutually commutant.
10. In the weak topology, that implication is the continuous functional calculus, but in the strong topology (the
one we are considering here), the validity of this assertion relies on the particular form of f .
Proof. The fact that decomposable operators are in the commutant of diagonal operators and vice
versa. The strategy to prove the theorem will be to first prove that decomposable and diagonal
operators are von Neumann algebras, and then show that every operator in the commutant of
diagonal operators is decomposable. From there, the conclusion yields from the double commutant
theorem.
Suppose that T is a strong limit of decomposable operators, i.e
T “ s limT– (71.172)
where T– is decomposable and supt|T– |u † 8. We want to show that T is decomposable. For, let
H0 be a dense countable rational subspace of H. If T is limit of a uniformly bounded net, the fact
that H0 is countable makes that there is a sequence of uniformly bounded decomposable operators
Tn such that Tn v Ñ T v for every v P H0 .
We have ª
lim }Tnx vx ´ pT vqx }2 dµpxq “ 0 (71.173)
nÑ8 X
for almost every v P H0 . A general fact about L2 spaces is that when a sequence goes to zero, then
the functions (representative of the elements of L2 ) themselves goes to zero on a subsequence. So
for every given v P H0 there is a subsequence tnj u such that
}Tnj x vx ´ pT vqx } Ñ 0 (71.174)
for almost every x P X. The subsequence might depends on the v, bu a diagonal argument provides
a subsequence tnk u of tnj u such that for every v P H0 ,
}Tnk x vx ´ pT vqx } Ñ 0 (71.175)
for almost every x P X. These relations are a countable number of convergence almost everywhere.
Then there exists a null set N Ñ X such that
}Tnk x vx ´ pT vqx } Ñ 0 (71.176)
for every v P H0 and x P XzN .

By enlarging again the null set N , we define
H0x “ tvx tel que v P H0 u (71.177)
for x P XzN . This is a dense subspace of Hx by lemma 71.95. Since the essential supremum of
}Tnx } is the norm of Tn , we have a “double uniformly bounded” relation
sup sup }Tnx } † 8. (71.178)

n x
Now for x P XzN we define Tx on H0x by
Tx vx “ lim Tnk x vx (71.179)

kÑ8
for each v P H0 . That limit exists by construction.

I suppose that this definition together with property (71.176) means that for every w P H0 and every x P XzN ,
pT wqx ´ Tx wx “ 0. (71.180)
It extends by continuity from H0x to Hx . The resulting operator is bounded because the
sequence Tnk x is uniformly bounded.
Now we enlarge once again the set N by the null set appearing in the definition of the essential
supremum we find that Tx is bounded for every x P XzN . All the work make tTx uxPX a candidate
decomposition of T .
In order to check that this actually is a decomposition of T , we have to prove that pT vqx “ Tx vv
for every v P H and almost every x P X. We will prove that property by proving that the integral
ª
}pT vqx ´ Tx vx } dµpxq (71.181)
X
vanishes. For that, we choose w P H0 such that }w ´ v} § ‘ and, by virtue of (71.180), we add
Tx wx ´ pT wqw in the integrand:
ª ª
2
}pT vqx ´ Tx vx } dµpxq “ }pT vqx ´ pT wqx ` Tx wx ´ Tx vx }2 dµpxq
X Xª ª
2
§2 }pT vqx ´ pT wqx } dµpxq ` }Tx wx ´ Tx vx }2 dµpxq
X X (71.182)
“ 2}T pv ´ wq}2 ` 2}T̃ pv ´ wq}2
“ 2}T } }v ´ w}2 ` 2}T̃ } }v ´ w}2
§ constant · ‘
where the operator T̃ is defined by pT̃ wqx “ Tx wx .

Thus the set of decomposable operators is strongly closed, so that it is a von Neumann algebra.
The same argument holds to prove that diagonal operators form a von Neumann algebra too. We
want now to prove that the commutant of diagonal operators is the set of decomposable. For that,
it is sufficient to prove that every operator in the commutant of diagonals is decomposable. Since a
von Neumann algebra is generated by its projections , we have only to prove that every projection
in the commutant of the diagonal is decomposable.
Let P be such a projection and enlarge H0 in order to have P H0 Ä H0 . That remains a
countable set because such an enlargement is H01 “ H0 ` P H0 for example. We choose a null set
N Ñ X such that if x P XzN then
pa1 v1 ` a2 v2 qx “ a1 v1x ` a2 v2x (71.183)
for every v1 and v2 in H0 and ai P ris. The set H0x “ tvx tel que v P H0 u is dense in Hx . For
f P L8 pX, µq, we define the multiplication operator
pMf vqx “ f pxqvx , (71.184)
which is, by definition, a diagonal operator. Let v P P H0 and w P P K H0 , we have

ª ª
f pxqxvx , wx y dµpxq “ xf pxqvx , wx y dµpxq “ xMf v, wy. (71.185)
X X
Since P is in the commutant of diagonals, it commutes with Mf , so that Mf v P P H while

w P P K H0 and the latter product is thus zero: xMf v, wy “ 0. That proves that x fiÑ xvx , wx y is
a function that integrates to zero when multiplicated 11 by any L8 function. That means in turn
that xvx , wx y “ 0 almost everywhere. We enlarge N in such a way that
tvx tel que v P P H0 u K twx tel que w P P K H0 u (71.186)
for every x P XzN . Of course, P H0 ‘ P K H0 “ H0 , so that the direct sum of the two spaces of
(71.186) is H0x . Taking the strong closure,
tvx tel que v P P H0 u ‘ twx tel que w P P K H0 u “ Hx (71.187)
where the double bar denotes the strong closure. Now, for x P CzN , define Px : Hx Ñ Hx , the
projection onto tvx tel que v P P H0 u. By the same reasoning as for T before, we prove that tPx u
decomposes P .
11. My spelling corrector does not know that word. Bad word or bad corrector?
Lemme 71.102.
If M is an abelian von Neumann algebra on a separable Hilbert space H, then M has a strongly
dense C ˚ -algebra A
Proof. No proof.
Théorème 71.103.
If M is an abelian von Neumann algebra on a (as usual separable) Hilbert space H, then there is
a decompositon of H such that M is the set of diagonal operators.
Proof. Pick a A Ñ M as in the lemma 71.102, and add an unit is needed. Then we have A » CpXq
for some metrisable compact space X by the Gelfand theorem (see [504]). We can write
à8
H“ Hk (71.188)
k“1
where Hk is invariant under the action of A and has a cyclic vector. Indeed, pick a vector v1 in
H and define H1 “ Av1 , then pick v2 in the complement and continue. We have an isomorphism
Hk » L2 pX, µk q where µk is some probability measure by vk fiÑ 1 and T vk fiÑ T̂ where the hat
denotes the Gelfand isomorphism.
That gives an element of L2 pX, µk q for each vector inside Hk . But I do not see the isomorphism. For example a simple step function belongs to
L2 pX, µk q and corresponds to which element of Hk ?
The map
2
Â : Av1 Ñ L pX, µq
(71.189)
T v1 fiÑ T̂
(whose image is included in L2 pX, µq because X is compact, so that every continuous function is square integrable with respect to a probability
measure) is injective because two different continuous functions cannot belong to the same class in L2 pX, µq.
For me, surjectivity is not clear (and even wrong) because there exists many elements in L2 pX, µq who have no continuous representative.
Do we have to game with limits and exploit the fact that A is strongly closed?
À
So we can assume that A “ CpXq and H “ k L2 pX, µq. Let
8
ÿ
µ“ 2´k µk (71.190)
k“1
which is still a probability measure, and define Hx “ l2 p , µx q where µx is the measure on

