Chapter 56

Classical mechanics

56.1 Some symplectic and Poisson geometry

56.1.1 Symplectic manifold
A symplectic structure on a vector space V is a skew-symmetric, nondegenerate bilinear
2-form : V ˆ V Ñ . We define the symplectic group SPp q as the group of linear operators
A : V Ñ V such that pAu, Avq “ pu, vq for every u, v P V . It is easy to see that elements of
SPpV q satisfy
At A “ . (56.1)

The Lie algebra of SPp q is denoted by spp q. Taking the derivative of equation (56.1) with
respect to A, one finds the following condition for B P spp q:

B ` Bt “ 0. (56.2)

If W is a subspace of the symplectic vector space V , the symplectic complement is

W Ê “ tx P V tel que Êpx, yq “ 0 @y P W u. (56.3)

We say that W is a Lagrangian of V when W “ W Ê . Typically, when one consider the canonical
structure ppi , qj q “ ”ij on 2n , the spaces Spantpi tel que i “ 1, . . . , nu and Spantqi tel que i “
1, ¨ ¨ ¨ , nu are Lagrangian.
A symplectic manifold is the data of a smooth manifold M and a symplectic structure Êx
on each tangent space Tx M . The map x fiÑ Êx is required to be a smooth section of the 2-tensor
bundle.

Définition 56.1.
A symplectic Lie algebra is a Lie algebra s endowed with a symplectic structure Ê such that @x,
y, z P s,
Êprx, ys, zq ` Êpry, zs, xq ` Êprz, xs, yq “ 0. (56.4)

56.1.2 Poisson manifold

Let M be a smooth manifold. A Poisson structure, or a Poisson bracket on M is a map
t., .u : C 8 pM q ˆ C 8 pM q Ñ C 8 pM q such that
` ˘
(1) C 8 pM q, t., .u is a Lie algebra,
(2) for each f P C 8 pM q, the map tf, .u is a derivation of the algebra C 8 pM q:

tf, ghu “ tf, guh ` gtf, hu.

2399
2400 CHAPTER 56. CLASSICAL MECHANICS

56.1.3 Hamiltonian action

Let pM1 , Ê1 q and pM2 , Ê2 q be symplectic manifolds. A symplectomorphism from M1 to M2
is a diffeomorphism Ï : M1 Ñ M2 such that Ï˚ Ê2 “ Ê1 .
For any function f P C 8 pM q, we define the Hamiltonian field Xf P XpM q associated with f
by
ipXf qÊ “ df. (56.5)
Existence of such a Xf for each f is assured because Ê is nondegenerate. A symplectic structure
induces a Poisson bracket by defining

tf, gu “ ´ÊpXf , Xg q “ ´Xg pf q “ Xf pgq. (56.6)

In local coordinates, one can write Ê “ 12 Êij dxi ^dxj and Xf “ Ê ij Bi f Bj , where pÊ ij q is the inverse
matrix of pÊij q. The Poisson tensor defined by

tf, gu “ P kl Bk f Bl g, (56.7)

is nothing else than P “ Ê ´1 .

Théorème 56.2.
If Ï : M Ñ M 1 is a diffeomorphism between two Poisson manifolds pM, P q and pM 1 , P 1 q, then the
following are equivalent:
(1) Ï˚ pXf ˝Ï q “ Xf1 ,
(2) tu ˝ Ï, v ˝ Ïu “ tu, vu1 ˝ Ï,
(3) Ï˚ P “ P 1 ,
If moreover the Poisson structures P and P 1 come from symplectic forms Ê and Ê 1 , Ï˚ Ê 1 “ Ê.

Définition 56.3.
Let · : GˆM Ñ M be a symplectic action of a Lie group G on M (i.e. ·g : M Ñ M is a symplectic
transformation of M for each g P G). That action is Hamiltonian if, for every X P G, there
exists a map ⁄X P C 8 pM, q such that

ipX ˚ qÊ “ d⁄X , (56.8a)

t⁄X , ⁄Y u “ ⁄rX,Y s (56.8b)

where X ˚ is the fundamental vector field associated with the vector X.

Définition 56.4.
The map ⁄ : G Ñ C 8 pM q which satisfies (56.8) is the dual momentum map while the momentum
map is J : M Ñ G ˚ defined by
⁄X pxq “ xJpxq, Xy (56.9)
for all X P G.

Using the musical isomorphism (see 49.3.3), equation (56.8a) can be written as pd⁄X q7 “ X ˚
or d⁄X “ pX ˚ q5 .
Since ipX⁄Y qÊ “ d⁄Y “ ipY ˚ qÊ, we have:

X⁄Y “ Y ˚ . (56.10)

The symplectic gradient is

sgrad u “ pduq7 .

