TRINITY INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

Biology investigatory project

Study of cancer

Name : Venishaasree .B
STD : XII – B
 Certificate

This is to certify that I, Venishaasree. B of class Xll - B of Trinity

international school has successfully completely the Biology Investigatory
Project on “Study of Cancer” under the guidance of Mr. Ganesan in
particular fulfillment of the curriculum of Central Board Of
Secondary Education { CBSE } leading to annual examination of
the year 2019-2020.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
As a student of Class XII, I did this project as a part of my
Studies entitled “Study of Cancer”. I owe a deep sense of
Gratitude to my biology teacher Mr. A.Ganesan, whose valuable
advice, guidance helped me in doing this project from conception to
completion. At the same time, I cannot forget to express my
gratitude to our school Principal Mr.D.Samuel Seelan for
extending his generous, patronage and constant encouragement.
Finally I am thankful to my parents for helping me economically, and
my friends for being a helping hand at every step of this project
Index
 What is cancer actually?
 Common type of cancer
 Some examples of cancers
 Sign and symptoms
 Difference between normal and cancer cell
 Prevention steps
 Formation Cancer cell
 Treatment of cancer
 Bibliography
 What is cancer?

Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells anywhere in a

body. These abnormal cells are termed cancer cells, malignant cells,
or tumor cells. These cells can infiltrate normal body tissues. Many
cancers and the abnormal cells that compose the cancer tissue are
further identified by the name of the tissue that the abnormal cells
originated from (for example, breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal
cancer). Cancer is not confined to humans; animals and other living
organisms can get cancer. Below is a schematic that shows normal
cell division and how when a cell is damaged or altered without
repair to its system, the cell usually dies. Also shown is what occurs
when such damaged or unrepaired cells do not die and become
cancer cells and show uncontrolled division and growth -- a mass of
cancer cells develop. Frequently, cancer cells can break away from
this original mass of cells, travel through the blood and lymph
systems, and lodge in other organs where they can again repeat the
uncontrolled growth cycle. This process of cancer cells leaving an
area and growing in another body area is termed metastatic spread
or metastasis. For example, if breast cancer cells spread to a bone, it
means that the individual has metastatic breast cancer to bone. This
is not the same as "bone cancer," which would mean the cancer had
started in the bone.
Types of cancer

Breast (Female – Male)

Colorectal Cancer
Endometrial
Kidney (Renal Cell and Renal Pelvis)
Cancer
Leukemia (All Types)
Lung (Including Bronchus)
Melanoma
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Pancreatic
Prostate
Thyroid
 Some examples of common
cancers

Breast cancer:
Breast cancer is a type of cancer that starts in
the breast. Cancer starts when cells begin to
grow out of con Breast cancer cells usually
form a tumor that can often be seen on an x-
ray or felt as a lump. Breast cancer occurs
almost entirely in women, but men can get
breast cancer, too.

Lung cancer (including bronchus):

Lung cancer is the second most common
cancer in American men and women. It’s also
the leading cause of cancer-related deaths
for both American men and women. One in
every four cancer-related deaths is from lung
cancer. Cigarette smoking is the leading
cause of lung cancer. Men who smoke are 23
times more likely to develop lung cancer. Women who smoke are 13
times more likely, both when compared with nonsmokers.
Prostate cancer:.
Prostate cancer is a serious disease that affects thousands of men
each year who are middle-aged or older. About 60 percent of the
cases occur in men older than age 65. The American Cancer Society
(ACS) estimates that 174,650 American men will be newly
diagnosed with this condition in 2019. The prostate is a small gland
found in a man’s lower abdomen. It’s located under the bladder and
surrounding the urethra. The prostate is regulated by the hormone
testosterone and produces seminal fluid, also known as semen.
Semen is the substance containing sperm that exits the urethra
during ejaculation

Thyroid cancer:
Thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the
lower front part of your neck. The hormones it
makes are carried throughout your body to
help regulate heat and energy.

Anaplastic thyroid cancer is one of four types

of thyroid cancer. It’s very rare: The American
Thyroid Association notes that this type represents less than 2
percent of all cases of thyroid cancer. It metastasizes, or spreads,
quickly to other organs. It’s one of the mostTrusted Source
aggressive cancers in humans.
Kidney (renal cell and renal pelvis) cancer:

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs,

each about the size of a fist. They’re located in
your abdomen on either side of your spine.
The kidneys filter out waste from your blood
and make urine. There are different types of
cancer that can affect your kidneys. The
National Cancer Institute estimates that there
were more than 63,000 new cases of kidney cancer in the United
States in 2017.