defined by
` ˘ dµk
µx tku “ pxq (71.191)
dµ
by the Radon-Niked˝m theorem. For recall, dµk {dµ is the function on X defined by the fact that
dµk “ pdµk {dµqdµ in the sense that
ª ª
dµk
f dµk “ f dµ (71.192)
X X dµ
for every functions f on X. Now for each Ï “ pÏ1 , Ï2 , . . .q P H, we define Ïx P Hx by
Ïx : Ñ
(71.193)
k fiÑ Ïk pxq.
One has to show that the so defined Ïx is actually an element of l2 p , µx q, that is
ÿ dµk
|Ïk pxq|2 pxq (71.194)
k
dµ
has to be finite. For, we have the computation
ª ÿ ÿª
2 dµk dµk
|Ïk pxq| pxq dµpxq “ |Ïk pxq|2 pxq dµpxq
X k dµ k X
dµ
ÿª
“ |Ïk |2 dµk pxq
k X (71.195)
ÿ
“ }Ïj }2
k
“ }Ï}2 .
where, in the first line we permuted the sum and the integral using the monotone convergence
theorem. The fact that integral (71.195) is finite proves that the function (71.194) has finite values
almost everywhere, or
}Ïx }2l2 p ,µx q † 8 (71.196)
almost everywhere. Let us redefine Ïx as zero for the x where the former definition gives }Ïx }2l2 p ,µx q .
This is a redefinition over a null set.
One can check that this construction provides a decomposition of H for which M is the algebra
of diagonal operators.
To be done. . .
Let M be an abelian von Neumann algebra of operators on H and suppose that there are two
decompositions tHx u and tHy u of H using M by theorem 71.103. Let now
"ˆ ˙*
T
M2 “ tel que T P M (71.197)
T
That von Neumann algebra decomposes H ‘ H into tHx u ‘ tHy u. The matrix
ˆ ˙
0 1
S“ (71.198)
1 0
is decomposable because it belongs to the commutant of M2 . Thus it provides an unitary isomor-

phism of H that applies Hx on Hy .
Proposition 71.104.
If N lies in the commutant of M , there are von Neumann algebras Nx Ñ BpHx q for almost every
x such that
(1) Nx “ tTx tel que T P N u2 ,
(2) pNx q1 “ pN 1 qx almost everywhere.
Proof. No proof.
71.14.6 Decompositions of representations

Let A be a separable C ˚ -algebra and fi : A Ñ BpHq be a representation of A on a separable
Hilbert space. We do not assume that fi is faithful.
Lemme 71.105.
If H is provided with a decomposition tHx u and if fipAq consists of decomposable operators, then
there are representations fix : A Ñ BpHx q such that fipaqx “ fix paq.
Proof. No proof.
Théorème 71.106.
If fi : A Ñ BpHq is any representation of a separable C ˚ -algebra, then there is a decomposition of
H such that fipAq consists of decomposable operators. There also exists a decomposition tfix u of fi
such that each fix is irreducible.
That theorem says that every representation decomposes into irreducible.
Proof. We do not prove the first part, and suppose then that tfix u is a decomposition given by
lemma 71.105, so that fix paq “ fipaqx . ` ˘1
Let M be a maximal (Zorn’s lemma) abelian von Neumann subalgebra of fipAq , and decom-
pose H so that M is the algebra of diagonal operators. Now we consider N , the von Neumann
algebra generated by M and fipAq. An element in N 1 belongs to fipAq1 and commutes with M
which is maximal. Thus N 1 “ M .
By the property of the decomposition fix , an element of fix pAq1 has to commute with all M , so
that
fix pAq1 “ pNx q1 “ pN 1 qx “ Mx “ , (71.199)
and by Schur’s lemma, the representation fix is irreducible almost everywhere.
As an example, take A “ C ˚ pF2 q where F2 is the free group with two generators and A is
formed by taking all the linear combination and then the closure as C ˚ -algebra. One can show
that
(1) There are two decompositions of the regular representation fi of A on H “ l2 pF2 q that we
denote by tHx u and tHy u. These decompositions are a priori built on different measured
spaces.
(2) All the representations in tfix u \ tfiy1 u are irreducible and mutually inequivalent.
So the decomposition in irreducible representations is not unique at all, in contrast to the group
representation case. The point is that the regular representation of C ˚ pF2 q is a factor, while the
following theorem only assures unicity of decomposition into factors.
Théorème 71.107.
Let fi : A Ñ BpHq be a representation of the C ˚ -algebra A. There is an essentially unique decom-
position of H such that
(1) the representation fipAq consists of decomposable operators,
(2) the representations fix are factors representations for almost every x.
By “essentially unique”, one means that if
` ˘ ` 1 1 ˘
X, µ, tHx u, H Ñ tHx u and X , µ , tHx1 u, H Ñ tHx1 u (71.200)
are two decompositions, there exists a map X Ñ X 1 which is almost everywhere an equiv-
alence of measurable spaces. That is it maps µ to a measure which is mutually absolutely
continuous with µ1 , and an unitary isomorphism Hx Ñ Hx1 defined for almost every X
which maps vx to vx1 where vx1 is the decomposition of v with respect to the decomposition
tHx1 u.
Proof. Let us prove the existence part of the theorem For we proceed as in the proof of theo-
rem 71.106, but we take M “ fipAq2 X fipAq1 , this is the center of the von Neumann algebra
generated by fipAq. Using proposition 71.104, we find
` ˘
fix pAq2 X fix pAq1 “ fipAq2 X fipAq1 x “ . (71.201)
That shows that fix pAq is a factor.
A C ˚ -algebra is liminal if for every irreducible representation fi : A Ñ BpHq, we have fipAq “

KpHq, the space of compact operators on H.
Théorème 71.108.
If G is a semisimple Lie group, then C ˚ pGq is liminal.
Proof. No proof.
Théorème 71.109.
If A is a liminal C ˚ -algebra, then every factor representation is of type I.
Théorème 71.110.
If fi is any representation of a liminal C ˚ -algebra on a separable Hilbert space, then there is a
decomposition of H such that
(1) the space Hx carries a representation which is a factor of type I,
71.15. INDEX THEORY 2813
(2) Hx “ Hfix b Lx where Hfix is an irreducible representation of A, all mutually inequivalent

and Lx is some Hilbert space which says the “multiplicity” of the representation fix inside
fi.
That decomposition is essentially unique.
Proof. No proof.
Lemme 71.111.
Every irreducible representation of A1 b A2 with both Ai being liminal is a tensor product of
irreducible representations of A1 and A2 .
Now take an unimodular group G such that C ˚ pGq is liminal. One knows that the von Neumann
algebras generated by the left and right regular representations are mutually commutant. We
consider the bi-regular representation G ˆ G on L2 pGq. The commutant of that representation is
equal to the center of the von Neumann algebra generated by the two regular representation and
is in particular abelian.
Using the lemma, the space L2 pGq decomposes into representations Hfi· “ Hfi b H· of G ˆ G
where fi and · are irreducible representations. From the unimodular assumption, the symmetry
f pgq Ñ f pg ´1 q is an isometry that intertwines left and right regular representations. Notice that a
function can be seen as a vector on L2 pGq as well as as an operator over L2 pGq by the convolution.
Thus we turn Hfi· into a ˚-algebra by the multiplication Hfi· b Hfi· · Hfi· .
We denote by Ĝ the set of irreducible representations of G
Théorème 71.112.
Let G be an unimodular locally compact liminal group. There is an unique measure on Ĝ, the
Plancherel measure, denoted by µ such that for every f P L1 pGq X L2 pGq (as vector in L2 pGq
or as operator by involution),
ª
}f }2L2 pGq “ }fipf q}2HS dµpfiq (71.202)
Ĝ
where }.}HS denotes the Hilbert-Schmidt operator norm. Moreover we have

ª
fipf q “ f pgqfipgq dg. (71.203)
G
That theorem has to be compared to the Fourier theory for abelian groups like or S 1 , in
particular the Parseval equality. This has also to be compared with the following theorem.
Théorème 71.113 (Peter-Weyl).