Remarque 56.5.
If the action only fulfils (56.8a), it is said to be weakly Hamiltonian. But one can find some
literature in which the first condition is called a Hamiltonian action and the second, a strongly
Hamiltonian one.
56.1. SOME SYMPLECTIC AND POISSON GEOMETRY 2401

Remarque 56.6.
Be careful with some choices of signs. We made at least three choices: the definition of ⁄X in
(56.8a) can get a minus sign; the definition of the Poisson bracket (56.6) is modulo a sign; and the
definition of the fundamental fields that we take is
d” ı
Xx˚ “ ·e´tX x . (56.11)
dt t“0

It can be written without the minus sign in the exponential. Each of these choice is free, by
condition (56.8b) is not! If one make “wrong” choices, this can become

t⁄X , ⁄Y u “ ´⁄rX,Y s , (56.12)

ˇ
with all the consequences in the computations. For example, if one defines Xx˚ “ dt ·exp tX x t“0 ,
d ˇ
one finds an extra minus sign in equations (80.39), (80.41) and (80.43).

56.1.4 Coadjoint orbits

Let G be a Lie group and G its Lie algebra. We know that G acts on the dual G ˚ by

g · › “ › ˝ Adpg ´1 q “ Adpgq˚ › (56.13)

for g P G and › P G ˚ . The second equality defines the coadjoint action Ad˚ : G ˆ G ˚ Ñ G ˚ . In
other words, for all X P G,

pg · ›qpXq “ x›, Adpg ´1 qXy “ xAdpgq˚ p›q, Xy.

This representation is also called the contragredient representation. In this context, the notion
of fundamental fields is given bu X›˚ “ › ˝ adpXq. Let ◊› “ tg · ›|g P Gu, the orbit of › in G ˚ . It
can be shown that
Ễx pXx˚ , Yx˚ q “ xx, rX, Y sy (56.14)
defines a symplectic form on ◊› , the coadjoint orbit of ›.

Proposition 56.7.
The coadjoint action is Hamiltonian.

Proposition 56.8.
The diffeomorphism
Ïpgq : ◊› Ñ ◊›
(56.15)
› fiÑ g · ›
fulfils ` ˘
Ïpgq˚ Ê › pX›˚ , Y›˚ q “ Ê› pX›˚ , Y›˚ q.

56.1.5 Example of adjoint and coadjoint orbit

Let us consider the following subgroup of SLp2, q
ˆ ˙
a n
“t where a ° 0 and n P u. (56.16)
0 a´1

The Lie algebra is ˆ ˙

x y
s“t where x, y P u. (56.17)
0 ´x
The following is a basis of s: ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
1 0 0 1
H“ E“ (56.18)
0 ´1 0 0
2402 CHAPTER 56. CLASSICAL MECHANICS

and the commutation relation is rH, Es “ 2E. Since we are in a matrix group, the adjoint action
is given by AdpgqX “ gXg ´1 and we can compute
ˆ ˙
x ay 2 ´ 2nax
Adpa, nqpx, yq “ “ xH ` pa2 y ´ 2naxqE (56.19)
0 ´x
Thus the adjoint orbits are the straight lines.
For the coadjoint orbits, consider an element › “ ›H H ˚ ` ›E E ˚ P s˚ . We have
xAd˚ pg ´1 q›, X0 y “ x›, AdpgqXy
(56.20)
“ p›H ´ 2na›E qx ` a2 ›E y.
If we write › “ p›H , ›E q we have
ˆ ˙ˆ ˙
1 ´2na ›H
Ad pa, nq
˚ ´1
p›H , ›E q “ . (56.21)
0 a2 ›E
This is the orbit of ›. Notice that H ˚ is fix while E ˚ fiÑ ´2naH ˚ ` a2 E ˚ , so that E ˚ has a quite
large orbit. If ›2 ‰ 0, then dim Ad˚ p q› “ 2. If ›E “ 0, then the orbit is one single point. Thus
we have three kind orbits in the plane pH ˚ , E ˚ q:
(1) the upper half plane is one two dimensional orbit,
(2) each of the point on the ›E “ 0 is an orbit,
(3) the lower half plane is a second two dimensional orbit.
These orbits are very different from the adjoint orbits.

56.1.6 A second example

Let g “ SLp2, q and the basis tH, E, F u with the relations
rH, Es “ 2E
rH, F s “ ´2F (56.22)
rE, F s “ H.
The Killing form is given by the matrix
¨ ˛
8 0 0
— “ ˝0 0 4‚. (56.23)
0 4 0
It is nondegenerate and its signature is `, `, ´.