The incidence of kidney cancer appears to be increasing, according

to the Mayo Clinic. One possible reason may be increased screening
by CT scans.

Pancreatic cancer:

Pancreatic cancer occurs within the tissues of

the pancreas, which is a vital endocrine organ
located behind the stomach. The pancreas
plays an essential role in digestion by
producing enzymes that the body needs to
digest fats, carbo the pancreas also produces
two important hormones: glucagon and insulin. These hormones are
responsible for controlling glucose (sugar) metabolism. Insulin
helps cells metabolize glucose to make energy and glucagon helps
raise glucose levels when they are too low hydrates, and proteins
 Symptoms and signs

Symptoms and signs of cancer depend on the type of cancer, where

it is located, and/or where the cancer cells have spread. For
example, breast cancer may present as a lump in the breast or as
nipple discharge while metastatic breast cancer may present with
symptoms of pain (if spread to bones), extreme fatigue (lungs), or
seizures (brain). A few patients show no signs or symptoms until the
cancer is far advanced.

The American Cancer Society describes seven warning signs and/or

symptoms that a cancer may be present, and which should prompt a
person to seek medical attention. The word

CAUTION can help you remember these.

 Change in bowel or bladder habits

 A sore throat that does not heal

Unusual bleeding or discharge (for example, nipple secretions or a

"sore" that will not heal that oozes material)

 Thickening or lump in the breast, testicles, or elsewhere

 Indigestion (usually chronic) or difficulty swallowing
 Obvious change in the size, color, shape, or thickness of a wart
or mole
 Nagging cough or hoarseness

Other signs or symptoms may also alert you or your doctor to the
possibility of your having some form of cancer. These include the
following:
  Unexplained loss of weight or loss of appetite
 A new type of pain in the bones or other parts of the body that
may be steadily worsening, or come and go, but is unlike
previous pains one has had before
 Persistent fatigue, nausea, or vomiting
 Unexplained low-grade fevers with may be either persistent or
come and go
 Recurring infections which will not clear with usual treatment

Differnce between normal and

cancer cell
Normal Cell Cancer Cell

Cell shape Uniform Irregular

Spheroid shape, single Irregular shape, multi-

Nucleus nucleus nucleation common

Nucleolus Single, inconspicuous Multiple, enlarged nucleoli

 nucleolus

Cytoplasm Large cytoplasmic volume Small cytoplasmic volume

Growth Uncontrolled
Controlled

Maturation Mature into specialized Remain immature and

cells undifferentiated

Normal angiogenesis
Blood Tumor-induced
(occurs during
supply angiogenesis
development/ healing)

Favored (for aerobic Not required (thrive in

Oxygen respiration) but will hypoxic conditions), favor
undergo anaerobic anaerobic respiration
respiration if required

Can spread to different

Location Remain in their intended
locations in the body
location
(metastasis)

Steps to Prevent Cancer

DON’T USE TOBACCO

The use of tobacco products has been linked to many types of

cancer, including lung, colorectal, breast, throat, cervical, bladder,
mouth and esophageal. It’s never too late to quit. About 90 percent
of all lung cancer is related to smoking. Non-smokers who are
exposed to secondhand conditions.smoke are also at risk for
lung cancer and other respiratory

PROTECT YOUR SKIN FROM THE SUN

Skin cancer is the most common and most preventable cancer in the
United States. More than 96,400 people are diagnosed with
melanoma annually. Exposure to the sun’s ultraviolet radiation
causes most skin cancer. Be sure to use adequate sun protection
year-round. Never use indoor tanning beds.

EAT A HEALTHY DIET

Eat lots of fruits, vegetables, beans and whole grains. Limit red meat
and cut out processed meats. For healthy recipe ideas, visit our
blog. It is also important to limit alcohol consumption because
alcohol can increase your risk for liver, colorectal and breast
cancers. If you drink alcohol, have no more than two drinks a day if
you are a man or one drink a day if you are a woman.

MAINTAIN A HEALTHY WEIGHT AND BE PHYSICALLY ACTIVE

Getting at least 30 minutes of physical activity each day can make a

big difference in your general health and well-being. Inactivity and
obesity have been linked to breast and colorectal cancer, and there
is also some evidence of a link to lung and pancreatic cancer. Add
exercise to your routine to reduce stress, increase energy, boost
your immune system, control your weight and reduce your risk for
cancer.
VACCINES GET IMMUNIZED (HPV & HEPATITIS)

Certain viruses have been linked to cancer, but are preventable

through vaccination. Talk to your health care professional about the
age recommendations for HPV vaccines. In the U.S., approximately
one-third of liver cancers are linked to the hepatitis B virus (HBV)
and hepatitis C virus (HCV). An HBV vaccination is available and is
recommended for babies, older children who were not vaccinated
earlier and adults who are at risk for HBV infection.