If G is a compact group, then
ÿ dimpfiq
}f }2L2 pGq “ }fipf q}2HS (71.204)
volpGq
Ĝ
where the ration dimpfiq{ volpGq is the Plancherel measure made explicit in the compact case.
71.15 Index theory

One speaks about index and subfactors in [511, 522, 570].
71.15.1 Introduction
Let M be a type II1 factor, which, thus, possesses an unique normal, tracial, normalized faithful
state. We can assign a dimension to every modules over M by theorem 71.79. In particular, M
being an algebra of operators on the Hilbert space H , the space H is a M -module and we can
consider the number
dimM pH q. (71.205)
Following the cases, that can be any number in s0, 8r. Indeed, taking any v P H , we have the
M -module map
fl: M Ñ H
(71.206)
T fiÑ T v,
so that by lemma 71.91, we have
dimM pH q • dimM M. (71.207)
But we saw on page 2797 that dimM M “ Trp q, see definition (52.40) and bellow. We deduce
that dimM H • Trp q, which can be any non vanishing positive real number.
Let N Ñ M Ñ BpH q be a subfactor, i.e. that N is a factor in BpH q and N Ñ M . For the
same reason as before, dimN pH q Ps0, 8r. We consider the ratio
dimN pH q
rM : N s “ (71.208)
dimM pH q
that is called the index.
The theorem that we are intend to prove is the following.
Théorème 71.114 (Jones).

If rM : N s † 4, then rM : N s “ 4 cos2 pfi{nq for some n † 2.
Proof. No proof.
n 4 cos2 pfi{nq
2 0
3 1
4 2
5 2.618 the golden ratio
6 3
.. ..
. .
In the dots, we have an increasing sequence of numbers bigger than 3 that converges to 4.
71.15.2 Example
Let G be a discrete group with infinite conjugacy classes and
` H, a subgroup which has` infinite
˘
conjugacy classes for its own right. Consider M “ M`pGq Ñ˘B l2 pGqq and N “ M pHq Ñ B l2 pHq .
By simple inclusion of H in G, we have M pHq Ñ B l2 pGq too.
As defined in subsection 71.7.5, the von Neumann algebra M pHq is generated by the opera-
tors Uh with h P H. We already proved in proposition 71.21 that l2 pGq is a finitely
` ˘ generated
projective module over M pGq, so that one can address the question of dimM pGq l2 pGq using the
decomposition given by corollary 71.84:
` ˘
l2 pGq “ Cll2 pGq M pGq ‘ l2 pGq{M pGq. (71.209)
´ ` ˘¯ ` ˘
On the one hand, by proposition 71.80, we have dim Cll2 pGq M pGq “ dim M pGq , and on the
other hand, one can prove that l2 pGq{M pGq is a torsion, so that
` ˘ ` ˘
dimM pGq l2 pGq “ dimM pGq M pGq “ 1 (71.210)
when a correct choice of normalisation is done.

Is it correct that the latter dimension is in fact the trace of on M pGq which has to be normalised?
Let us now consider g1 , . . . , gn be representatives of the classes of G{H and look at the decom-
position
l2 pGq “ l2 pHg1 q ‘ . . . ‘ l2 pHgn q. (71.211)
` ˘
Since l2 pHgi q is a submodule of l2 pHq, each of dimn l2 pGq lies in the same case as equation
(71.210), so that ` ˘
dimN l2 pGq “ n. (71.212)
Thus rM : N s “ n.
One can explicitly construct examples of index for every real bigger than 4.
Let M Ñ BpH q be a von Neumann algebra and form M p8q Ñ BpH ‘ . . . ‘ H ‘ . . .q,
(
M p8q “ pT, T, . . .q tel que T P M . (71.213)
Since M p8q does not contains more information than M itself, we want to be able to say that
they are the same von Neumann algebra. The interest of ultraweak topology described in subsec-
tion 57.6.1 is that if we consider both M and M p8q with the ultraweak topology, then they are
homeomorphic in a natural way.
71.15.3 Isomorphisms of abstract von Neumann algebras

If M Ñ BpH q is an ultraweakly closed subspace (what a von Neumann algebra always is),
then the Hahn-Banach theorem applies and in particular, every von Neumann algebra is the dual
of a space.
A positive linear map between von Neumann algebras is normal if
™ ™
p P– q “ pP– q (71.214)
– –
for every increasing net of projections. A net of projections being said increasing when – ° —
implies P– ° P— . An example of a normal map is the trace of a type II1 factor.
Théorème 71.115.
A positive linear functional on a von Neumann algebra is normal if and only if it us ultraweakly
continuous.
A proof can be found in [571].

It is the right citationm, isn’t?
Théorème 71.116.
Let : M Ñ BpH q be a ˚-homomorphism from a von Neumann algebra into BpH q. The the
following are equivalent:
(1) is ultraweakly continuous,
(2) is normal,
(3) pM q is a von Neumann algebra.
Notice that we do not suppose M to be a von Neumann algebra acting on the Hilbert space
H.
Proof. The implication (3) ñ (2) is proved by using the theorem 71.115. The implication (2)
ñ (1) is only the fact that ultraweak continuity is defined in terms of linear functionals.
The difficult part is to prove that (1) implies (3). Since pM q is a ˚-algebra, proving that
it is strongly closed proves that it is a von Neumann algebra. So, let us suppose T to be in the
strong closure of pM q. By Kaplansky density theorem 71.100, there exists a net T– P pM q with
sup }T– } † 8 and
T “ s limT– “ s lim pS– q (71.215)
for some S– . Since is isometric, the set tS– u is uniformly bounded: }S– } † 8. Thus, using the
Banach-Alaogu theorem 57.70, and taking a subnet, we can assume that there is a S P M such
that
S “ uw limS– . (71.216)
Since is ultraweakly continuous by assumption, we have pSq “ uw lim pS– q. Since the limit
T “ s limT– exists, the same exists in the weak topology (and is equal), thus T “ pSq, which
proves that pM q is strongly closed.
So if a von Neumann algebra is algebraically realised as two different algebras of operators

on two different Hilbert spaces, the two realisations are homeomorphic. For short, we say that ˚-
isomorphisms of von Neumann algebras correspond to weakly continuous maps between realisations
of them.
Remark that a map which fulfils the theorem 71.116 is automatically isometric because }T }
is the spectral radius of |T | while the spectral radius (which is a purely algebraic notion) does not
change when we consider T as an operator acting on one Hilbert space or an other. So, the map
preserves the C ˚ -algebra structure.
Let M be a finite factor. We denote by L2 pM q the completion of M in the norm derived from
the inner product
xT1 , T2 y “ · pT1 T2˚ q. (71.217)
This is the GNS construction applied to the tracial state · . The standard form of the finite factor
M is the realisation of M as left multiplication operators on L2 pM q. The image is a von Neumann
algebra because the representation is normal and faithful.
71.15.4 Index of finite subfactors

We say that the vector v P L2 pM q is bounded by the positive real K if for every projection
P P M , the condition
}P v}2L2 pM q § K· pP q. (71.218)
Lemme 71.117.
An element v P L2 pM q belongs to M if and only if it is bounded.
Proof. No proof.
We consider the map

J : L2 pM q Ñ L2 pM q
(71.219)
T fiÑ T ˚ .
A priori, that is only defined on M , but it is an isometry because
}T } “ TrpT T ˚ q “ TrpT ˚ T q “ }T ˚ }. (71.220)
So it extends to the completion L2 pM q.
Lemme 71.118.
We have
M 1 “ JM J (71.221)
in the standard form.
Notice that operators in JM J are operators of right multiplication on M because pJT JqS “
JT pS ˚ q “ JpT S ˚ q “ ST ˚ while the elements of M are left multiplications, so that it is clear that
JM J Ñ M 1 .
Proof. No proof.
Let M0 be a subfactor of a finite factor M1 . We define the index