Lemme 56.9.
If the Killing form — is nondegenerate, the map
5 : g Ñ g˚
(56.24)
X 5 pyq “ —pX, Y q
is a linear Ad-equivariant isomorphism, that is
` ˘5
Ad˚ pgqpX 5 q “ AdpgqX . (56.25)
Proof. We have ` ˘
xAd˚ pgqX 5 , Y y “ — X, Adpg ´1 qY
` ˘
“ — AdpgqX, Y (56.26)
` ˘5
“ AdpgqX Y.

In that case, the 5 map intertwines the actions and the adjoint orbits are the same as the
coadjoint orbits.
56.1. SOME SYMPLECTIC AND POISSON GEOMETRY 2403

56.1.7 Kostant theorem

Let G act transitively on M and on G ˚ by the coadjoint action (56.13). We suppose this action
to be Hamiltonian. One can prove that J is equivariant:
Jpg · xq “ g · Jpxq (56.27)
where the first dot is the action on M and the second one, the action on G ˚ . The momentum map
G˚
of M and G ˚ are related by ⁄M X “ ⁄X ˝ J. Since G is transitive on M , for any x P M , we have
M “ G · x for any x in M , so
JpM q “ G · Jpxq.
We conclude that JpM q is only one orbit in G ˚ .

Proposition 56.10.
Let O be the coadjoint orbit of a connected Lie group G. Then O is canonically endowed by a
Ad˚ pGq-equivariant symplectic structure given by
Ê›O pX ˚ , Y ˚ q “ x›, rx, Y sy (56.28)
where X ˚ stands for the fundamental vector. Here the equivariance means
Ad˚ pgqÊ O “ Ê O (56.29)
for every g P G.

Proof. No proof.

The formula (56.28) is Kirillov-Kostant-Souriau. Notice that this proposition shows that the
coadjoint orbits are always even dimensional.
If › P G ˚ , we know a symplectic structure on its orbit ◊› :
Ê÷◊ pX÷˚ , Y÷˚ q “ ÷prX, Y sq (56.30)
for all ÷ P ◊› . We have

pJ ˚ Ê ◊ qx pX ˚M , Y ˚M q “ ÊJpxq
◊
pX ˚ , Y ˚ q
“ JpxqrX, Y s
(56.31)
“ ⁄M
rX,Y s pxq
“ t⁄M M
X , ⁄Y upxq,

and if M is symplectic, it also fulfils ÊxM pX ˚M , Y ˚M q “ t⁄M

X , ⁄Y upxq, so that
M

J ˚Ê◊ “ ÊM . (56.32)
Théorème 56.11 (Kostant theorem).
Let pM, Êq be a symplectic manifold on which the connected Lie group G has a transitive Hamilto-
nian action. Then the momentum map J : M Ñ G ˚ takes his values in only one orbit ◊ and J is
a covering 1 of G in G ˚ .

Proof. Let us fix a x P M , we pose › “ Jpxq and define Gx , the stabilizer of x in G. Formula
Âpgq “ g · x defines a bijection  : G{Gx Ñ M . So we identify M “ G{Gx . In the same way,
◊› “ G{G› . So we can write Jpxq “ G› and
Jpg · Gx q “ g · Jpxq “ g · G› .
Since g · › “ g · Jpxq “ Jpg · xq “ Jpxq “ ›, we have Gx Ä G› . The nondegenerateness of Ê M
and Ê ◊ makes J nondegenerate because Ê M “ J ˚ Ê ◊ . Then dJ is injective and J is an immersion.
We conclude that Gx “ G› which proves that G› {Gx is discrete and finally that J is a covering.

1. revêtement, en français.
2404 CHAPTER 56. CLASSICAL MECHANICS

56.1.8 Central extension

Let G be a Lie algebra. A Chevalley coboundary is a 2-form which reads ”› for a certain
› P G ˚ with ” defined by
p”›qpA, Bq “ ´›prA, Bsq. (56.33)
Let be a 2-cocycle. If it is not a coboundary, we add an element C in G and we consider
G 1 “ G ‘ C with the Lie algebra structure

rA ` s, B ` tsG 1 “ rA, BsG ` pA, BqC. (56.34)

This is the central extension of G with respect to the 2-cocycle . The terminology comes from
the fact that the extension C belongs to the center of G 1 . The point is that is a coboundary
in G 1 because
` ˘
p”C ˚ qpA, Bq “ C ˚ rA, BsG 1 “ C ˚ rA, BsG ` pA, BqC “ pA, Bq, (56.35)

so that “ ”C ˚ .
Now we suppose that the group G acts on a manifold M . We define the action of the extended
group G1 “ G b e C by saying that the “new” part does not act: pg, sq · x “ g · x. Fundamental
fields remains unchanged:
pX, sq˚ “ X ˚ . (56.36)
If the action of G on M is weakly Hamiltonian, we have functions µx : M Ñ such that ipX ˚ qÊ “
dµX . These functions fulfil X ˚ “ tµX , .u. We define

⁄X,s “ µX ` s. (56.37)

Proposition 56.12.
The action of G1 is (strongly) Hamiltonian for these functions.

