Chapter 5

Heat transfer
Heat transfer
Heat is transferred from one place or body to another by

conduction convection radiation

the energy of thermal heat is transferred is the transfer of heat

motion is transferred by by the mass movement energy through space
molecular collision of molecules from one by electromagnetic
along the object. place to another radiation.
5.1. Transfer of Heat by Conduction:
• Heat conduction in many materials can be
visualized as the result of molecular collisions.
• As one end of the object is heated, the molecules there
thermally vibrate faster and faster. As they collide
with their slower-vibrating neighbors, they transfer
some of their energy to these molecules whose
vibration, thus, increase.
• These in turn transfer some of their energy by
collision with molecules still farther along the object.
5.1. Transfer of Heat by Conduction:
• Heat conduction takes place only if there is a difference in
temperature.
• Indeed, it is found that the rate of heat flow through a
substance is proportional to the difference in temperature
between its ends.
• The rate of heat flow also depends on the size and shape of
the object.
5.2. Transfer of Heat by Convection:
• When a pot of water is heated convection currents are set up as the
heated water at the bottom of the pot rises because of its reduced
density and is replaced by cooler water from above.
5.3. Transfer of Heat by Radiation:
• The warm we receive from fire is mainly radiant energy.
• The rate of radiation is proportional to (Q/t ):
1- the area A of the emitting object
2- emissivity e of the surface
3- fourth power of the temperature(T4)
so the rate at which energy leaves the object is given by Stefan-Boltzmann equation:
• Q/t = e Ƃ A T4
where:
Ƃ : is a universal constant called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (= 5.67 x 10-8
W/m2K4).
T: is the absolute temperature in Kelven.
e: is the emissivity which is characteristic of the material (between 0 and 1).
5.4. Emissivity (e) and Absorptivity (a)
The emissivity "e" of a surface is defined as:
the ratio between the energy emitted from the surface es to that
emitted from a perfect black body eb at the same conditions, thus,
e = es / eb

• for a perfect black body, the emissivity e = 1, while

for a perfect polished surface, the emissivity e = 0.
5.4. Emissivity (e) and Absorptivity (a)

• The absorptivity “a" of a surface is defined as:

the ratio between the energy absorbed by the surface as and that

incident ei on it in the same time interval, Thus,

a = as / ei
5.4. Emissivity (e) and Absorptivity (a)
• Black and rough surfaces that are:
- good emitters are also good absorbers.
- A perfect black body absorbs the entire energy incident on it. ----
For perfect black body the absorptivity a = 1 and emissivity e=1.
• Bright and polished surfaces that are:
- bad emitters are also bad absorbers.
- A perfect polished surface does not absorb any portion of the
incident radiation
- For a perfect polished surface the absorptivity a = 0 and emissivity
e=0.
Chapter 4:
Thermometry
Thermometry
is the science and practice of temperature
measurement.
4.1. Temperature Measurement
Contact Thermometry: Contactless Thermometer:

(A) Thermocouple (A) Optical Pyrometer

(B) Resistance Thermometer (B) Infrared Thermometry

(C) Liquid Crystal

Thermometer
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(A) Thermocouple:
• A thermocouple produces a temperature-
dependent voltage as a result of the Seebeck effect.
• this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature.
 4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(A)Thermocouple:
• Consider a bar of metal that has a thermal
gradient between the two ends. This thermal
gradient causes a flow of heat in the bar from
the hot end to the cold one.
• The potential difference ( V) is a function of T and is
given by:

• S(T), which is called the absolute Thermoelectric power, (sensitivity) is a function of T.

4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
Thermocouple:
• The following figure shows two different metals with a
Temperature difference T between the ends.
• The hot ends are in electrical contact with each other.
We can write:
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(A) Thermocouple:

where T and T are the same for the two metals, but the values of thermoelectric
power Si(T) are not.
If S2(T) > S1(T), the potential between the two cold ends is give by:
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(A) Thermocouple:()‫هام‬
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(A) Thermocouple:
• While in principle, a thermocouple can be made of any two
dissimilar metals, there are several points has to be to
consider:
1. The materials must not melt at the temperatures of interest.
2. Some metals oxidize or react with certain environments at higher
temperature; this must be taken into account.
3. The difference [S2(T) – S1(T)] must be large enough to give the
thermocouple the desired sensitivity.
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(A) Thermocouple:
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(B) Resistance Thermometer:
• Since the electrical resistivity () of a metal is a function of
temperature, it provides a suitable parameter for determining
the temperature.
= RA/L
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(B) Resistance Thermometer:
• In an actual metal there are two contributions to the
resistivity:
1- a contribution t due to thermal vibrations.
2- a contribution i that results from the scattering of electrons from
impurity atoms. Thus,

Platinum has become the most commonly used metallic

material for resistance thermometers
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(C) Liquid Crystal Thermometer:
• Liquid crystals (LCs) :
are substances that exhibit a phase of matter that has properties
between those of a conventional liquid and those of a solid crystal.
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(C) Liquid Crystal Thermometer:

A liquid crystal thermometer or plastic strip thermometer:

is a type of thermometer that contains heat-sensitive (thermochromic)

liquid crystals in a plastic strip that change color to indicate different
temperatures.

As temperature changes can affect the color of a liquid crystal, this makes
them useful for temperature measurement
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.1.Contact Thermometry:
(C) Liquid Crystal Thermometer:
• Disposable liquid crystal thermometers:
have been developed for home and medical use. In medical
applications, liquid crystal thermometers may be used to read body
temperature by placing against the forehead.

• For example: if the thermometer is black and it is put onto some ones
forehead it will change colour depending how much temperature
the person has.
4.1. Temperature Measurement
• 4.1.2. Contactless Thermometer
(radiation thermometer ):
(A) Optical Pyrometer:
• is a non-contact type temperature measuring device.

• The main function of this instrument is to detect the very high

surface temperature of an object by measuring the
temperature of the electromagnetic radiation generated from
the object.
4.1. Temperature Measurement
• 4.1.2. Contactless Thermometer
(radiation thermometer ):
(A) Optical Pyrometer:
It consists the lens which focuses the radiated energy from
the heated object and targets it on the electric filament
lamp. The intensity of the filament depends on the current
passes through it.

Heated object
Convex lens Filament lamp
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.2. Contactless Thermometer:
• (B) Infrared Thermometry:
Infrared thermometers sense emitted, reflected and transmitted
energy from an object and translate this information into a
temperature reading.
4.1. Temperature Measurement
4.1.2. Contactless Thermometer:
• (B) Infrared Thermometry:
Advantages:
Infrared temperature measurement is ideal in cases:
• Object is too hot to touch or object is difficult to reach.
• Substance must remain contaminant free.
• Temperature is measured without contacting the heated body.