` ˘
rM1 : M0 s “ dimM0 L2 pM1 q . (71.222)
Théorème 71.119.
One has
rM1 : M0 s “ dimM0 pM1 q. (71.223)
and moreover
dimM0 pH q
rM1 : M0 s “ (71.224)
dimM1 pH q
if M1 is represented on the Hilbert space H .
Proof. No proof.
Suppose given M1 and a finite subfactor `M0 and ˘suppose rM1 : M0 s † 8. Since M0 is a
subfactor of M1 , we can see M01 as subset of B L2 pM1 q . If M11 is not finite, then there is a part of
L2 pM1 q which is identified with L2 pM1 q as M0 -module. That part has obviously the same dimen-
sion as the whole L2 pM1 q (because the module structure is the same). Thus in this ` case, L˘2 pM1 q
2
contains infinitely many submodules with all the same dimension, so that dimM0 L pM1 q “ 8,
which contradicts the assumption. We deduce that
` ˘
M01 Ñ B L2 pM1 q (71.225)
is a finite von Neumann algebra. We consider
P1 : L2 pM1 q Ñ L2 pM1 q (71.226)
be the orthogonal projection onto L2 pM0 q Ñ L2 pM1 q.
Lemme 71.120.
If T P M1 , then T P1 “ P1 T if and only if T P M0 .
Proof. It T P M0 , we have
T P1 “ P1 T P1 . (71.227)
Taking the adjoint of that equation, P1 T˚ “ P1 1 , and using the relation (71.227) for T , we
T ˚P ˚
find P1 T ˚ “ T ˚ P1 which holds for every T P M0 . Thus we have
T P1 “ P1 T (71.228)
for every T P M0 .
For the reverse sense, equality T P1 “ P1 T is an equality of operators on M1 . Let us apply it
to P M1 . Since belongs to M0 too (every von Neumann algebra contains the unit), P1 p q “
and we stay with T “ P1 T , so that T P M0 .
Let now M2 be a von Neumann algebra generated by M1 and P1
M2 “ tM1 , P1 u2 . (71.229)
The properties of M1 , P1 and M2 are summarized in the following theorem.
Théorème 71.121.
If rM1 : M0 s † 8, then
(1) M2 is a finite factor, in particular it has a unique normal faithful trace · ,
(2) rM2 : M1 s “ rM1 : M0 s,
(3) · pP1 q “ rM1 : M0 s´1 .
Proof. No proof.
The von Neumann algebra M2 was created from M0 and M1 , while the theorem shows that
M1 has the same properties in M2 than M0 in M1 , so that one can redo the construction starting
from M2 and M1 instead of M0 and M1 to build M3 and P2 . The index does not change and the
projection P2 still has the same trace.
71.15.5 Subfactors
Je pense qu’à partir d’ici, j’ai inversé M0 et M1 partout jusqu’à la subsection 71.15.7.
Let M1 Ñ M0 be a subfactor of the finite factor M0 , and P : L2 pM0 q Ñ L2 pM0 q be the projection
onto L2 pM1 q. Notice that L2 pM1 q Ñ L2 pM0 q because the trace on M1 is the restriction to the one
of M0 from unicity. Now we consider xM0 , P y, the von Neumann algebra generated by M0 and P .
Lemme 71.122.
We have P pM0 q Ñ M1 .
Proof. No proof.
Proposition 71.123.
The map
p : M0 Ñ M1
(71.230)
T fiÑ P pT q.
satisfies
(1) ppT ˚ q “ ppT q˚ ,
(2) ppT ˚ T q • 0,
(3) ppT ˚ T q “ 0 if and only if T “ 0,
(4) ppS1 T S2 q “ S1 ppT qS2 for every S1 and S2 in M1 .
for every T P M0 .
Proof. The point (1) is the fact that M1 is closed under the involution. The point `(2) comes
˘ form
lemma 71.122 and the positivity property in M1 . For the point (3), remark that Tr ppT q “ TrpT q
because pp q “ , while by unicity up to normalisation, the trace is determined by its value
on .
A basic implication if (1) is that

P J “ JP. (71.231)
Lemme 71.124.
If T P M0 , then
P T P “ ppT qP (71.232)
as operators on L2 pM0 q.
Proof. No proof.
Lemme 71.125.
If M1 Ñ M0 is a subfactor of the finite factor M0 and if P is the projection onto L2 pM1 q (as
operator in L2 pM0 q), then
M1 “ tM01 Y P u1 , (71.233)
and
M11 “ tM01 Y P u2 (71.234)
as consequence.
Proof. First, every element of tM01 YP u1 has to commute with M01 and then to belongs to M02 “ M0 .
But we proved in lemma 71.120 that when T P M0 and T P “ P T , then T P M1 . That proves that
tM01 Y P u1 “ M1 .
As other consequence of lemma 71.120, we have that, when T P M1 , the operator P T : S fiÑ

P pT Sq P L2 pM0 q is equal to the operator S : fiÑ T P pSq, in other words,
P pT Sq “ T P pSq (71.235)
for every T P M1 and S P M0 .
Lemme 71.126.
We have
xM0 , P y “ JM11 J, (71.236)
and as consequence, xM0 , P y is a finite factor.
Proof. First note that the commutant of a factor is a factor, so that M11 is a factor and JM11 J is
a factor because it is algebraically isomorphic to the factor M11 . Thus the lemma proves that the
left hand side of (71.236) is in particular a finite factor.
Let us now prove the equality (71.236). One needs to show that JxM0 , P yJ “ M11 . The
commutant of the left multiplication action is the right one, while the left action of JT J is the
right action of T , so one has JM0 J “ M01 . Since JP J “ P , it is sufficient to show that
xM01 , P y “ M11 . (71.237)
The von Neumann algebra generated by M01 and P is tM01 , P u2 that is equal to M11 by lemma 71.125.
So xM0 , P y is a factor and it is finite when M11 is finite, which happens when rM0 : M1 s † 8.
Assuming that finiteness, we thus have a trace Tr : xM0 , P y Ñ which extends the trace on M0
(by uniqueness).
Notice that, as particular case of equation (71.236) when M1 “ M0 , we have P “ Id and
M0 “ JM01 J. (71.238)
That gives us an action of M01 on L2 pM0 q by
S · T “ pJSJqT (71.239)
when S P M01 and T P M0 .
Proposition 71.127.
If M0 is any finite factor acting on H and if Q P M01 , then QH is invariant by M0 , and
dimM0 pQH q “ TrpQq dimM0 pH q (71.240)
where QH is seen as module over M0 (because of its invariance).
Proof. First, notice that a finite factor always has an unique trace. If Q “ 0 or Q “ , the claim
is obvious. Suppose now that TrpQq “ r{s, that is a rational number.
In that case, we have
QH ‘ . . . ‘ QH “ looooooomooooooon
loooooooooomoooooooooon H ‘ ... ‘ H (71.241)
s times r times
I can understad that in the setting of the fractional dimensions as described in subsection 71.10.3, but there, we have the assumption of no minimal
First, notice that the trace of the identity over QH is the trace of Q on H . Indeed, let
projection.
tvi u be an Hilbertian basis of QH and twk u be a one of QK H . Then

ÿ ÿ ÿ
TrpQq “ xvi , Qvi y ` xwk , Qwk y “ xvi , vi y “ Trp QH q. (71.242)
i k i
Thus, by additivity,
Trp QH ‘...‘QH q “ s TrpQq “ r. (71.243)
On the other hand, Trp H ‘...‘H q “ r Trp H q “ r. So the identity over these two M0 -modules
are the same. Problèmes et choses à faire
Taking the dimension of both sides of (71.241), we
Is that enough to deduce that these are isomorphic as M0 -modules?
find s dimM0 pQH q “ r dimM0 pH q, which proves the statement in the case of TrpQq P .
Now, the functions dimM0 pQH q and TrpQq dimM0 pH q are increasing functions of TrpQq that
coincide on . Thus they are equal on .
Proposition 71.128.
We have the formula
1
TrpP T q “ TrpT q (71.244)
rM0 : M1 s
for every T P M0 .
` ˘
Proof. We have TrpP T q “ TrpP P T q “ TrpP T P q “ Tr ppT qP because of lemma 71.124. It is
sufficient
` to
˘ prove the claim (71.244) for T P M1 because when S P M0 , we would have TrpP Sq “
Tr ppSqP “ TrpSq{rM0 : M1 s because ppSq P M1 . Let thus T P M1 and consider the map
T fiÑ TrpP T q (71.245)
where P T is considered as operator on L2 pM0 q. Thanks to (71.235), this is a (normal faithful)

trace on M0 . So that must be a multiple of the trace on M0 , namely there exists a · P
such that TrpP T q “ · TrpT q. Taking that equality with T “ shows that · “ TrpP q. Using
proposition 71.127, we have thus
` ˘ ` ˘
dimM1 P · L2 pM0 q “ TrpP q dimM0 L2 pM0 q , (71.246)
but, as M0 -module, we have P · L2 pM0 q “ L2 pM1 q by definition of P , so we have