Proof. From equation (56.36), we have tµX , .u “ tµX,s , .u hence

t⁄pX,sq , ⁄pY,tq u “ tµX , µY u “ µrX,Y s ` CX,Y (56.38)

` ˘
for certain constants CXY which satisfy the property d tµX , µY u ´ µrX,Y s “ 0. Therefore

t⁄pX,sq , ⁄pY,tq u “ ⁄rX,Y s,CX,Y “ ⁄rpX,sq,pY,tqs . (56.39)

The sense of the whole construction is the following. When the action G is weakly Hamiltonian
on M , we have functions µX which define by

tµX , µY u “ µrX,Y s ` pX, Y q.

In this case, the corresponding group extension has a strongly Hamiltonian action with momentum
maps given by (56.37).

56.2 Constrained system

56.2.1 Holonomic constraints
References are [441, 500]. An holonomic constraint appears when one force a particle to
move for an example on a circle. More formally let Q be the configuration space; an holonomic
constraint is a submanifold N Ä Q, or more generally an integrable subbundle of T Q. From the
inclusion T N Ä T N , the Lagrangian restricts to LN : T N Ñ .
56.2. CONSTRAINED SYSTEM 2405

We assume that LN is a regular Lagrangian (see definition on page 2089) and that N is given
by an equation of the form N “ Ï´1 p0q for a certain section Ï : Q Ñ E ˚ of the dual of a vector
bundle over Q. The variational principle is given by
ª
” LN pq, qqdt
9 “0 (56.40)
` ˘
where the function q is constrained by Ï qptq “ 0 for every t. We enforce that condition by the
Lagrange multiplier method:
ª ´
` ˘ @ ` ˘ ` D¯
” 9
L qptq, qptq ´ ⁄ qptq, t , Ï qptqq dt (56.41)

where ⁄ is a function of pq, tq with values in E. The ” denotes a variation on the curves q in Q
and ⁄ in E. In local coordinates, the Euler-Lagrange equations read
ˆ ˙
d BL BL BÏa
“ i ´⁄ i , Ïa “ 0. (56.42)
dt B q9i Bq Bq
So the Euler-Lagrange equations for LN on N are the sames as the one of L on Q, with the
constraint Ï “ 0.

56.2.2 Primary constraints

The action is given by ª t2
Spqq “ 9
Lpq, qqdt,
t1
and we require the action to be stationary with respect ´
to variations
¯ ”q vanishing on t1 and t2 .
The Euler-Lagrange equations are given by ”q “ Bq ´ dt Bq9 “ 0 or, in coordinates,
”S BL d BL

BL BL BL
0“ ´ q9l l k ´ q:l l k .
Bq k Bq Bq B q9 B q9
when the Hessian matrix is invertible, i.e. when
ˆ ˙
BL
det ‰ 0,
B q9l B q9k
one can solve these equations in an algebraic way for the accelerations q: in functions of the positions
q and the velocities q.
9 When that determinant is vanishing, some of the Euler-Lagrange equations
are simple relations between components of q and components of q, 9 so that the solutions include
some arbitrary functions of time.

56.2.2.1 Example: Maxwell

The action is ª
1
SpAq “ ´ Fµ‹ F µ‹ d4 x
4
with Fµ‹ “ Bµ A‹ ´ B‹ Aµ . That actions has a gauge invariance
Aµ fiÑ A1µ “ Aµ ` Bµ f

for any function f . The equations of motion are B‹ F µ‹ “ 0, in particular the equation Ò ˆ B “
Bt E “ 0 provides the A:k in terms of the Al and A9 µ . Indeed the Hessian
¨ ˛
0
B2 L ` ˘ ˚ 1 ‹
“ ´4 g 0— g –0 ` g –— “ ˚ ‹,
B A9 – B A9 — ˝ 1 ‚
1
has vanishing determinant.
2406 CHAPTER 56. CLASSICAL MECHANICS

56.2.3 Passage to Hamiltonian formalism

The very principle is to define the momentums pk “ BL
B q9k
, so that

Bpk B2 L
“ ,
B q9l B q9l B q9k
so that the vanishing determinant condition makes that it is not possible to solve the velocities
q9k “ q9k pq, pq. That means that the momentums are not independent: there exists relations
„m pp, qq “ 0 (56.43)
for m “ 1, . . . , M . These relations are the primary constraints: they do not rely on the equations
of motion. In other terms, we have ` ˘
9 “0
„m q, ppq, qq
identically, and not only on the solutions.
In the Maxwell example, we pose the momentums fi – “ BL
B A9 –
“ F 0– . Notice that fi 0 ` F 00 “ 0
and that the remaining is fi k “ E k (the electric field).
If one suppose the rank of the Hessian to be constant, the constraints „m pq, pq “ 0 define a
submanifold of the phase space. This is the primary constraint surface.
Suppose that the primary constraints can be divided into one set of independent constraints
B„
„m , m “ 1, . . . , M 1 with the rank of BXm1 being M 1 (X “ pq, pq) and some dependent constraints
„m̄ such that vanishing of all the „m1 implies the vanishing of all the „m̄ .
In that case, we have two important results.