KNOW YOUR FAMILY MEDICAL HISTORY AND GET REGULAR

CANCER SCREENINGS

Talk to your health care professional about cancer screening. Some

tests can help detect cancer early, when treatment is more likely to
be successful, and some can also detect precancerous conditions
before they become cancer. While screening has been proven to
save lives, screening guidelines aren’t always “one size fits all. ”

Formation of cancer cell

Cancer cells are usually formed after a series of mutations cause
them to become increasingly abnormal. These mutations are either
inherited or more often, caused by carcinogens (cancer-causing
substances) in our environment. That cancer is caused by not one
but several mutations explains why cancer is more common in older
people and why it is often multifactorial (meaning there are several
factors that work together to cause cancer) in origin. It also helps
explain a genetic predisposition to cancer. A genetic predisposition
does not mean you will get cancer, but, simplistically, if a few
mutations are already in place, it will likely take fewer acquired
mutations for a cell to become cancerous.
The process of normal cells becoming cancer often goes through
stages in which the cell becomes progressively more abnormal
appearing. These stages may include hyperplasia, dysplasia, and
finally cancer. You may also hear this described as differentiation.
Early on a cell may look much like normal cells of that organ or
tissue, but as progression occurs, the cell becomes increasingly
undifferentiated. This is, in fact, why sometimes the original source
of cancer cannot be determined.

Treatment of cancer

There are many types of cancer treatment. The types of treatment

that you receive will depend on the type of cancer you have and how
advanced it is.

Some people with cancer will have only one treatment. But most
people have a combination of treatments, such as surgery with
chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy. When you need treatment
for cancer, you have a lot to learn and think about. It is normal to
feel overwhelmed and confused. But, talking with your doctor and
learning about the types of treatment you may have can help you
feel more in control. Our Questions to Ask Your Doctor About
Treatment may help.

 Surgery.
The goal of surgery is to remove the cancer or as much of the
cancer as possible.
 Chemotherapy.

Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells.

 Radiation therapy.

Radiation therapy uses high-powered energy beams, such as

X-rays or protons, to kill cancer cells. Radiation treatment can
come from a machine outside your body (external beam
radiation), or it can be placed inside your body
(brachytherapy).
 Bone marrow transplant.
 Your bone marrow is the material inside your bones that
makes blood cells from blood stem cells. A bone marrow
transplant, also knowns as a stem cell transplant, can use your
own bone marrow stem cells or those from a donor.A bone
marrow transplant allows your doctor to use higher doses of
chemotherapy to treat your cancer. It may also be used to
replace diseased bone marrow.

 Immunotherapy.

Immunotherapy, also known as biological therapy, uses your

bodys immune system to fight cancer. Cancer can
survive unchecked in your body because your immune system
doesn't recognize it as an intruder. Immunotherapy can help
your immune system "see" the cancer and attack it.
 Hormone therapy.

Some types of cancer are fueled by your body's hormones.

Examples include breast cancer and prostate cancer.
Removing those hormones from the body or blocking their
effects may cause the cancer cells to stop growing.

 Targeted drug therapy.

 Targeted drug treatment focuses on specific abnormalities
within cancer cells that allow them to survive.

 Cryoablation.

This treatment kills cancer cells with cold. During

cryoablation, a thin, wandlike needle (cryoprobe) is inserted
through your skin and directly into the cancerous tumor. A gas
is pumped into the cryoprobe in order to freeze the tissue.
Then the tissue is allowed to thaw. The freezing and thawing
process is repeated several times during the same treatment
session in order to kill the cancer cells.

 Radiofrequency ablation

This treatment uses electrical energy to heat cancer cells,

causing them to die. During radiofrequency ablation, a doctor
guides a thin needle through the skin or through an incision
and into the cancer tissue. High-frequency energy passes
through the needle and causes the surrounding tissue to heat
up, killing the nearby cells.

 Clinical trials.
 Clinical trials are studies to investigate new ways of treating
cancer. Thousands of cancer clinical trials are underway
Bibliography
• https://en.wikipedia.org
• https://www.scribd.com