` ˘
1 “ TrpP q · dimM1 L2 pM0 q . (71.247)
The set of expressions

n
ÿ
T0 ` Tj1 P Tj2 (71.248)
j“1
with T0 , Tj1 and Tj2 in M0 is a ˚-algebra. Indeed, in the multiplication of two such expressions,
we get monomials of the form
T1 lo
PoT on T3 “ T
2P
mo 1 ppT2 q P T3 .
looomooon (71.249)
“ppT2 qP PM0
By the double commutant theorem, the von Neumann algebra xM0 , P y is the strong closure of
such expressions, and
1
TrpT1 P T2 q “ TrpP T2 T1 q “ TrpT1 T2 q (71.250)
rM0 : M1 s
by proposition 71.128. Thus we have an explicit formula for the trace on xM0 , P y from the trace
over M0 .
Lemme 71.129.
If P P M1 , then we have
1
dimP M1 P pP H q “ dimM1 pH q, (71.251)
TrpP q
but P H is no more a M1 -module.
Proof. Let E be any M1 -module. Since P E is a P M1 P -module, we can define dimpP q pEq by
dimpP q pEq “ dimP M1 P pP Eq. (71.252)
That defines a dimension function on the M1 -modules, which is thus a multiple of the standard
one. We know that, as M1 -module, M1 P as dimension TrpP q, so that the proportionality factor
can be fixed on M1 P .
That proof is not complete.
Let take M1 “ 3 p q and H “ 3 as example. Each column of a P M1 is an element of 3 ,

so M1 is three copies of H and, as left module, we have H ‘ H ‘ H “ N , and dimM1 pH q “ 1{3.
Let ¨ ˛
1
P “ ˝ 0 ‚.
0
We have P H » , and P M1 P “ (the upper left element of the matrix). Thus if we have
TrpP q “ 1{3, we conclude by the lemma 71.129 that dimP M1 P pP H q “ 1.
Lemme 71.130.
We have
dimM1 pH q dimM11 pH q “ 1 (71.253)
if M1 and M11 are finite factors.
Proof. Let us first 2 2

` 2check˘for H “ L pM ` 21 q. The
˘ action of M1 on L pM11q is given by (71.239), so
1
2
we have dimM11 L pM1 q “ dimJM1 J L pM1 q , so that the action of M1 on L pM1 q is conjugate
of the one of M1 . That proves the lemma in the case where H “ L2 pM0 q.
Pourquoi ? Cela est fait dans la proposition 71.76. Et je crois que du côté de cette proposition, on trouve pas mal de réponses à pas mal de
questions ici.
Corollaire 71.131.
We have
rM0 : M1 s “ rM11 : M01 s (71.254)
when M0 P BpH q is a factor of type II1 and M1 is a subfactor of M0 .
Proof. No proof.
Théorème 71.132.
We have
rxM0 , P y : M0 s “ rM0 : M1 s (71.255)
under the same assumptions.
Proof. If E is any representation of xM0 , P y, we have the formula

dimM0 E
rxM0 , P y : M0 s “ . (71.256)
dimxM0 ,P y E
We know by formula (71.110) that
´ ¯ ´ ¯
dimxM0 ,P y E · dimxM0 ,P y1 E “ 1. (71.257)
On the other hand, since xM0 , P y “ JM11 J (lemma 71.126), we have

dimxM0 ,P y1 E “ dimJM1 J E “ dimM1 E “ rM0 : M1 s. (71.258)
Since formula (71.256) holds for every choice of E, we compute the right hand side in the case
where E “ L2 pM0 q. In that particular case, dimM0 E “ 1, and the claim follows.
71.15.6 Example of index bigger than 4

Consider R, the hyperfinite factor of type II1 given by 12
8 `
â ˘
R“ 2p q, Tr (71.259)
1
It turns out that, for that factor, we have R » P RP for every projection P P R. Choose isomor-
phism – : R Ñ P RP and — : R Ñ P K RP K , and form the algebra
S “ t–pT q ` —pT q tel que T P Ru. (71.260)
That algebra is algebraically isomorphic to R, and the isomorphism is ultraweakly continuous, so

that S is a von Neumann algebra. The index of S in R is given by
rR : Ss “ TrpP q´1 ` TrpP K q´1 (71.261)
where TrpP q can take any value between 0 and 1, and TrpP K q “ 1 ´ TrpP q. The possible values
of the index are then given by the range of the function
1 1
f pxq “ ` (71.262)
x 1´x
when x runs over r0, 1s. One easily checks that that range is r4, 8s.
71.15.7 Properties of the sequence of Mi , Pi

` ˘
Let M0 be a subfactor of M1 . We define rM1 : M0 s “ dimM0 L2 pM1 q . We define P1 : L2 pM1 q Ñ
L2 pM1 q, the projection onto L2 pM0 q. Then we consider the new factor
M2 “ xM1 , P1 y. (71.263)
` ˘
For
` that definition,
˘ we see M1 as subalgebra of B L2 pM1 q . Now, M2 is also a subalgebra of
B L2 pM2 q , so that, defining P2 : L2 pM2 q Ñ L2 pM2 q as the projection onto L2 pM1 q, allows to
define ` ˘
M3 “ xM2 , P2 y Ñ B L2 pM2 q . (71.264)
Using that construction again and again, we get a sequence
M0 Ñ M1 Ñ M 2 Ñ . . . (71.265)
of factors defined by Mn`1 “ xMn , Pn y where Pn : L2 pMn q Ñ L2 pMn q is the orthogonal projection
onto L2 pMn´1 q. One can prove that
Pn pMn q Ñ Mn´1 . (71.266)
We thus consider the maps

pn : Mn Ñ Mn´1
(71.267)
pn pTn q fiÑ Pn pTn q,
and we have the sequence
Pn´1 P Mn
pn
/ Mn´1 pn´1 / Mn´2 . (71.268)
The following is the proposition 3.3.2 in [570].
Proposition 71.133.
We have
(1) rMn : Mn`1 s “ ⁄´1 does not depend on n,
12. Recall that one needs a functional in order to define the infinite tensor product.
(2) TrpPn q “ ⁄,
(3) TrpPn Tn q “ ⁄ TrpTn q for every Tn P Mn .
The last property is the Markov property.
Proof. No proof.
Lemme 71.134.
We have
pn pPn´1 q “ ⁄ (71.269)
where ⁄ “ TrpPn q does not depends on n by the proposition 71.133.
Proof. Since the map pS,`T q fiÑ TrpST ˘ q is a nondegenerate bilinear functional on Mn´1 , it is
sufficient to prove that Tr Spn pPn´1 q “ ⁄ TrpSq for every S P Mn´1 . Using point (4) of proposi-
tion 71.123, we have Spn pPn´1 q “ pn pSPn´1 q, so that
` ˘
Tr Spn pPn´1 q “ TrpSPn´1 q “ ⁄ TrpSq, (71.270)
where the last equality is the Markov property.
Proposition 71.135.
The projections Pi fulfil the algebra
Pn Pn`1 Pn “ ⁄Pn (71.271a)