Théorème 56.13.
If a function G vanishes on the constraint surface „m “ 0, then there exists functions g m such that
G “ g m „m .

Théorème 56.14.
If ⁄k ”q k ` µk ”pk “ 0 for every variations ”q k and ”pk tangent to the constraint surface, then
B„m
⁄k “ um (56.44)
Bq k
B„m
µk “ um (56.45)
Bpk
for some functions um .

The tangent assumption means that

B„m k B„m
”„m “ ”q ` ”pk “ 0.
Bq k Bpk
Now the Hamilton equations with „m “ 0 are provided by the action
ª t2
` k ˘
Spq, p, uq “ pk q9 ´ H ´ um „m dt (56.46)
t1
where the functions um are Lagrange multipliers. The equations of motion for p and u provide
expressions pk “ Pk pq, qq
9 and um “ U m pq, qq
9 in a purely algebraic way, so that one has a reduced
action
SL pqq “ Spq, P, U q
which satisfies
”SL ”S
k
“ k,
”q ”q
so that the variational principle for q are the same with SL as with the original S.
One can show that the equations of motion of the action (56.46) read
F9 “ rF, Hs ` um rF, „m s (56.47)
for any function F “ F pq, pq.
56.3. LIE GROUPOIDS AND ALGEBROIDS 2407

56.2.4 Secondary constraints

For consistency, one can impose that the constraints are preserved in time: „9 m “ 0. Using the
evolution equation (56.47) on the function „m , one finds, for each m,

„9 m “ r„m , Hs ` un r„m , „n s

which are relations between q and p. In the case where that relation is independent of the „m , one
has a secondary constraint Xpp, qq “ 0 which has to be preserved with the time, so that

rX, Hs ` un rX, „n s “ 0.

Once again, this is a relation between p and q.

56.3 Lie groupoids and algebroids

The reference for this section are [501, 502].
Let M be a manifold and A, a vector bundle over M . Let r., .s be a Lie algebra structure on A.
Then A becomes a Lie algebroid when we endow it by a homomorphism fl : A Ñ T M such that
(1) it induces a Lie algebra homomorphism on the sections, i.e. a fl : pM, Aq Ñ pT M q such
that flrÂ, Ïs “ rflpÂq, flpÏqs,
(2) for all f P C 8 pM q and Â, Ï P pM, Aq,
` ˘
rf Â, Ïs “ f rÂ, Ïs “ f rÂ, Ïs ´ flpÏqf Â. (56.48)

The map fl is the anchor. In order to be more precise for item (1), the anchor function fl : A Ñ T M
induces the homomorphism fl1 : pAq Ñ pT M q by formula

fl1 pÂqpxq “ flpÂpxqq. (56.49)

We will omit the prime and simply write fl for both functions.
The algebroid A admit standard coordinates pq, ⁄q where q are coordinates on M and ⁄ some
coordinates on the fibres (whose are vector spaces). These coordinates depends on a choice of a
local base › of sections of A: the set of sections t›i pxqu is a basis of the fibre Ax for each x P M .
IN terms of these coordinates, the Lie algebra structure of A reads

r›i , ›j s “ cijk ›k

where the cijk P C 8 pM q are the structure constant. In the same way, the anchor is given in terms
of functions aij P C 8 pM q by
B
flp›i q “ aij .
Bqj

56.3.1 Example: tangent bundle T M

If we consider A “ T M , the anchor is fl “ Id. Then formula (56.49) is flpÂqpxq “ Âpxq, and
the condition (56.48), with more familiar notations, reduces to

rf X, Y s “ f rX, Y s ´ pY f qX.

56.3.2 Example: a Lie algebra

Any Lie algebra G can be seen as an algebroid on a manifold M “ tpu is a manifold containing
only one point. In this case, any path in M is constant and the tangent space T M reduces to only
the zero vector. The identically vanishing map fl : G Ñ T M is an anchor.
2408 CHAPTER 56. CLASSICAL MECHANICS

56.3.3 Example: gauge algebroid

We consider the following principal bundle:

G /P

fi
✏
M

Let’s begin to give a structure of vector bundle on the quotient T P {G. What is clear is that T P
is a vector bundle p : T P Ñ M . The action of G on T P is

X› · g “ d·g X›

where · : P Ñ P is the action. So the quotient T P {G is taken with respect to the equivalence
X› „ d·g X› . Notice that X› P T› P and d·g X› P T› · g P ; in fact in each class rX› s, there is one
and only one vector at each point of the fibre of ›.
The differential dfi of the projection passes to quotient: dfipX› q “ dfipX› · gq. It follows that
the next definition is correct:
dfi : T P {G Ñ T M
(56.50)
dfirX› s “ dfiX› P Tfip›q M.
Now let us study the sections  : M Ñ T P {G.

Lemme 56.15.
The sections of T P {G are the G-equivariant vector fields on P . (see definition 53.15.)

Proof. We consider the map L : pM, T P {Gq Ñ pP, T P q,

pLÂqp›q “ Âpfip›qq|›

where, when q P T P {G, the symbol q|› denotes the element of T› P which belongs to q. In
particular, rX› s|› “ X› . The section LÂ is G-equivariant, i.e.

d·g pLÂqp›q “ pLÂqp› · gq. (56.51)

Indeed, d·g X› P rX› s, thus “ ‰

d·g Âpfi›q |› P rÂpfi›qs X T› · g P,
“ ‰
and there is only one element which is Âpfi›q |› · g “ pLÂqp› · gq.

Now, taking dfi as anchor, this construction gives an algebroid structure to T P {G. In order to
prove that we have to prove that
` ˘
rf Â, Ïs “ f rÂ, Ïs ´ flpÏqf Â

for any choice of sections Â, Ï : M Ñ T P {G and of function f : M Ñ . Here we have

fl : pM, T P {Gq Ñ pM, T M q

` ˘ (56.52)
flpÂqpxq “ dfi Âpxq .

The first think to be remarked is that a good choice of local section a : M Ñ P and vector fields
X, Y P pP, T P q on P , one can express  and Ï under the form
“ ‰ “ ‰
Âpxq “ pX ˝ aqpxq , Ïpxq “ pY ˝ aqpxq (56.53)

with the same a. On T P {G, we put the Lie bracket inherited from the one of T P :
” ı
rÂ, Ïspxq “ rX, Y s ˝ apxq . (56.54)
56.3. LIE GROUPOIDS AND ALGEBROIDS 2409

If X corresponds to  by (56.53), we have

” ı
pf Âqpxq “ f pxqpX ˝ aqpxq
”` ˘` ˘ı
“ pf ˝ ÂqX apxq ,

thus pf ˝ fiqX corresponds to f  in the sense of

´ ¯
pf ˝ fiqX p›q “ f pfi›qXp›q.

Then we have
”“ ‰ ı
rf Â, Ïspxq “ pf ˝ fiqX, Y ˝ apxq
”` ˘ ı
“ pf ˝ fiqrX, Y s ´ Y pf ˝ fiqX ˝ apxq
“ ‰ “ ‰
“ f pxqrX, Y s ˝ apxq ´ Y pf ˝ fiqX ˝ apxq .

What lies in the bracket of the second term reads better under the form:
` ˘
Y pf ˝ fiqX ˝ apxq “ Yapxq pf ˝ fiqXapxq .

We want this thing to be equal to

´` ˘ ¯ ` ˘
flpÏqf  pxq “ flpÏqpxqf Âpxq
` ˘ “ ‰
“ dfi Ïpxq f pX ˝ aqpxq
“ ‰ “ ‰
“ dfi pY ˝ aqpxq f pX ˝ aqpxq .
“ ı
In the latter expression, pY ˝ aqpxq P Tapxq P while dfi pY ˝ aqpxq P Tx M . Since dfi : T P Ñ T M
fulfils dfipX› · gq “ dfiX› , the differential of fi passes to the classes (this is the reason for which
we chose it a anchor) and
dfirpY ˝ aqpxqs “ dfipY ˝ aq P T M.

It remains to be proved that

”` ˘ ı ` ˘ “ ‰
Y pf ˝ fiqX ˝ apxq “ dfipY ˝ aqpxq f pX ˝ aqpxq ,

which is true because

Yapxq pf ˝ fiq “ pY ˝ aqpxq
“ pdf ˝ dfiqpY ˝ aqpxq
“ dfipY ˝ aqpxqf.

56.3.4 Poisson structure

Let us describe a Poisson structure on the dual A˚ . For this, we put a Poisson bracket on
each A˚x , x P M . Since the bracket only depends on differential, we just have to define it on affine
functions on the fibres. Two remarks: firstly, the functions which are constant on fibres can be
seen as functions on M and second, linear functions can be seen as sections of A because a linear
function on a vector space is equivalent to the data of a single vector. So let f, g : M Ñ be two
functions and Â, Ï : M Ñ A be sections. The bracket on C 8 pA˚ q is defined as

tf, gu “ 0, tf, Âu “ flpÂqf, tÂ, Ïu “ rÂ, Ïs. (56.55)

2410 CHAPTER 56. CLASSICAL MECHANICS

56.4 Lagrangian formalism

Let A be a Lie algebroid on a manifold M and a function L : A Ñ which we will call
Lagrangian. The Legendre mapping is the fibre derivative F L : A Ñ A˚ given by

F Lpaq P A˚fipaq , F Lpaqpbq “ dLa pbq. (56.56)

More precisely, the differential of L at a P A is a map from Ta A. In order to define F Lpaq P A˚ ,

we begin to consider the restriction L|a of L to the fibre of a. The differential of L|a : Afipaq Ñ is

pdL|a qa : Ta Afipaq Ñ ,

but the fibre Afipaq is a vector space which can therefore be identified with its dual space. Then
we have
pdL|a qa P A˚fipaq Ä A˚ .
When one has a Lagrangian on A, one define the action as the function A : A Ñ ,

Apvq “ xF Lpvq, vy, (56.57)

i.e. the action of F Lpvq P A˚fipvq on v P Afipvq . The energy is the function

E “ A ´ L.

The Lagrangian L is a regular Lagrangian if F L is a local diffeomorphism. In this case, one can
bring the Poisson structure of A˚ on A. The resulting Poisson structure on A is the Lagrange-
Poisson structure. For this, we have to define t›, ÷u when ›, ÷ P C 8 pAq. The natural definition
is
t›, ÷uA :“ tF Lp›q, F Lp÷quA˚ (56.58)
with the following definition of F Lp›q P C 8 pA˚ q:

F Lp›qpÊq “ ›pF L´1 pÊqq. (56.59)

The latter definition says that when Ê P A˚fipaq the element F L´1 pÊq is the element a such that
pdL|a qa “ Ê (this is an equality in A˚fipaq ).
Since we have a Poisson structure, we can consider the Hamiltonian field (see definition (56.5))
corresponding to the energy function E : A Ñ . This is a vector field on A. This field is the
Lagrangian vector field
In standard coordinates (see page 2407), the Lagrangian is a function pq, ⁄q fiÑ Lpq, ⁄q. In
order to build F L, we first restrict F to a fibre; so L becomes a function ⁄ fiÑ Lpq0 , ⁄q and thus
the derivatives which appear in F L are
BL
µi “ .
B⁄i
Now we try to express the Poisson structure on A in the standard coordinates. Fist, qi is a function
on A which associates to one point the component i of its projection. If Ê and ÷ both belong to
A˚x , the elements F L´1 pÊq and F L´1 p÷q both belongs to the same fibre Ax . Thus F Lpqi q is a
function that is constant on the fibres. So

tqi , qj u “ 0.

56.5 Groupoids
A set is a groupoid when we consider some maps
— –, — : Ñ 0 Ä ,
— m : 2 Ñ where 2 “ tpx, yq P ˆ tel que —pyq “ –pxqqu,
— i: Ñ
56.5. GROUPOIDS 2411

such that
(1) mpx, mpy, zqq is defined if and only if mpmpx, yq, zq is defined, and in this case, they are
equal,
(2) mp—pxq, xq “ mpx, –pxqq “ x,
(3) mpx, ipxqq and mpipxq, xq are defined to be respectively equal to —pxq and –pxq.
Notice that the fact for mpx, yq to be defined means that –pxq “ —pxq. As notations and terminol-
ogy, we adopt the following conventions. The map i is the inversion, m is the multiplication and
is denoted by a dot: mpx, yq “ x · y. We also write ipxq “ i´1 .
The first hypothesis is called associativity.

Lemme 56.16.
@ x P , we have

–p—pxqq “ —pxq (56.60a)

—p–pxqq “ –pxq. (56.60b)

Proof. From definition of a groupoid, —pxq · x “ x, so –p—pxqq “ —pxq. The other statement
comes in the same way.
Notice that the conclusion does not come from the equality —pxq · x “ x, but only from the
existence of the product —pxq · x.

Lemme 56.17.
If px, yq P 2 , we have

—px · yq “ —pxq (56.61a)

–px · yq “ –pyq (56.61b)

Proof. Since px, yq P 2, one can write x · y. Using x “ —pxq · x, and associativity we find:
` ˘
x · y “ —pxq · x · y “ —pxq · px · yq.

Existence of the last product implies –p—pxqq “ —px · xq. Using the equality –p—pxqq “ —pxq, we
find the second relation. The first one is proven by the same:
` ˘
x · y “ x · y · –pyq “ px · yq · –pxq.

Lemme 56.18.
For all x P , we have

–p–pxqq “ –pxq (56.62a)

—p—pxqq “ —pxq. (56.62b)

Proof. Using formula x · –pxq “ x in itself, and using associativity,

` ˘
px · –pxqq · –pxq “ x · –pxq · –pxq “ x.

The existence of the product –pxq · –pxq and the fact that — ˝ – “ – give the result.

Lemme 56.19.
Let us mention the following other properties:

–px´1 q “ —pxq —px´1 q “ –pxq (56.63)

–pxq · –pxq “ –pxq —pxq · —pxq “ —pxq (56.64)
2412 CHAPTER 56. CLASSICAL MECHANICS

the simplification rule:

x · y 1 “ x · y2 ñ y 1 “ y 2 (56.65)
x1 · y “ x2 · y ñ x1 ´ x2 , (56.66)

and the corollary

px´1 q´1 “ x. (56.67)

Proof. No proof.

Proposition 56.20.
The set 0 is the set of fixed points of – and —.

Proof. We proof that 0 “ tx P tel que –pxq “ xu; the same is true for —. The definition
of 0 is to be the image of –. Let x P 0 : there exists a y P such that x “ –pyq. So
–pxq “ –p–pyqq “ –pyq “ x.
For the reciprocal, let x “ –pxq. Then x P 0 because x belongs to the image of – — for
instance, the image of itself.

56.5.1 Example: when 0 “ teu

Let us prove that in the case when 0 reduces to only one point teu, the groupoid is a group
whose unit is e.
First, remark that for all x P , we have –pxq “ —pxq “ e, so that 2 “ and the multiplication
is everywhere defined. Associativity is not a problem. The map x ބ ipxq is the inverse because
x · ipxq “ —pxq “ e and ipxq · x “ –pxq “ e. We also have x · e “ e · x “ x because e “ –pxq
and x · –pxq “ x.

56.5.2 Example: the null groupoid

A null groupoid is a groupoid in which 0 “ . In this case, since 0 is the set of fix points
of – and —, we have
– “ — “ Id .

In order for x · y to exist, we need —pyq “ –pxq, which in the case of the null groupoid gives x “ y.
So the only products that are defined are

x · x “ x.

56.5.3 The case – “ —

The case – “ — regroup the two preceding cases. We will prove that for each u P 0 , the set
–´1 puq is a group with u as unit. Indeed let x, y P –´1 puq; it is clear that x · y exists because
—pyq “ –pyq “ x “ –pxq. So the product is defined everywhere. Proof of the fact that u is the
unit is easy:

x · u “ x “ x · –pxq “ x
u · x “ —pxq · x “ x,

and

x · ipxq “ —pxq “ u
ipxq · x “ –pxq “ u.
56.6. LIE GROUPOID 2413

56.5.4 An example on a vector bundle

We consider a vector bundle fi : E Ñ M and

0 “ tox tel que x P M u,

the set of the zero of each fibre. As groupoid law, we choose the addition in the fibres: when
fipvq “ fipwq, we define v · w “ v ` w, and as map – “ —, we naturally choose

–pvq “ —pvq “ ox

if v P Ex . In this case, –´1 poq is the fibre of o which is a group for the addition.

56.5.5 Orbits
Let be a groupoid and u P 0. The isotropy group of u is

u “ –´1 puq X — ´1 puq

In order to prove that it is a group, remark that if x, y P u,

–pxq “ –pyq “ —pxq “ —pyq “ u,

in particular, x · y exists and u has a law. It is easy to prove that u is th unit.

Notice that —p–´1 pxqq “ –p— ´1 pxqq. Indeed if y P —p–´1 pxqq, there exists a z such that
y “ —pzq and –pzq “ x. We have to find a z 1 such that y “ –pz 1 q and —pz 1 q “ x. The element
z 1 “ —pzq works.
The set —p–´1 pxq “ –p— ´1 pxqq is the orbit of trough x.

Proposition 56.21.
The set of orbits of is a partition of 0.

Proof. The proof is as easy as I want not to give you.

56.5.6 Morphism
If and 1 are two groupoids, the map f : Ñ 1 is a morphism if for each existing product
x · y in , we have
f pxq · f pyq “ f px · yq.
We see that automatically

— 1 pf pxqq · f pxq “ f pxq “ f p—pxq · xq “ f p—pxqq · f pxq;

so that the simplification rule gives

—1 ˝ f “ f ˝ — (56.68a)
1
– ˝ f “ f ˝ –. (56.68b)

56.6 Lie groupoid

A Lie groupoid is a (maybe non Hausdorff) manifold endowed with a groupoid structure such
that
(1) the set 0 is a Hausdorff manifold,
(2) the maps – and — are differentiable submersions,
(3) the multiplication m : 2 Ñ is differentiable,
(4) the inversion x Ñ x´1 is a diffeomorphism.