Pn Pn´1 Pn “ ⁄Pn (71.271b)
Pn Pm “ Pm Pn (71.271c)
when |n ´ m| • 2.
Proof. Let us prove the second one. Using lemma 71.134, we find
Pn Pn´1 Pn “ pn pPn´1 qPn “ ⁄Pn , (71.272)
which is the claim.
Corollaire 71.136.
The algebra generated by
t , P1 , . . . , Pn u (71.273)
is a finite dimensional C ˚ -algebra in which there exists an unique tracial state such that for every k,
TrpPk T q “ ⁄ TrpT q (71.274)
whenever T belongs to the algebra generated by Sk´1 “ t , P1 , . . . , Pk´1 u.
Sketch of the proof. Let a reduced word in P1 , . . . , Pk be a word which is as small as possible using
the three rules (71.271). We prove by induction that such a reduced word contains Pk at most
once. For beginning, the only reduced word in P1 is P1 itself.
Now, let a word containing twice Pk . What is between two successive occurrences of Pk is a
word of Sk´1 . That word is reduced, and thus contains Pk´1 only once by induction hypothesis.
From rule (71.271c), the operator Pk commutes with Sk´2 , and then the rule (71.271b) reduces
the word (because Pk´1 appears only once).
Now, a general reduced word of Sk has only one Pk and thus has the form m1 Pk m2 where m1
and m2 are reduces words of Sk´1 . Of course, m1 them self decomposes in n1 Pk´1 n2 where ni are
reduces words of Sk´2 , and the process continues.
Every reduced word in S9 look like
pP5 P4 P3 qpP8 P7 P6 P5 P4 qpP9 P8 P7 P6 q. (71.275)
Some comments
— The sub words are made of consecutive projections. For example the sub word pP5 P3 q can
be rearranged as the two sub words pP3 qpP5 q by rule (71.271c).
— The sub words begin by P5 , P8 and P9 . Notice that 5 † 8 † 9. It will always be like that.
If not, a rearrangement is possible.
Now fix a n and consider the set of all the reduced words of Sn ; there are only finitely many of
them which will be labelled as Wi . We look at the matrix whose element ij is given by
TrpWi˚ Wj q. (71.276)
Each of Wi˚ Wj is a long string of elements of Sn and the cyclic property of the trace allows us to
do ` ˘ ` ˘
Tr p. . .qp. . .qpPn Pn´1 . . .q “ Tr pPn Pn´1 . . .qp. . .qp. . .q . (71.277)
Then, using the Markov property of proposition 71.133, we can extract Pn . That matrix is positive
semidefinite because it is formed of scalar products. If not, that would means that the assumption
M0 Ñ M1 is wrong.
71.15.8 Some interesting functions

Consider the polynomials defined by the induction
f0 pxq “ 0 (71.278a)
f1 pxq “ 1 (71.278b)
fn pxq “ fn´1 pxq ´ xfn´2 pxq. (71.278c)
Since fn p0q “ fn´1 p0q, all these polynomials pass by the point p0, 1q. By induction, one can see
that ˆ ˙
1 sinpn◊q
fn “ n´1 , (71.279)
4 cos2 ◊ 2 cosn´1 p◊q sinp◊q
so that the smallest positive root of fn is
1
` ˘, (71.280)
4 cos2 fin
and fn is negative on the interval between 1{4 cos2 pfi{nq and 1{4 cos2 pfi{pn ´ 1qq.
Suppose ⁄´1 “ rM : M0 s and ⁄ ° 1{4. Now, assume that
1
⁄‰ (71.281)
4 cos2 pfi{nq
for any value of n P . In this case, we will found a negative diagonal entry of the matrix (71.276),
which is impossible because a semipositive definite matrix has no negative diagonal element.
Let
Qk “ ´ P1 _ . . . _ Pk . (71.282)
From lemma 69.11, the operator Qk is in fact a projection in a finite dimensional algebra, and is
thus a polynomial in the Pi ’s.
Lemme 71.137.
We have
fk p⁄q
pQk´1 Pk Qk´1 q2 “ Qk´1 P ` kQk´1 , (71.283)
fk`1 p⁄q
and
fk`1 p⁄q
Qk`1 “ Qk ´ Qk´1 Qk´1 , (71.284)
fk p⁄q
if fk`1 p⁄q, . . . , f1 p⁄q ‰ 0.
71.16. MODULAR THEORY 2825
Notice in particular that, up to a factor, the operator of equation (71.283) is a projection.
Proof. No proof.
Corollaire 71.138.
The operators Qk´1 , Pk and Qk`1 are projection, and the product is a positive operator.
That corollary shows that

fk p⁄q
° 0. (71.285)
fk`1 p⁄q
But a simple study of the polynomials shows that this ratio is in fact negative. We conclude that
operator satisfying the algebra of proposition (71.135) are only possible when ⁄ “ 1{4 cospfi{nq.
71.16 Modular theory

71.16.1 Modular isometry
Let M be a von Neumann algebra provided with Ï, a faithful normal state. We consider
L2Ï pM q,
the completion of M for the norm associated with the inner product
xT1 , T2 y “ ÏpT1˚ T2 q. (71.286)
That product is conjugate-linear in his first argument and linear in the second. The algebra M
acts at left by multiplication on L2Ï pM q, by extending
T · S “ T S. (71.287)
The space L2Ï pM q has a distinguished vector: the one represented by P M that we call v. It is
a cyclic vector for M , i.e. the space M v is dense in L2Ï pM q. It is also separating, because T v “ 0
with T P M implies T “ 0.
Conversely, if H is an Hilbert space and v P H is cyclic and separating for a von Neumann
algebra, then the expression
ÏpT q “ xv, T vy (71.288)
defines a faithful (because separating) normal state on the von Neumann algebra. Thus, in fact
H » L2Ï pM q via an unitary isomorphism compatible with M .
A natural question arising is to know the commutant of M acting by left multiplication on
L2Ï pM q. Let us suppose that Ï is also a trace, so we drot the index and we write L2 pM q instead
of L2Ï pM q. We define
J : L2 pM q Ñ L2 pM q
(71.289)
T v fiÑ T ˚ v.
That definition is correct because tT v tel que T P M u is dense in L2 pM q. Notice that T1 v “ T2 v

implies T1 “ T2 , so that, when › P L2 pM q can be represented as T v, that T P M is unique.
The following lemma provides the main properties of J.
Lemme 71.139.
The map J has the following properties.
(1) J is conjugate-linear.
(2) It is an isometry in the sense of conjugate linear operators.
(3) J 2 “ .
(4) JM J Ñ M 1 .
(5) xSv, JT vy “ xJS ˚ v, T ˚ vy for every S and T in M .
Proof. The proof of (2) is a computation using the definition of J, the definition of the inner
product and the fact that Ï is a state:
xJT1 v, JT2 vy “ xT1˚ v, T2˚ vyÏpT1 T2˚ q “ ÏpT2 T1˚ q “ ÏpT1˚ T2 q “ xT1 v, T2 vy. (71.290)
For (4), remark that

pJT JqpSvq “ JT pS ˚ vq ` JpT S ˚ vq “ ST ˚ v. (71.291)
Définition 71.140.
A modular isometry for M with respect to the cyclic vector v is a map J : L2 pM q Ñ L2 pM q
which satisfies
(1) Jv “ v.,
(2) J is a conjugate linear isometry,
(3) J 2 “ 1,
(4) JM J Ñ M 1 ,
(5) xJSv, T vy “ xS ˚ v, JT ˚ vy for every S, T P M 1 .
Notice the difference between the claim (5) of lemma 71.139.
Lemme 71.141.
If v is cyclic for M , then it is separating for M 1 , and if it is separating for M , then it is cyclic for
M 1.
Proposition 71.142.
If J is a modular isometry, then JM J “ M 1 . In particular, M and M 1 are of same type.
Proof. We have to prove that T P JM J whenever T P M 1 . Let S and T be in M 1 , and let us prove
that JSJ and T commute. For that, we are going to prove that
xJSJT v, vy “ xT JSJv, vy, (71.292)
which is sufficient because the product is nondegenerate. For all S and T in M 1 , one successively
has
xJSJT v, vy “ xJSJT v, J 2 vy “ xJv, SJT vy “ xv, SJT vy
(71.293)
“ xS ˚ v, JT vy “ xJSv, T ˚ vy “ xT JSJv, vy,
where we used the extra property Jv “ v which defines a modular isometry.
Now we repeat the same with S1 “ A˚ S and T1 “ T B where A P JM J Ñ M 1 and B P JM J.
The operators S1 and T1 belong to M 1 because S and T belong to M 1 . We find
xJSJT pBvq, pJAvqy “ xT SJSpBvq, pJAvqy. (71.294)
Using the fact that v is cyclic, the vectors Bv and JAv separately span dense subspaces, so that,
as operators, T SJT “ T JSJ because they are equal on a dense subspace.
Proposition 71.143.
If J is a modular isometry for M (with respect to v), then it is a modular isometry for M 1 (with
respect to v) too.
Proof. The fact that JM 1 J “ M is obtained by application of J at left and right of both sides of
JM J “ M 1 . For the last one, compute
xSw, T wy “ xw, S ˚ T wy “ xw, T S ˚ wy “ xT ˚ w, S ˚ y (71.295)
for every S P M and T P M 1 .

Proposition 71.144.
If ÏpT q “ xv, T vy is a trace, then JSv “ S ˚ v for every S P M 1 .
Proof. When T runs over M , the element T v spans a dense space, and we have, for T P M and
S P M 1:
xJSv, T vy “ xJT v, Svy “ xT ˚ v, Svy “ xv, T Svy “ xv, ST vy “ xS ˚ v, T vy. (71.296)
So the inner product of JSv and S ˚ v on any T v are the same. That proves that JSv “ S ˚ v.
Théorème 71.145.
For every von Neumann algebra M and every cyclic and separating vector v, there exists a modular
isometry.
Proof. No proof.
Corollaire 71.146.
The algebras M and M 1 are always algebraically isomorphic.
71.16.2 Example
Let M pGq where G is a non unimodular locally compact group. Thus M pGq “ Cc pGq2 . A
function f P Cc pGq defines an operator on L2 pGq by
ª
pf ›qpgq “ f phq›ph´1 gq dµphq (71.297)
G
where µ is a left Haar measure. We consider the functional Ï on M pGq
Ïpf q “ f peq. (71.298)
If G was unimodular, this would be a tracial weight, but in the non unimodular case, Ï is not even
a trace on Cc pGq.
71.16.3 Other example

Let G be a discrete group with counting measure. Suppose that G0 is an almost normal of
G, that means that each double coset G0 gG0 is a finite union of left cosets 13 . We define
A“ rG, G0 s “ tf : G0 zG{G0 Ñ such that f is finitely supportedu, (71.299)
and we introduce the product

ÿ
pf1 ‹ f2 qpgq “ f1 pgh´1 qf2 phq, (71.300)
hPG0 {G
and the involution f ˚ pgq “ f pg ´1 q. The map

Ï: rG, G0 s Ñ
(71.301)
f fiÑ f peq
is not a trace in the general case. Since Ïpf ˚ f q • 0 and Ïpf ˚ f q “ 0 implies f “ 0, we conclude
that Ï is a state.
In the case where G0 is a normal subgroup, however, it is a trace. We define
‡z : rG, G0 s Ñ rG, G0 s
` ˘ (71.302)
‡z pf q pgq “ pgqz f pgq
where pgq “ Lpgq{Rpgq where Lpgq is the number of left cosets in G0 gG0 and Rpgq is the number
of left cosets in G0 gG0 .
13. In the case of a normal subgroup, the double cosets are made of only one left coset.
Lemme 71.147.
We have
` ˘
Ïpf1 f2 q “ Ï f2 ‡pf1 q (71.303)
where ‡ “ ‡1 . The map ‡z is, moreover, an automorphism.
That lemma says that the non triviality of ‡ measures at what extend Ï is not a trace.
Proof. No proof.
If Ï is a trace, then the class of identity in rG, G0 s is cyclic and one can make a GNS
construction. Notice that ‡z is not a ˚-automorphism because
‡z pf ˚ q “ ‡´z̄ pf q˚ . (71.304)
If z is purely imaginary, ‡z is a ˚-automorphism.

Let H be the completion of A with respect to the inner product defined by the state Ï. The
algebra A acts on H by bounded operators of left multiplication 14 . Let v P H be defined by
#
1 if g P G0
vpgq “ (71.305)
0 else,
and let H0 “ A · v Ñ H .
Lemme 71.148.
We have
}‡1{2 pf q˚ v} “ }f v}, (71.306)
in other words, f fiÑ ‡1{2 pf ˚ q is a conjugate linear isometry.
Proof. First, notice that for every h P A and z P ,

` ˘
Ï ‡z phq “ Ïphq. (71.307)
We have
` ˘ ` ˘
}‡1{2 pf ˚ qv}2 “ Ï ‡1{2 pf ˚ q˚ ‡1{2 pf ˚ q “ Ï ‡´1{2 pf q‡1{2 pf ˚ q . (71.308)
Now we apply the relation (71.307) with z “ ´1{2, and we find that the latter line is equal to
` ˘ ` ˘ ´ ` ˘¯
Ï ‡´1 pf q‡0 pf ˚ q “ Ï ‡´1 pf qf ˚ “ Ï f ˚ ‡1 ‡´1 pf q “ Ïpf ˚ f q “ }f v}2 . (71.309)
Let M Ñ BpH q be the von Neumann algebra generated by A.
Proposition 71.149.
The formula
Jpf vq “ ‡1{2 pf ˚ qv (71.310)
defines a modular isometry for M with respect to v.
Proof. No proof.
14. Since A is not a C ˚ -algebra, we cannot invoke a GNS construction here.
71.16.4 Still an other example

Let A “ np q and
Ï : S fiÑ TrpST q (71.311)
where T is invertible and chosen in such a way that T • 0, TrpT q “ 1, so that Ï is a positive
faithful state. Let now H be the GNS Hilbert space and consider the map
‡z “ T z ST ´z . (71.312)
We have
` ˘ ` ˘
ÏpS1 S2 q “ TrpS1 S2 T q “ TrpS2 T S1 q “ TrpS2 T S1 T ´1 T q “ Tr S2 ‡pS1 qT “ Ï S2 ‡pS1 q ,
(71.313)
thus ‡1 has the same property as before to measure the lack of tracial property of Ï.
Once again, we pick v, the vacuum of the GNS representation, i.e. the representative of the
identity. The map
J : Sv fiÑ ‡1{2 pS ˚ qv (71.314)
is a modular isometry for M with respect to v.
71.16.5 Tomita’s theorem

Lemme 71.150.
The map
T › fiÑ T ˚ › (71.315)
is isometric if and only if › is a trace vector.
Proof. The fact for the map (71.315) to be an isometry means that xT ›, T ›y “ xT ˚ ›, T ˚ ›y. This
is equivalent to
x›, T ˚ T ›y “ x›, T T ˚ ›y, (71.316)
which means that › is a trace vector.
Théorème 71.151.
If v is a cyclic and separating vector for M Ñ BpH q, and if
ÏpT q “ xv, T vy, (71.317)
then there is a strongly dense ˚-subalgebra A Ñ M and a one parameter group of automorphisms
‡z : A Ñ A (z P ) such that
(1) The map z fiÑ ‡z pSq is holomorphic as map from into BpH q in the sense that it accepts
a power expansion ‡z “ T0 ` zT1 ` z 2 T2 ` . . .
(2) If z P i , then ‡z extends to a strongly continuous one parameter group of automorphisms
on M which only depends on Ï when the other conditions are satisfied.
(3) The maps Ï and ‡ are related by
` ˘
ÏpST q “ Ï T ‡pSq (71.318)
for every S, T P A, where ‡ “ ‡1 .

Moreover the formula
J : Sv fiÑ ‡1{2 pS ˚ qv (71.319)
defines a modular isometry for M with respect to v.
Notice that the point (2) does not depend on A.

Idea of the proof. We ignore the analytical issues. We define
S: H Ñ H
(71.320)
T v fiÑ T ˚ v.
For a general v, this is not an isometry (this is even unbounded), but we can try to have in idea
of what is S ˚ . Since S is conjugate linear, the equation to solve is
xST1 v, T2 vy “ xS ˚ T2 v, T1 vy. (71.321)
We have xT1˚ v, T2 vy “ xS ˚ T2 v, T1 vy. Since the Hilbert space H is build from a GNS construction,
the inner product is in fact given in terms of Ï:
` ˘ ` ˘
xT1˚ v, T2 vy “ ÏpT1 T2 q “ Ï T2 ‡pT1 q “ Ï ‡´1 pT2 qT1 “ x‡´1 pT2 q˚ v, T1 vy “ x‡pT2˚ qv, T1 cy,
(71.322)
so that
S ˚ pT vq “ ‡pT ˚ qv, (71.323)
which is an equation for S ˚ in the same time as for ‡. After computations, one shows that
S ˚ SpT vq “ ‡´1 pT qv. (71.324)
Conclusion: the automorphism ‡´1 (which is the inverse of ‡1 ) can be deduced from S. Moreover,
one can prove that S ˚ S is a linear (no more conjugate linear) positive, selfadjoint operator and
pS ˚ Sqz Sv “ ‡z pSq. (71.325)
Thus, in fact, the whole set t‡z uzP can be recovered from S and thus from Ï.
Notice that equation (71.325) makes no sense in the infinite dimensional case. More analytic
work is needed to be right.
Two one parameter families of automorphisms –t , —t : M Ñ M (P ) are outer equivalent if

there is a one parameter family of automorphisms “t : 2 pM q Ñ 2 pM q such that
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
S 0 –t pSq 0
“t “ . (71.326)
0 T 0 —t pT q
This is anêquivalence
˙ relation.
0
Since is a partial isometry, the automorphism “t has to send it to another partial
0 0
isometry, i.e. ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
0 0 Ut
“t “ (71.327)
0 0 0
where Ut is unitary. I we apply “t to the equality
ˆ ˙ˆ ˙ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
0 0 S 0 0 0 0
“ , (71.328)
0 0 0 0 0 0 S
we find ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
0 0 0 0
“t “ , (71.329)
0 Ut˚ 0
so that
Ut˚ –t pSqUt “ —t pSq. (71.330)
The conclusion is that –t and —t only differ by an inner automorphism.
When M “ BpH q, all automorphisms are inner and all the one parameter families of auto-
morphisms are equivalent to the identity.
If – and — are outer equivalent, they define the same homomorphism
AutpM q
Ñ OutpM q “ . (71.331)
InnpM q
We recall that if M is a von Neumann algebra of operators of the Hilbert space H , a vector ›
is cyclic if H “ M › and it is separating for M is T › “ 0 if and only if T “ 0.
Théorème 71.152 (Connes’ theorem).

The modular group of different cyclic and separating vectors are all outer equivalent.
Proof. Given two states Ï1 and Ï2 , we define
Ï : 2 pM q Ñ
ˆ ˙
T11 T12 1` ˘ (71.332)
fiÑ Ï1 pT11 q ` Ï2 pT22 q ,
T21 T22 2
which is a faithful normal state. Then apply Tomita’s theorem.
71.16.6 Modular group

This subsection is based on [572].
If › is cyclic and separating and if T fiÑ T ˚ is an isometric involution on M , the antilinear map
T › fiÑ T ˚ › is densely defined on M › Ä H . We denote by
S› : H Ñ H (71.333)
the closure. Thus everywhere it makes sense we have S› pT ›q “ T ˚ ›. The operator S› has the
polar decomposition
1{2
S› “ J› › . (71.334)
1{2
The antilinear part J› is said the modular conjugation while the operator › is the modular
operator associated with the pair pM, ›q. We have › “ S›˚ S› .
Now, instead of referring to the cyclic separating vector, we can consider a faithful normal
state Ê and think about its associated cyclic separating vector in the GNS cyclic representation
pfiÊ , HÊ , ›Ê q. In this setting, the modular group of automorphism of the pair pM, Êq is ‡ Ê
defined by
` ˘
‡tÊ pT q “ fiÊ´1 it ít
Ê fiÊ pT q Ê (71.335)
` ˘
for T P M and t P . Here Ê is the modular operator associated with the pair fiÊ pM q, ›Ê .
Théorème 71.153.
The modular group ‡ Ê : Ñ AutpM q associated with the pair pM, Êq satisfies the following con-
ditions (the modular condition):
(1) Ê is ‡ Ê -invariant, that means that Ê “ Ê ˝ ‡tÊ .
(2) for every x, y P M , there exists a bounded function Fxy on the strip
D̄ “ tz P tel que 0 § Impzq § 1u (71.336)
which is holomorphic on the interior of D̄ and such that

` ˘
Fxy ptq “ Ê ‡tÊ pxqy (71.337a)
` ˘
Fxy pt ` iq “ Ê y‡tÊ pxq . (71.337b)
Moreover, the map ‡ Ê is defined in an unique way by these two properties.

Let H be an Hilbert space and an acting von Neumann algebra M of compact operators on
H . Let › be a cyclic separating vector. We define
j› : M Ñ M 1
(71.338)
x fiÑ J› xJ›
Tomita’s theorem shows that this map is well defined and that it takes values in M 1 .
If › is a trace vector (definition 57.8), the map j› is the involution:
j› pxq “ x˚ (71.339)
71.16.7 Standard positive cone

The standard positive cone H›` associated wit the pair pM, ›q is the set
txj› pxq› P H tel que x P M u. (71.340)
A standard form of a von Neumann algebra M acting on H is a self dual cone H ` and an
antilinear involution J such that pM, H , H ` , Jq satisfies
(1) JM J “ M 1 ;
(2) JxJ “ x˚ for every x P M X M 1 ;
(3) J÷ “ ÷ for every ÷ P H ` ;
(4) pxJxJqH ` Ä H ` for every x P M .

71 Von Neumann Algebras - Mazhe

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71 Von Neumann Algebras - Mazhe

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Chapter 71

von Neumann algebras

71.1 Functional, representation and automorphism

Proof. Apply lemma 71.2 to the set

Proof. Take a basis of H in the lemma 71.3.

Théorème 71.5 (Double commutant).

Notice that the operator S is in general not a limit of a sequence.

Let G be a group and ﬁ, an unitary representation of G and M be the commutant of ﬁpGq.

So, if ﬁ is irreducible then M is made of multiples of identity.

Lemme 71.8 ([503]).

The following decomposition is the polar decomposition.

It remains to be proved that V P M .

71.3 Examples of von Neumann algebras

71.3.1 Algebra L8 pXq

where h “ T f0 . So an element of L8 pXq1 reveals to be a multiplication by a function. We have

}gh}2 “ }T g}2 § }T } · }g}2

71.3.2 Countable direct sum of Hilbert spaces

71.3.3 Direct limit

}ﬁ1 paq} “ }ﬁ2 paq} (71.6)

Problèmes et choses à faire

xv1 b . . . b vk , w1 b . . . b wk y “ xv1 , w1 y . . . xvk , wk y. (71.7)

Now pick unit vectors vk P Hk and define the maps

with wli P Hl , and we act on it by an element of A by

I’m not sure of the next affirmation.

Let T P BpHq. For each pF, ‘q P E, there is a TpF,‘q P ﬁpAq

71.4 Continuous dimensions

Ï⁄ pa1 b a2 b . . . b ak b b . . .q “ Ï⁄ pa1 qÏ⁄ pa2 q . . . “ Trpa1 s⁄ q Trpa2 s⁄ q (71.14)

Théorème 71.14 (Powers).

71.6 More general state

the operator norm in the sense of that endomorphism space.

71.7 Group measure space construction

71.7.1 First attempt

pgµqpEq “ µpg ´1 Eq, (71.16)

and the action of G on the functions by

pgf qpxq “ f pg ´1 xq. (71.17)

Théorème 71.16 (Radon-Nikod˝m).

The useful statement in our case is:

tMf u1 “ tMf tel que f P L8 pX, µqu.

71.7.2 Second attempt

Proof. No proof up to now.

extends to a trace state on M pG, Xq.

Proof. By definition, Ïµ pT q “ xf0 , T f0 y where f0 peq “ 1 and f0 pgq “ 0 otherwise. We have

71.7.3 First generalisation

pMT Ïqpgq “ g ´1 pT qÏpgq

where Ï P l2 pGmHq. We also define

pUh Ïqpgq “ Ïph´1 gq.

M pG, N q “ tUh , MT u2 . (71.30)

71.7.4 Second generalisation

The measure on “ax ` b” is dm “ a12 da db.

71.7.5 One particular case

Problèmes et choses à faire

Wk Sfh “ SWk fh “ Sfhk´1 ,

and taking h “ k, we find

Ug pxi qiP “ pxi ` 1qiP .

A function f P CpS 1 q is bounded (since S 1 is compact), to that if s P L2 pS 1 q, the product function

If one acts separately on each of the “fixed” g, we obtain an action

that can be composed with the trace Ï to give

for each f P CpS 1 q.

71.8 More about projections

p _ q “ projection onto Imageppq ` Imagepqq (71.37)

Proof. Left as an exercise.

Proof. There exists an unitary representation ﬁ : G Ñ EndpH q whose M is the commutant: