JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 103, NO.

D10, PAGES 11,537-11,553,MAY 27, 1998

Lightning energetics: Estimates of energy dissipation in

channels, channel radii, and channel-heating risetimes

Joseph E. Borovsky
Space and Atmospheric SciencesGroup, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico

Abstract. In this report, several lightning-channelparameters are calculated with the

aid of an electrodynamic model of lightning. The electrodynamic model describesdart
leaders and return strokesas electromagneticwavesthat are guided along conducting
lightning channels. Accordingto the model, electrostaticenergy is deliveredto the chan-
nel by a leader, where it is stored around the outside of the channel;subsequently,the
return stroke dissipatesthis locally stored energy. In this report this lightning-energy-
flow scenariois developedfurther. Then the energy dissipatedper unit length in lightning
channelsis calculated, where this quantity is now related to the linear charge density on
the channel, not to the cloud-to-groundelectrostatic potential difference. Energy conser-
vation is then used to calculate the radii of lightning channels: their initial radii at the
onset of return strokes and their final radii after the channels have pressureexpanded. Fi-
nally, the risetimes for channel heating during return strokes are calculated by defining
an energy-storageradius around the channel and by estimating the radial velocity of en-
ergy flow toward the channel during a return stroke. In three appendices,values for the
linear charge densitieson lightning channelsare calculated, estimates of the total length
of branch channelsare obtained, and values for the cloud-to-ground electrostatic potential
difference are estimated.

1. Introduction then estimates for the energy dissipatedper unit length

in lightning channels will be calculated, channel radii
In a previousreport [Borovsky,1995]an electrody- will be calculated, and channel-heating risetimes will
namic model of lightning dart leadersand return strokes be calculated. The estimates of energy per unit length
was presented. In that model, both the dart leader and will be lower than earlier theoretical estimates,and the
the return stroke are described as electric waves that
channel-radiusestimatesand heating-risetimeestimates
propagate along a conducting lightning channel. The will agree with standard values.
downward-propagatingdart-leader wave loads negative This report is outlined as follows. In section2 a pic-
changeonto the channel and loads electrostatic energy ture of the flow of power in the electrodynamicmodel
around the outside of the channel. The subsequent of lightning is developed. In section 3 information from
upward-propagatingreturn-stroke wave drains the neg- this power-flow picture is used to estimate the amount
ative charge off the channel and heats the channel by of energyper unit length that is dissipatedin a lightning
expendingthe stored energy. The net result of a dart- channel. In section4 these energy-dissipationestimates
leader/return-stroke
pair is that negativechargeis low- are utilized to estimate the amount of energy that is
ered from the thundercloud to the ground and energy available to produce a lightning channel and then to es-
is transferred from the thundercloud generator to the timate the radius of a lightning channel. In section 5
lightning channel. the fact that a return stroke is powered by stored elec-
This electrodynamic model provides a useful way of trostatic energy is used to estimate the heating time
conceptualizing the dynamics of lightning during the for a channel during a return stroke: this is done by
dart-leader and return-stroke phases, and the model estimating how far the energy is stored from a channel
provides a powerful basis for calculating lightning pa-
and by estimating the radial flow velocity of the energy
rameters. This basiscan also be extended to the stepped- toward the channel. In section 6 the values obtained in
leader phase for certain calculations. In this report this report are compared with values in the literature
the flow of energy in lightning will be conceptualized, and the electrodynamic model is assessedin light of this
comparison. In Appendix A the linear charge densities
on stepped-leader-fed and dart-leader-fed channels are
Copyright1998by AmericanGeophysicalUnion.
estimated, in Appendix B the total length of branch
Papernumber97JD03230. channelsbelowthunderclouds
comparedwith the length
0148-0227/98/97JD-0323 0509.00 of the main channelsbelow thunderclouds is measured,
11,537
11,538 BOROVSKY:LIGHTNING ENERGETICS

and in AppendixC the electrostaticpotentialdifference ciated image charges. During the dart-leader phase,
between a thundercloud and the ground is estimated. electrostaticenergyis loadedaroundthe channel(with
somechannelheatingoccurringduringthis phase).Dur-
ing the return-stroke phase, this stored electrostatic
2. Energy Flow in Dart Leaders and energy is expendedto heat the lightning channel. In
Return Strokes all phases,the energy is transported by meansof an
electrodynamicPoynting flux. During the dart-leader
In a recentlydevelopedelectrodynamicdescriptionof phase,the energy flowschiefly from the thundercloud
lightning[Borovsky, 1995],the movement of chargeand generatoralongthe outsideof the lightningchannelto
energyis causedby propagatingelectricwavesthat are the downgoingdart-leaderwavefront, wherethe flowing
guidedby the conductinglightningchannel.The dart energyis loadedaroundthe outsideof the channel(as
leader is described by a downgoing wave propagating E 2/8• energydensityin space)
andontothechannelit-
slowlyalonga coolchannel,and the return strokeis de- self(asOhmicheatingof the channelgas).Duringthe
scribedby an upgoingwavepropagatingrapidly alonga return-strokephasethe Poyntingflux is radially inward
warm channel. The dart leader, as it propagates,loads at the upward-propagatingwave front, indicatingthat
chargeonto the channeland loadselectrostaticenergy the E2/8• storedelectrostatic energythat wasoutside
E2/8?raroundthe channel(whileslightlyheatingthe the channel is being deliveredonto the channelwhere
channel),and a return stroke,as it propagates, drains the channel heating occurs. As can be inferred from
this channel charge to the ground and dissipatesthis Figure 1, the net result of a dart leader and its sub-
stored electrostatic energy into channel heating. The sequentreturn strokeis a transfer of chargefrom the
aspect of the electrodynamicdescriptionwherein the
dart leader acts to load charge onto a channel is sim-
ilar to earlier descriptionsof leaders[e.g., $chonland,
1938; Meek, 1939; Wagner and Hileman, 1961], and li tnngcharge
f'low charge
on
ground
the aspect of the electrodynamicdescriptionwherein
the return stroke acts as a drainage-initiation wave for :
:_ /
• ' charge
in
cloud ' '%
charge
onchannel,• '--.....
chargeon the channelis similar to earlier descriptions
[e.g., Price and Pierce, 1977; Linet al., 1980; Dien-
dorfer and Uman,1990]. However,the electrodynamic
model differssubstantially from theseearlier treatments
of leaders and return strokesin that the electrodynamic
model accounts for the flow of energy associatedwith .'" I\
the flow of charge. Additionally, the propertiesof the
charge-movingwaves that propagate along the chan-
nels are calculated from first principles in the electro- i i I I , , I •
dynamic model.
In Figure I the flow of charge and energy during a
• efore• dart-leader/ after/
dart leader phase phase return stroke
dart leader and return stroke is depicted. In the top ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I .... I ....

panel of the figure, the locationof the charge(•1owthat lightningenergyflow oh• heating,
dissociation, .
is lowered from the cloud to the ground is followedwith , energy
stored andionization•
time. (Note that (•1ow is not the total amountof charge ' /incloud
\ ,/ energy stored
.•
,' .....
in the thundercloud, but only the amount that will be "• along
channel . I
moved to the ground during one dart-leader/return- ß. I
strokepair.) Prior to the dart-leaderphase,the charge
residesentirely in the thundercloud. During the dart-
leader phase, the charge is transferred from the cloud
to the channel(onto the conductingchanneland into
the coronasheath). Duringthe return-strokephasethe
chargeis transferredfrom the channelto the ground.
For simplicity in Figure I the flow from the cloud is
taken to be shut off at the onset of the return-stroke
phase,but causally,this cannotreally be the case,since
• before
/•dart. leader/
dart leader
••ret•n-strok•
after
/ phase phase return stroke
information about the initiation of the return stroke
Time
takes a finite amount of time to reach the cloud.
Figure 1. In the top panelthe flowof chargeduringa dart
In the bottom panel of Figure I the flow of energyis leader and return stroke is depicted and in the bottom panel
depicted.Initially,the energytakesthe formof E2/8• the flow of energy during the dart leader and return stroke
electrostaticenergy associatedwith the chargesepara- is depicted. Note that the plot is for the entire lightning
tion produced within the thundercloudand the asso- channel, not just a segmentof the channel.
 BOROVSKY: LIGHTNING ENERGETICS 11,539

cloud to the ground and a transfer of energy from the RF emissions[e.g., Proctor, 1981, Figures14 and 15;
thundercloud to the channel. Proctor, 1983, Figures6-11]. Similarly,assumingthat
For a stepped-leader/return-stroke pair, Figure1 also the optical emissionsare caused by ohmic heating of
describesthe movementof chargeand energy. Similarly, air as current flows in channels, the network of feeder
the net result of a stepped leader and return stroke is channelscan be optically visualized in the casesof clear-
that charge is lowered from the thundercloud to the air lightning [e.g., Waldteufelet al., 1980, Figure 3].
ground and energy is transferred from the thundercloud The presence of a network of electrically conducting
generatorto the channel. Additionally, the channelis feeder channels is also consistent with radar probing
created. of lightningwithin thunderclouds[e.g., Holmeset al.,
1980], and feedernetworksare consistentwith electri-
cal dischargesof volume spacechargein the laboratory
3. The Energy per Unit Length Dissipated
[e.g.,Williams et al., 1985, Figure 2]. As a new region
in a Lightning Channel of a thundercloud is drained of charge with each sub-
To estimate the amount of energythat is depositedin sequent stroke in a lightning flash, a new set of feeder
a lightning channel,the quantity Q,owA•totis typically channelsforms [e.g.,Rustanet al., 1980, Figures 3-6;
used[e.g., Wilson,1929;Bruceand Golde,1941;Malan; Rhodeset al., 1994, Figure 4]. For variouslightning
1963; Golde,1977],whereQ•owis the amountof charge calculations, the various channels come into play. For
that is lowered from the thundercloud to the ground example, when calculating the charge per unit length
via the lightning channeland where A•to• is the elec- on a channel, the main channel and the blind chan-
trostatic potential differencebetween the thundercloud nels come into play for stepped leaders and first return
charge region and the ground. To estimate the energy strokes, but only the main channel comesinto play for
dissipationper unit lengthœ/L in a channel,the quan- dart leadersand subsequent
return strokes.(It is likely
tity Q•owA•o• is typically divided by the length of the that the feeder channels do not come into play, since
main channelLmai,[e.g., Uman,1984,1987],giving they are mostly drained of charge during these phases
as the negative charge is attracted downward toward
œ Qow/Xo the ground.) For another example, when calculating
Z • Lmain ' (1) the energy expended in creating channels, the feeder
channelsmust be included along with the main channel
It will be argued in this sectionthat expression(1) (and the blind channelsif the first strokeis being dealt
overestimatesthe energy dissipated per unit length in with) becausethesebranchchannelsrequireenergyfor
a lightning channel becausea large portion of the en- formation and heating. Accordingly,if one were to use
ergy (•owA•tot is expendedin branch channelswithin expression(1) to estimate the energy dissipationper
and below the cloud. (The overestimateoccursboth unit length in a channel,the length of the main channel
for stepped-leader-fed channels and for dart-leader-fed is not the appropriate value to use for L ....i,. Unfor-
channels.)Additionally,the usefulness
of expression
(1) tunately, accountingfor the feeder channelsand blind
is limited by the difficulty in estimating A•tot.
The channel structure of lightning is sketchedin Fig-
ure 2: as indicated there are branch channels below the
Channel Structure of Lightning
thundercloud, denoted here as blind channels(dead-
end channels),and there are branch channelswithin feeder
channels
the thundercloud, denoted here as feeder channels. The
blind channels are formed during the step-leader phase.
They are charged during this phase, and so during this
phasethere is an /•2/87r energystoredaroundthem.
• blind
chann
(first stroke only)

During the first return stroke, this stored energy around

the blind channels is dissipated, so these blind channels
are heated along with the main channel and they radi-
ate. Subsequentleadersapparently do not chargethese ain channel
blind channels, so no energy is loaded onto them, and
so subsequent return strokes do not reheat these blind
channels[e.g., $chonland,1956; Malan, 1963; Berger,
1977; $alanave,1980]. Feederchannelscollectcharge
from the thundercloud and drain it into the main chan-
nel. (At the end of the return-strokephase,they might
..................................................................
,ii:.•.....,:•.•?...•:•.....:.:
:.•:
:•....
'
play a role in distributing positive chargeinto the thun-
dercloud.)Assumingthat RF emissionaccompanies
the Figure 2. A sketchof the channelstructure of lightning
air breakdown of a newly forming channel, the network depicting the main channel, the branch channels in the thun-
of feeder channels can be visualized by means of their dercloud, and the branch channels below the thundercloud.
11,540 BOROVSKY- LIGHTNING ENERGETICS

channelsin calculationssuchas expression(1) is diffi- ing channel. The total amount of electrostaticenergy
cult becausethe total length of the channelnetwork is per unit lengthœstorea/L storedalongthe outsideof the
difficult to estimate. Hence, expression(1) is of little chargedchannelis obtainedby integratingexpressions
value, unlessone wishesto use it in the form Leff - (4) overthe volumeoutsidethe channel:ϥtorea/L -
i•lowA(•tot/(•/L) to estimatethe effectivelengthLeff of f•e(E2/8•r)
2•r9o
d9o.
Breaking
theintegral
upasf0*ed9o
the branch-channel networksoncea valuefor œ/L is at
hand. : •rbreak
do dr+ frbøCreak
drand
usingexpressions
(4)for
E gives
A more-direct and more-accurate estimate of the en-
ergy dissipationœ/L in the main channelcomesfrom
using the storea.....
channelfor the energybudget[Borovsky,
"2/8•r aroundthe
electrosfarm energy e-
1995]. The
œ•tøred
L = 1,k2q-/k2
log(
2 9o•ut
q) , (5)
q 9obr
eak

storedenergyper unit lengthœstorea/L on the channel where a cutoff radius rcut has been introduced into the
is calculated as follows. For a channel with a charge secondintegralto preventthe integralfrom logarithmi-
per unit lengthof &qon it, the electricfielda distance callydivergingasr -• oo. (Notein expression (5) and
r awayfromthe centerof the channelis E - 2&q/r,as elsewhere,log - loge') Two physicalchoicesfor select-
obtainedby applyingGauss'law 57.E - 4•rnqin cylin- ing limits for rcutcometo mind. The first (whichis the
drical geometry(wherenq is the volumechargeden- largestrcutvalue)is to choose rcutequalto the lengthof
sity). Accordingto this expression,if all of the charge the main channel;at this radius the leader has ceased
resides on the channel itself, the electric field E will to havethe propertiesof an infinity long cylinder.The
have a magnitudethat is abovethe air-breakdownlimit second(whichis the smallestrcutvalue)is to choose
Ebrea
k at small r outside the channel, where Ebrea
k• rcutto be the radius at which the electric field of the
2 x 106V/m at sealevel[Cobinc,1941]. (If processeschannelequalsthe backgroundelectric field. Because
such as streamer formation comeinto play around light- routappearsin a logarithm,ϥtorea/L
will only vary by
ning channels,then the valueof Ebrea
k may be substan- about a factor of 2 in goingfrom onechoiceof rcutto the
tially reduced
from2 x 10• V/m [Zeleny,1907](seealso other. The secondchoice(the radiusat whichthe field
WagnerandHileman[1961],Figure1.) However,wher- equalsthe backgroundfield) will be usedhere. Taking
ever E exceedsEbreak,the electrical conductivity of the
the backgroundelectricfieldto be the electricfieldun-
air rapidly risesand free chargethen movessothat E is der the thundercloud Ecloua,the radius at which E -
rapidly reducedto E <• Ebreak'This effectivelymoves Ec,oua is givenby expression(3b) to be
some of the charge off the highly conductingchannel 2
and into the weakly conducting air surroundingthe
channel(the coronasheath). So, arounda lightning
9ocut
= /•qEciou
d ' (6)
channel, the electric-field strength will be E • Ebreak (Typicalvaluesof rcu•will be severaltensof meters.)
out to a radius of
With the useof expressions(2) and (6), expression
(5)
2 becomes

9obreak
----AqEbreak (2)
Beyond 9obrok the field will fall off approximatelyas
Estøred
Z __--
A2
q [•1 + log(Ebreak
/ 1 ß (7)
Ecloud
l/r, appropriateto a uniformlycharged,infinitelylong As an aside,note that the 1/2 in expression (7) corre-
cylinder. Thus, the radial dependenceof the electric spondsto the electrostaticenergyinsider - rbreak and
field around a charged lightning channel is approxi- the logarithm correspondsto the electrostaticenergy
mately outside r - rbreak;if the air is sufficiently conducting
2
within r - rbreak,then all of the charge on the chan-

E -- Ebreak r 5 /•qEbreak (3a)nel will migrate out to r - rbreak,making E m 0 for

9O_• 9obre•k,and the 1/2 in expression(7) shouldthen
2 2 be replacedby 0. Sincethe replacementof the 1/2 by
0 makesonly a small differencein '•C•tored/L , this pos-
E -- /•q- 9O
•--/•qEbreak (30) sibility will not be dealt with. From expression(7),
The electrostatic energydensityE 2/8•rresiding around the storedenergyper unit length •tored/L on a light-
the channel is therefore ning channelis plotted in Figure 3 as a functionof the
chargeper unit length ,•q deliveredto the channeldur-
E 2 = E8•rbreak
8•r
2 2 (4a)
9ø-< AqEbreak
ingthe leaderphase.Forthevalueof Ebreak,
2.0X 10•
V/m is taken,althoughthe readeris remindedthat the
value could be less. For Ec•oud,two limiting values are
E2 = ,kq
87r I2
227rr 2 . (40)taken'
r • AqEbreak 1 x 104 V/m and4 x 10• V/m. Mostmeasure-
ments of thundercloud electric fields fall between these
Note that this energy residesoutsideof the conduct- two extremes'typical valuesbelowthundercloudsare <
 BOROVSKY' LIGHTNING ENERGETICS 11,541

1 06 very closeto the range of energiesobtainedfrom Aq -

St•re•lEnergy
Ave•ilai:)l•
't•'(•l•ann'el...", ß
ß ß
I x 10-4- 5 x 10-4 C/m.
ß ß
ß ß

1 05 ß
ß ß

To show that the estimate of the energy-dissipated

per unit length of channelobtained from the electrody-
namic picture differs significantly from the estimate ob-
1o
4 tained by the standard method, the energy-dissipation
estimategiven by expression(8) is comparedwith the
._1 lO 3 traditional energy-dissipationestimate given by expres-
sioh(1) as follows.The amountof chargeloweredQ,ow
,
ß
ß-" ...-'""' d=10
kV/m in a first return stroke is typically 2-10 C and in a sub-
sequentreturn strokeQ,owis typically0.2 - 2 C [Brook
ß
,
,
ß •
ß •
,

et al., 1962; Berger, 1967; Hubert et al., 1984; Chang

,
,
,

-' _' ! , ! , ,,,I , , , , , ,,,I ,

101 , , , , ,,,
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 et al., 1989], althoughground-based
measurements
of
electric-field change indicate that Q,owcan be up to --
),,q [C/m]
20 C [Mackerras,1973; Krehbielet al., 1979]. In Ap-
Figure 3. The total amountof electrostaticenergyper unit pendix C the cloud-to-ground electrostatic potential is
length that is stored around a lightning channel is plotted
as a function of the linear charge density on the channel.
estimatedto be in the range3 x 107- 9 x 10s V. Taking
theserangesof valuesfor Q,owand A•bto•(0.2 - 10 C and
3 x 107- 9 x 10s V), andtakingthemainlightning
chan-
nel to be 5 - 10 km long,expression(1) yieldsvaluesof
1 x 105V/m [e.g.,Winnet al., 1978;SoulaandChauzy,
1991;Marshall and Lin, 1992]and valueswithin thun-
derclouds
canbe> I x 105V/m [e.g.,Winnet al.,1974;
Holitza et al., 1974; Marshall and Rust, 1991]. In Ap- Stepped-Leader
Charge-per-Unit-Length
Estimates
pendix A, the chargeper unit length Aq on lightning
channelsis estimated a number of different ways. The
results of the estimates, which are summarized in Fig- I ' C•øw/ Lleader
I
ure4, indicatethat Aqistypicallyin the rangeI x 10-4
- 5 x 10-4 C/m, with dart-leader-loaded
channels being I (lleader)/
(v
leader) I
at the lower end of this range and stepped-leader-loaded
channelsbeing at the higherend of this range. In Figure Ileader
/ Vleader]
3 this range of Aq valuesis emphasizedwith the solid
lines. Drain
Wave I
In the electrodynamicpicture of lightning, the stored Static Capacitance
,

electrostaticenergy œstoreaaround a chargedchannelis

the source of power for a return stroke. Hence the en- i , , , i i] , , i i i i i ii. , , , , i , i iI , , ,

ergy dissipated œ in the channel by a return stroke is ' ' ' '''1 ' ' ' ' ' '''1 ' ' ' ' ' '''1 ' [ i ,

œstorea,
SOusingexpression
(7), the energydissipatedper Dart-Leader
Charge-per-Unit-Length
Estimates
unit length is
C•o
w/ Lleader
1 Ebreak
E
L
Estored
L
A2
"

Expression(8) ignoresthe energydissipatedin the chan- l leader

/ Vleader
nel during the loading of the charge (i.e. the dissi-
pation during the leader phase), which results in an
-•10% error sincethe leader energydissipationis de-
tected to be about 10% as muchas the dissipationdur-
ing a return stroke[e.g., Guo and Krider, 1985;Idone
and Orville, 1985]. The estimatesof the energydis-
Drain
WaveI
sipatedper unit lengthœ/L obtainedfrom the stored- ' ' i illl i i , , , , .,[ i i I i i i ill i i i

10-s 10-4 10-3

electrostatic-energymethod(Figure3) are in agreement
with estimatesfrom hydrodynamicmodelsfor lightning- kq [C/m]
channelexpansion.Thesemodelsfoundthat the energy
needbeonly1.0x 103- 1.5x 104J/m to ac- Figure 4. In the top panel estimatedvaluesof the linear
dissipated
chargedensity)•qonstepped-leader-fed
channels
areplotted
count for the observedchannelheating and current con- using five different methods to make the estimates. In the
duction[Plooster,1971;Hill, 1971;Paxtonet al., 1986]. bottompanelestimatesof )•qondart-leader-fed
channels
are
As can be seenfrom Figure 3, this range of energiesis plotted using three different methods.
11,542 BOROVSKY:LIGHTNING ENERGETICS

œ/L in the range6 x 102- 2 x 106J/m. Thisrangeof the potential differenceA•btotcausedby the subtrac-
valuesextendshigherthandoesthe2x 102- 2x 104J/m tion of Qlowfrom Qtot is accountedfor in the calcu-
rangeof œ/L valuesin Figure 3, whichwasgenerated lation of A•b: this producesthe downwardbendingof
from expression(8). If the chargeper unit length Aq the bottom curve.) As can be seenin the figure, for
on the channelis estimatedas Xq = (•low/Lmain, where the reasonablevalue Qlow- 2 C, the ratio varies from
Lmainis the length of the main channel,then the (old) 8 to 58, dependingon the value of Qtot, so the (new)
QlowACtot methodof estimatingœ/L is comparedwith stored-electrostatic-energy
estimate resultsin a consid-
the (new) stored-electrostatic-energy
methodby taking erably smallervaluefor the energydissipationœ/L in
the ratio of expression(1) to expression
(8); this gives the main lightningchannelduring a singlestrokethan
did the traditionalQlowAtPtot/Lm•in
method.This factor
-2
of 8 to 58 may be indicativeof the multiplicity of the
(œ/Z)old
•. Qlow
(œ/L)new A•btot
Lmain (Lmain
Qlow
) channelsinside and below the thundercloud;however,
as pointedout by a referee,the derivationof expression
(10) is very approximate.
1 (k Ebreak
Ecloud --
1'
In Appendix C it is shownthat A•btotm 2•rErl•yor(ex- 4. Energy Conservation and the Radius
pression(C2b)), where .Y,is the areal chargedensity of a Lightning Channel
of the negative-chargelayer in the bottom of a thun-
If the energyœthat is depositedinto a lightningchan-
dercloud and where rl•yoris the horizontal radius of nel by a return strokeis depositedrapidly sothat heat-
this chargelayer. Using this expression,using Qtot m ing, moleculardissociation,and ionizationoccur prior
•rr12ayorY,
(where Qtotisthetotalamount ofcharge inthe to the radial expansionof the channel, then the de-
chargelayer in the cloud), and usingthe valuesEbreak positedenergycan be brokeninto three parts:
= 2 X 106V/m andEclo,d
-- 5 X 104V/m, expression
(9) simplifiesto œ = œdisso
-[- œth
.... 1 -Jr-œ,oniz , (11)
(œ/L)old I Qtot Lmain where
. (10)
(E/L) new 2 QlowT'layer 3
œth
.... l 2 Z (1 -[- ,•) •atomic
•B Tinit (12)
For twovaluesof Qtot,expression(10) is usedto plotthe
ratio of the old-methodœ/L value to the new-method is the initial (after energydepositionbut beforethe ra-
œ/L value in Figure 5, where the lengthLm•inof the dial expansion)thermal energyof the channel,
main channel is taken to be 5 km and the radius of
the cloud'schargelayer Tl•yor
is taken to be 3 km (see œdisso
= •r r 2 L nmole
c ([disso
init (13)
AppendixC). (Note in the figurethat the reductionof
is the energythat goesinto moleculardissociation,and
lOOO ' " ' ' ' ",,1 , , , , , ' "'1 '

œioniz
= • r 2 L natomit
init -• ([ioniz (14)
• Lmain
= 5km
lOO • rlayer
=3km = C
is the energy that goesinto ionization. In expressions
(12) - (14), rinitis the initial radiusof the channel,L is
the lengthof the channel,ks = 1.38x 10-16 erg/øK
is Boltzmann's constant, T•nit is the initial tempera-
lO
ture of the channel(after heating but beforeexpan-
sion),• is the fractionalionizationof the atomsin the
1
channel, natomi•is the number density of atoms in the
unexpandedchannel, nmolec is the number density of
moleculesin the unexpanded channel, ([disco is the en-
ergyrequiredto dissociate onemoleculeof air, and
O. 1 10
is the energyrequiredto ionizeone atom of dissociated
QIow [C] air. In expression(12), the I is the contributionof
Figure 5. The two methods(old and new) for calculating atoms and ions and the • is the contribution of free
per unit lengthœ/L ona channelare electrons. As can be seenin Figure 6, the N2 molecules
the energydissipated
compared by takingthe ratio of the two œ/L values.The of air are fully dissociatedfor temperatures>• 15,000
old valueis obtainedfrom expression(1), and the new value øK, which are the temperaturesof interestfor the light-
is obtained from expression(8). The ratio is plotted as a
functionof the amountof chargeQlowloweredby the light- ning channels,so nmolec = 0.5natomic will be taken. In
ning stroke, for two values of the total amount of charge accounting for the depositedenergy in expression (11),
Qtot in the thundercloud. the energylost throughoptical radiation and through
 BOROVSKY' LIGHTNING ENERGETICS 11,543

10
Nitrogen(sea level) .T' = 1.27 x 10-6 eT/13øOøK
• 4.3X 1019atoms/cm
3
o N+ for 10,000øK __<T __<13,000øK
Z I ß
• - 3.09 x 10-4 eT/2880øK
o
.--'--
z
0.1 for 13,000øK _< T _< 20,000øK
o

• O.Ol ß • = 1.16
log15,200
oK
for 20,000øK _• T _• 29,000øK
o.ool
•oooo •oooo •oooo •oooo •oooo
• - 0.839
log12,000øK
T [OK]
for 29,000øK _• T _• 40,000øK
Figure 6. •he composi[io•
•c[•o• of the •[•o•e•
log(19,900
• = 1.48 oK)
for 40,000øK _• T _• 50,000øK. (16)
RF emissionis ignored; this is justified as follows. Ac- (Note that • goesaboveI for temperatures• 39,000
cording
to Figure3, forAq= I x 10-4 - 5 x 10-4 C/m, øK; this is becausesecondionization becomesimpor-
the energydepositedper unit length in a singlestroke tant, as can be seenfrom Figure 6.) For the energy
is in the rangeof 102- 104J/m. The energylostvia of dissociationof air, the energyfor dissociatingan N•.
optical radiation per singlestroke is estimated from the moleculewill be taken: eais•o
= 9.8 eV = !.57 x 10-11 erg
measurements of Barasch[1970]and Guo and Krider [e.g.,Rees,1989]. For the energyof ionization,the en-
[1982]to be in the rangeof 8 - 400 J/m, whichis a ergy for ionizing atomic nitrogen will be taken' eio.,•.=
small fraction of the depositedenergy (as was previ- 14.5eV = 2.33x 10-11erg[e.g.,Condon, 1967].Taking
ouslyconcluded by Krider et al. [1968]and by Conner the initial temperature of the channelto be the peak
[1968]). The energylost from the channelby means spectroscopictemperature of lightning, which can be
of RF emission is estimated from the measurements of
25,000- 35,000øK [Prueitt, 1963; Uman,1964;Orville,
Krider and Guo [1983]to be-•10 J/m, assumingL - 1977, 1968;Salanave,1980],T•.,t = 30,000øK = 2.6 eV
5 km. Hence, neglect of the optical and RF emission is used.For this valueof T•.•, expression (16) yieldsthe
is justified when consideringthe energeticsof lightning fractional ionization of the fully dissociatedair to be •r
channels.
= 0.77. Comparingthe three terms in expression(11)
Insertingexpressions
(12)- (14) into expression (11), for theseparameters(e.g.,for T - 30,000øK) onefinds
thenusingexpression(11) in expression(8), takingnatomitthat 30% of the depositedenergygoesinto thermal en-
-- 2nmolec
for fully dissociatedair, and solving for ri.it ergy, 21% goesinto dissociationof air moleculesin the
yields channel,and 49% goesinto ionizationof the channelair.
TakingAq- 4 x 10-4 C/m - 1.2x 104statC/cm(cgs
Winit
__ )•q [•__
_•_
log
(Ebreal•
1/2
Ecloua/]
(7rn•tømic)-l/2 units)andn•omi•-- 5.0 x 1019cm-3 (appropriate
fora

x [(1•1_.•')•kBTmit
3 •1_•(•disso
1 •1_•'•ioniz
1-1/2
(15) 10 .... I ....

Nitrogen(sea level)
4.3 X 1019 atoms/cm3
I .... I .... I .... I .... I ' ' ' ' I ....

for the radius of the channel after the energy is de-

posited(but beforeexpansion).The fractionalioniza- ._O 1
• _
tion •r of the air in the channel can be obtained as .__.
a function of Tin,•, and the dissociation and ionization o
: 0.1
energiesea•ssoand e•o.•.are known constants;thus, ex-
pression(15) can provideestimatesof ri.•, if estimates .O
of T•.• can be obtained.
L 0.01
Before examining the expansionof the channel,some
values of r,.,• will be obtained. From the computer
(afterGilmore[1967])
data of Gilmore[1967],the fractionalionization(av- 0.001 .... • .... • .... • .... • .... • .... • .... ' ....
10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
eragenumberof freeelectronsper nucleus)of sea-level-
density air is plotted as a function of the air temper- T [OK]
ature T in Figure 7. The curve of Figure 7 can be Figure ?. The fractionalionizationof sea-]eve]nitrogenis
parameterized as plotted,usingthe computerdata of Gilmore [1967].
 11,544 BOROVSKY: LIGHTNING ENERGETICS

1 01 is the pressurewithin the channel after expansion. Us-

channel init I radius ing expression
(12) for œth
.... l, thesetwo expressions
are
written
Tinit= 30,000øK ß
ß
ß
..-"'
1 0ø (1'iF
.•')T/•atomic71'•'i2nit
L3
2
•BTinit
:
Ebrea
k = 2x106V/ rn
(1+ r2 L3-ksTf•nal
2
10-1

ß
....,.....""'1111111-
..,-" ..,-
=5xl
018
cm-3 natomic
= 5x1019
cm-3
1
• • • natomic
kB L(rfin•,-
Tatmos 2 T2 init)(18a)

10-2 i ,•,1 _-' , , , , ,,,I , , , , , ,,,I , ,

(• • •final)•final•Tfinal
= •atomic•Tatmos
,
10-5 10-4 10-3 where f and f•. are the ionization fractions of the
•,q [C/m] channel gas before •nd a•er expansion, r•. and
are the channel radii before and a•er expansion,
Figure 8. The initial radiusof a channelduringthe return
strokeis plottedasa functionof the linearchargedensityAq and T•.• are the temperatures of the channel before
that was loaded onto the channel by the leader. The lower and •er expansion, n•tom• •nd n•.• are the number
air (first return stroke), densities of atoms in the channel before and a•er ex-
curve pertains to sea-level-density
and the upper curvepertainsto rarefiedair (subsequent re- pansion, and T•tmo•is the temperature of the ambient air
turn strokes). outside of the channel. The ambient pressureis P•mo•
= •atomick•Tatmos,
wherethe • accounts
forthefact
stepped-leader-charged channelin coolair), expression that the ambient air is in molecular form. Using ex-
(15) yields an initial radius of the return-strokechan-
nel of rinit- 0.32 cm. TakingXq- 1 x 10-4 C/m - expression(18•) gives
3 x 103statC/cmandnatomit
= 5.0 X 10TMcm-3 (ap-
propriate for a dart-leader-charged channel in rarefied
air), expression(15) yieldsr,,t = 0.26 cm for the ini- = + '
tial radius of the return-stroke channel. For two values (19)
(the numberdensityof atomsprior to energy where all factors of •f•, rf•, and Tf• have canceled
of natomit
deposition),the initial radius of a lightningchannelis away. Usingexpression (15) for r• in expression
(19)
plotted in Figure 8 as a function of the linear charge yields the final-radius expression
densityXq on the channel. As can be seenin the fig- 1/2
Aq
ure, if Aqincreases,the channelradiusrin•twill increase.
The likelyvaluesXq- 1 x 10-4 - 5 x 10-4 C/m are
•'final
(7•natomic)
1/2 I• q-log(
Ebrøak
Ecloud
)I
emphasizedby the solid lines. For this range of Xq val-
uesand for natomi•
= 5 X 1019cm-3, rinitrangesfrom
0.08 cm to 0.4 cm. Also seen in the figure, if natom• x [2•
+6 Tini
t]1/2
Tatmos
J
is lowered, r•n•tincreases.If subsequent-strokechannels
form in the evacuated region of an expanded previous
channel,then •r•atomic
will be lessthan 5 x 10TMcm-3; if
X (].'4-.•)•BTinit
'4-•([disso
•- -•([,oniz . (20)
Forthe stepped-leader-fed
subsequent-strokechannelsform near the edgeof an ex- channel with/Xq- 4 x 10-4
pandedpreviouschannel,thennatom• "05 X 10TMcm-3. C/m andnatorate -- 5 X 1019cm-3, with E•roak-- 2 X 10•
The final (maximum)channelradiusoccursafter the V/m, Eclo.d
-- 5 X 104V/m, edis•o-- 9.8eV, eioni..
-- 14.5
hot channelexpandsowing to its overpressurewith re- eV, T.,n•t- 30,000 øK, and T•tmo•- 300 øK, expression
spect to the ambient atmosphere. Ignoring thermal con- (20) yieldsthe estimaterf•n• - 4.7 cm. For the dart-
duction between the hot channel and the surrounding leaderfedchannel with •q -- 1x 10-4 C/m andn•tom• =
cool air, ignoring mixing of the hot channelair with the 5 x 10•s cm-a, expression
(20)yieldsrf,n• -- 3.8cm. For
ambient air, and ignoring recombinationof the channel two valuesof n•tom•,expression(20) is usedin Figure
air, the expansion of the hot channel into pressureequi- 9 to plot the maximum channel radius TrinaI during the
librium with the ambient air can be describedby two return-stroke ph•e • a function of the charge per unit
equations, energy conservationand pressurebalance: length •q on the channelprior to the return stroke. The
parameters •,n•, -- 30,000 øK, T•tmo•- 300 øK, E•o•k --
•th.... l-initial: •th.... l-final+ W (17a) 2 x 10• V/m, andE•lo,d-- 5 X 104V/m areused.As
can be seen in the figure, final radii of 1.5 - 6 cm are
Pfinal : Patmos ß (17b)
obtained for channelsborn in sea-level-densitycool air
Here W is the work done the by the expanding chan- (n•tom•= 5 x 10TMcm-a). The finalradii aregreater
and Pfinal for channelsborn in the hot air of previouslyexpanded
nel against the atmospheric pressurePatmos,
 BOROVSKY: LIGHTNING ENERGETICS 11,545

10 2 within which half of the stored energy resides will be

channel
fih.l
'rius ......--' taken.
density
Integrating expression(4) for the storedenergy
f 2•rrdruntiltheintegrated energy ishalfthat
Tinit = 30,000øK o-"'
of expression(7) yieldsthe expression
1 01
Ec•ou
d=5x104V/m
F_brea
k= 2x106
V/m
J" "".-"""
1 0ø
logEc,o,,d
" - Xn
......
5xl
019
cm
-3 Dividingby Xq•2 usingexp[log(x)]- x, and usingex-
pression(2) for rbreak,
expression(21)yields
.

..... -½ ........ I ........ I , ,

10-1
10-5 10-4 10-3
•q [C/m] •energy : 2,kq -1/4
(• (22)
Figure 9. The final radiusof a channelafter pressureex- (Ecloud
•roak)1/2
the linear charge density loaded onto the channel by the for the characteristic radius at which the electrostatic
leader. The lower curve pertains •o sea-level-densky air energy is stored around the channel. Typical values for
(firs• re•urn s•roke) and •he upper curvepertains•o rarefied
r .... gyare about 10 m. Note that r .... gyis a few times
air (subsequen•re•urn s•rokes).
larger than the breakdown radius rbre•k,as can be seen
by comparingexpressions
(2) and (22).
channels. Note that if thermal conduction between the
The time required to deliver the stored energy onto
hot channel and the surrounding cool air is important the channel, which will be the heating risetime theft of
on the timescale of the expansion, then the final radii the channel, can be expressedas
will be lessthan these values. Simple estimates for ther-
mal transport by 30,000 øK electrons in air yield ther-
mal conduction timescales of milliseconds
of a few centimeters; hence thermal conduction should
for distances •-heat :
?'ch
1 aT.
,y/'energy
Venergy
, (23)

not play a significant role.

where v.... gy is the velocity at which the energy flows
radially toward the channel from the spacesurrounding
5. Energy-Storage Geometry and the the channel. The energy-flow velocity is related to the
Return-Stroke-Heating Risetime radial component Sr of the Poynting flux $ by

In the electrodynamicdescriptionof lightning, a prop- Sr

agating return stroke obtains its power from the electro- V....gy: E2/87i
' , (24)
static energy that is stored around the chargedlightning
channel. To estimate the risetime of the channel heat- which is the energy flux divided by the energy den-
ing, estimates of the distance from the channel that the
stored energy residesand of the velocity at which energy
moves to the channel must be obtained: the further the 1 04
Electrostatic-Energy Density
energy, the longer it takes to deliver that energy to the 1 03 )t,q
- lxl0-3C/m-
channel, and so the slower the heating of the channel.
For variousvaluesof the linear chargedensity •q on a lO 2 •
channel,expressions
(4) are usedto plot the energyden-
101 ß ß -
sity/•2/Svrin spacearoundthe channelas a function
of radius in Figure 10. The kink in each curve in the
1 0ø
figure occursat the breakdown-fieldradius rbre•k,which
•q=2xl ",,, ßßß
is given by expression(2). Note that the effectsof the 10-1
cutoff radius rcut are not shown in Figure 10. If, for in-
stance,rcu•were chosento be rout- 5 km (e.g., by the 10-2
'"'....
choicethat rcu•equal the length of the channel),then
10-3
•Lq
=4x10
-5C/m % '-..-
......... ......... ......... ........... , ,•'•:
....
the curvesin Figure 10 would all drop to 0 sharply at r 1 0ø 1 01 1 02 1 0• 1 04 1 05
= 5 x 105cm. If, instead,rcu,werechosen
to correspond r [cm]
to E -- Ecloud,
with,forexample,
Eclou
d -- 5 X 104V/m,
Figure 10. Theelectrostatic
energy
density/•2/8vr
in the
then the curves of Figure 10 would each drop precipi- space around a lightning channel is plotted as a function of
touslyto 0 whentheyreachE2/Svr- 0.11erg2/cm
3. As radius for three different values of the linear charge density
a characteristicenergy-storageradius r .... gy,the radius on the channel.
11,546 BOROVSKY- LIGHTNING ENERGETICS

sity. The radial component of the Poynting vector $ electrical conductivity achof a channelwith a temper-
- (c/4•) E x B is $r = (c/4•)EzBo, wherethe z di- ature Tch • 15,000øK can be written (in cgsunits)
rection is along the channel axis and the 0 direction is
1.2
azimuthal around the channel axis. Since Er >> Ez for
lightning [e.g., Borovsky,1995, Figure 8], the denomi- eYch
-- 7.6X1088-1
(o--•) ; (31)
natorof expression
(24) canbewrittenasE•/8•. Thus
expression(24) becomes usingthis and usingexpression
(22) for r .... gy,expres-
sion (30) becomes
E.B•
v....gy= 2cE? ' (25)
The radial electricfield Er (outsidethe coronaradius
Theat
= Vreturn
2 7r
2 (r-•n
rchlog
2•q e-1/4
(EcloudEbreak)l/2
expression to =
azimuthal magnetic induction Bo outsidethe channelis
given by Ampere's law to be
x 7.6x10ss-1 (•K)
1.2
. (32)
If the risetime Theftis lessthan the channel-expansion
21
= _ _ , time Texp•n,then rch -- rinit should be used in expres-
sion (32); if the risetimeis greaterthan the channel-
where I is the current flowing in the lightning channel. expansion time, then rch - r•in•l should be used in ex-
Usingtheseexpressions for Er and Bo in expression(25) pression(32). Computersimulationsof channelevolu-
and then usingexpressions (25) and (22) in expression tion indicate that channel expansionbegins a few mi-
(23) yieldsthe energy-flowtime croseconds after heating starts [Plooster,1971; Hill,
1971;Paxtonet al., 1986],soTexp•n is typicallya fewmi-
croseconds.In the two panelsof Figure 11 the channel-
Theat rcn2 I dr . (27)
• d 7'energy AqIE.r heating risetime Theatfor a return stroke is plotted as a
function of the linear chargedensity Aqon the channel
prior to the return stroke. The lower limit to Theftis
Accordingto expression (27), the largerE, is,the shorter appropriate for a channelthat has not begun its radial
the risetime Theatwill be. Since E, near a channel is the
expansion(Theft((Texp•n)and the upperlimit to Theftis
sameas Ez within the channel[Borovsky, 1995,Figure appropriatefor a channelthat is fully expanded(Theat
8], the value of E, can be estimatedby usingOhm's >> Texp•n); hencethe top panelusesexpression (15) for
law j,. =achE,, where j,. is the current density flowing
rchand the bottom panel usesexpression(20) for rch.
in the channel and ach is the electrical conductivity of
Also,the top panelusesn•tom•c- 5 x 10TMcm-3, whichis
the channel.Usingj,. = I/•rrc•h,whererchis the radius appropriate for a stepped-leader-loadedchannel in cool
of the conductingchannel, Ohm's law yields
air, andthe bottompaneluses7t•tomic ----5 X 10ls cm-3,
I 1 which is appropriate for a dart-leader-loaded channelin
= .
E. •rr•2h
ach rarefiedair. Using the top panel of Figure 11 with X,
= 4 x 10-4 C/m yieldsa rangeof heatingrisetimes of
2 x 10-6 - 3 x 10-4 s for a firstreturnstroke.Likewise,
In the electrodynamicdescriptionof lightning,the cur-
usingthe bottompanelwith X, = I x 10-4 C/m yields
rent I flowingin the channelis relatedto the chargeper
where a rangeof heatingrisetimesof I x 10-c - 2 x 10-4 sec
unit length Xq on the channelby I = )•qVcharge,
Vcharg
e is the velocity at which chargemovesalong the for a subsequentreturn stroke. As will be discussedin
channel. Borovsky[1995]showedV•ha•eto be equalto section 6, the observedvalues of the heating risetime
the real part of the complexphasevelocityof the elec- fall into the lowerend (unexpanded-channelend)of the
tric wave moving along the channel: this quantity is range of heating-risetimevalues predicted by the elec-
approximately equal to the velocity of the return stroke trodynamic model.
Vret•rn.Thus I = XqVret•rn
for a return stroke. Using ex-
pression(28) in expression (27) and usingI = XqVret•n 6. Summary and Comparison With the
gives Literature

Theat= rch7rV2rch
• 7.energy
2Crch
• dr
return
, (29) In section 2 of this report the flow of energy from
a thundercloud to a lightning channel was discussed.
which is integrated to yield The amount of energy that is depositedalong a light-
ning channel was found to be related directly to the
•r •'ch O'ch •'energy linear chargedensityAqthat is loadedonto the channel
Theat• 2
V return
log\ rch
. (30) by a stepped or dart leader. By estimating the linear
chargedensity A• on lightning channels(in Appendix
Accordingto expression
(Ald) of Borovsky[1995],the A), the energydissipatedper unit lengthœ/L in light-
 BOROVSKY: LIGHTNING ENERGETICS 11,547

10-2
First ReturnS{i0kes I oooO'• monlytakenin lightningreviews[e.g.,$chonland,1956;
Berger,1977; Uman and Krider, 1982; Uman,1987].
10-3 natorni
c=5X10
TM
cm-3 ......-' Valuesfor the energydissipationper unit lengthœ/L
10'4
upper
limit
torisetime
-_ / .. of 2 x 102- 1 x 104J/m wereobtained
forreturnstrokes
10-s
-(channel
fully
expanded,••
• ..""
....-" .
ß
ß
ß
o
.
.
o
in section 3 of this report. These values agree with
earlier theoretical calculations that were obtained with
computer simulations of the Ohmic heating of chan-
10-•
nels based on observed temporal profiles of the chan-
o
ß
ß
ß
ß
o
ß

10'7 nel currentI(t) [Plooster,1971; Hill, 1971; Paxton et

...-'" ' ' torisetime
ß
.
...-' (channel not expanded) al., 1986]. The œ/L valuesobtainedin section3 are at
ß I I I • I I I , I
10'8
10'4 10-3
leastan orderof magnitudelowerthan the œ/L valueof
10-s
%q [C/m] 2.3x 100J/m that Krideret al. [1968]obtainedby as-
sumingthat the optical radiation efficiencyof lightning
10'1 i
is 0.38% and using the measuredoptical output of a
!Subsequent
ReturnStrokes very bright stroke. The œ/L valuesobtainedin section
10-2 - natomi
c'- 5X1018
cm-3 o
ß
ß
o
ß
.. 3 are at least 2 orders of magnitude lessthan the value
upper
limit
torisetime oO•
œ/L = 2 x 106J/m that Few[1969]obtainedby fit-
10-3
ting measured thunder spectra to theoretical pressure-
10'4
-(channel
fully
expand.
eddy ß
ß

wavecalculations.The lowerœ/L valuesof this report

may imply that the optical-radiation efficiencymay be
• 10-s higherthan the 0.38% assumedby Krider et al. [1968]
10'6

10'7
,ß

...
øl'•
.
ß
...-"
I
ß

r i , i I
..o

i i i i
r limit to risetime
(channelnotexpanded)
i i i JI i i
(taken from an analogybetweenlightningand labora-
tory arcs), and the lowerœ/L valuesof this report im-
ply that the thunder-production efficienciesof lightning
10-s 10'4 10'• may be higher than the 0.18% estimated by Holmes et
Zq [C/m] al. [1971](whichwereobtainedby using2.3x 105J/m
Figure 11. The return-strokeheatingrisetime•'heat
is plot- for E/L).
ted asa functionof the linearchargedensityAqthat is on a The cloud-to-groundelectrostatic-potentialdifference
channel prior to the return stroke. Specific values used for A½•o•was calculated in Appendix C for use in compar-
the figureareTch-- 30,000øK, Vr.turn
-- 1.5 X 1010cm/s, ing the œ/L valuescalculatedin this report with ElL
Zbr.ak= 2 X 106V/m = 66.7statV/cm,Zc•oud = 5 X 104 valuesestimated by meansof a traditional method. Val-
V/m = 1.7statV/cm,œioni•. = 14.5eV -- 2.3 X 10-11 erg, uesof 3 x 10• - 9 x l0 s V wereobtainedfor A½•o•.These
œdisso= 9.8eV = 1.6x 10-11 erg,and• = 0.77.Theupper values are in agreement with typical theoretical values
limit (obtainedfrom expressions
(33) and (15)) is appropri- in the literature [e.g.,Bruce,1944;Malan, 1963; Tzur
ate for a channel that has fully expanded and the lower limit
and Roble,1985].
(obtainedfrom expressions
(32) and (20)) is appropriatefor
a channel that has not begun its expansion. Initial channel radii ?'initof 0.08- 1.5 cm and final
channel radii rfinalof 1.2 - 20 cm were obtained in section
4 of this report, with ?'init• 0.2 - 0.4 cm and Trina
l ----3 -
ning channelswascalculated(in section3). From these 6 cm being the most likely values. The values obtained
valuesof œ/L the radii of lightningchannelswerecalcu- for ?'initare in agreement with computer simulations of
lated throughthe useof energyconservation (in section channel evolution, which obtain initial radii of 0.002-
4). Both the initial radii ?'init
prior to channelexpansion 0.5 cm [Plooster,1971;Hill, 1971;Paxtonet al., 1986].
and the final radii Vfina
I after channel expansionwere cal- Burn marks indicate channel radii in the ranges of 0.2
culated. Finally, the channel-heatingrisetimes rh.at for - 0.5 cm and 2 - 3.5 cm [Urnan, 1964; Taylor, 1965;
return strokes were calculated from estimates of where Jones,1968], which agreewith the valuesof Viaitand
energy is stored along lightning channelsand estimates •'finalobtained in section 4. The •'finalvalues obtained in
of the radial energy-flowvelocitiestoward the channels, section4 agreewith high-resolutionphotographs,which
with both of these quantities depending on the linear indicatechannelradii of 3 - 12 cm [Evansand Walker,
chargedensity Xq residingalong the channelprior to 1963; Orville et al., 1974;Salanave,1980;Idone,1992].
the returnstroke. Heating-risetime values rh.at of 1 - 200 /•S for return
The values obtained for the linear charge densities strokes were obtained in section 5 of this report. The
loadedonto lightningchannels are Aq• 1 X 10--4 - spectroscopic measurements of Orville [1968]indicate
5 x 10-4 C/m (seeFigure4), withthe upperendofthis that the heating times for return strokes are of the or-
rangepertainingto stepped-leader-fed channelsand the der of 5 /•s, and photometric risetimes, which should
lower end pertaining to dart-leader-fedchannels.These be equivalent to heating risetimes, are measuredto be
Xq values agree with values in much of the literature in the range of 1 - 60 /•s for return strokes[Krider
(see referencesin Appendix A) but are considerably et al., 1968; Ganesh et al., 1984; Jordan and Uman,
lowerthanthe Aqvalueof 1 x 10-3 C/m (ormore)com- 1983;Mach and Rust, 1989;Baker et al., 1990].Hence
11,548 BOROVSKY' LIGHTNING ENERGETICS

the heating-risetime values predicted by the electro- to ground by a first return stroke, since these return
dynamic model span the range of observed channel- strokesdrain steppedleaders[e.g., Bruce and Golde,
heating times, which are 1 - 50/•s, and they also span 1941; Wagner and McCann, 1942; Price and Pierce,
the range of energy-depositiontimes predicted by com- 1977; Linet al., 1980]. Electric-field-change
measure-
puter simulations of channel evolution, which are 5 - ments and time integrals of measured currents yield
10 /•s [Plooster,1971; Hill, 1971; Paxton et al., 1986]. typical charge-transfer values for first return strokes
Note that computer simulations predict that the heat- of 2- 20 C [Pierce,1955; Brook et al., 1962; Berger,
ing risetime rheatcan be much longer than the current 1967; Golde,1977;Krehbielet al., 1979;Proctor,1981].
risetime in the channel. Judging from the heights of the charge regions that
The electrodynamic picture of lightning has provided are drained by first return strokes,the lengths of first-
a straightforward and natural method for calculating return-strokechannelsare about 5 - 10 km [e.g.,Kre-
the energy dissipatedper unit length in a channelby a hbielet al., 1979]. Because the stepped-leader-produced
return stroke and has yielded estimatesof channelradii channelis highly branchedwith blind channels(seeFig-
and channel-heatingrisetimes. As discussedin this sec- ure 2), theselengthvalueswill be multipliedby 5 to pro-
tion, the values calculated seem reasonable. Therefore vide an estimate of the total length of stepped-leader-
these tests of the electrodynamic description are suc- produced channels. The factor of 5 is arrived at in Ap-
cessful. pendix B. Multiplying the abovementioned5- 10 km
Sincethe energydissipatedper unit lengthœ/L in a channel-length estimates by 5 yields Lleader-- 25 - 50
lightning channelis intimately related to the chargeper km. Taking (•leade•-- 2- 20 C and Lleade•-- 25- 50 km
unit length Xq loaded onto the channel,in the future it yieldsA, • 4 x 10-5 - 8 x 10-4 C/m. Thisrangeof
will be very interestingto compareanticipatedXqheight valuesis indicated in the top panel of Figure 4.
profiles with observed return-stroke-luminosity height The secondand third methodsfor estimatingAqcome
profiles. For instance, it is anticipated that stepped- from assumingthat the current in a leader is causedby a
leader-loaded channels will have larger linear charge simple spatial translation of chargedensity as the leader
densitiesnear the ground [e.g., Little, 1978, Figures4 expands(sort of a slidingstick of charge);in this case,
and5]; accordingto the electrodynamicmodelthe chan- Aq- I, eade•/Vleade•,
whereIleaaer is the currentcarriedby
nels shouldtherefore be brightest nearestthe ground. A
the leader and Vleade•is the velocity of the leader tip
decreasein luminosity with height has been reported for
along the channel. The stepped leader propagatesin-
return strokes[Schonland
et al., 1935;$chonland,1956; termittently and the current is impulsive with each step
Mach andRust,1989]. Similarly,it will beveryinterest- [e.g.,Schonlandet al., 1938;Kitagawaand Kobayashi,
ing to apply the œ/L predictionsof the electrodynamic 1958;Beasleyet al., 1983];accordingly,
to obtainAq-
modelto the bidirectional-leader model[Kasemir,1960; Ileade•/Vleade•,
time-averagedvaluesof Ileade•and Vleader
Kawasakeand Mazur, 1992;Mazur andRuhnke,1993], can be used or instantaneous impulse values of Ileade•
which predicts a null in the linear chargedensity along and Vleade•can be used, which will result in two esti-
the lightning channel. mates of Aq. Time-averaged values of stepped-leader
currents have been inferred from electric-field-change
Appendix A: Charge per Unit Length on measurementstaken far from lightning channelsto be
Channels {Iaeader
) -- 345- 2300 A [Thomsonet al., 1985];these
measurementspick up the vertical currents in the blind
In this appendixthe linear chargedensities•q loaded branch channels in addition to the current in the main
onto lightning channelsby stepped leadersand by dart channel,so realisticvaluesfor the main channelsmay be
leaders are estimated. For each type of leader, several •1/5 of thesevalues,giving{Ileade•)
-- 70 - 460 A. This
different methods are used to obtain the estimates. The
range of values agrees with values of leader currents
Xq values from the various methods are collectedinto near the ground that can be derived from the measure-
Figure 4. mentsof Krider et al. [1977],whereinit wasfoundthat
singlestepsdeliver1 - 4 x 10-a C of chargeand that
Channels Loaded by Stepped Leaders
single steps are separated by 16 /•s on average: these
The linear charge density •q on a channel that is valuesgive (/leader)
-- AQ/At - 62- 250 A. Typicalav-
charged by a stepped leader is estimated by five dif- eragevaluesfor the stepped-leader
velocityare (Vleade•)
ferent methods, and the rangesof Xq values obtained -- 1 X 107- 3.6 X 10s cm/s [Schonland,
1953;Orville
from these methods are plotted in the top panel of and Idone, 1982; Beasleyet al., 1983]. Thesecombine
Figure 4. The first is the method used by $chonland to yield Aq-- < /leader
> / < Vleader
> ----2.0 X 10--5
whereQleader- 4.6 x 10-4 C/m. Typicalimpulse-current
[1953],whichtakesAqto be Qleadev/Lleader, valuesfor
is the total amount of charge lowered by the stepped steppedleadersare /leader
-- 2- 8 kA [Krider et al.,
leader and Lleaderis the cloud-to-groundlength of the 1977], where the current corresponds to a singlestep
channel made by the leader. The charge on a stepped in a single channel, and typical impulse-velocityvalues
leader Qlowshould be equal to the charge transferred areVleader-- 2 X 109- 7 X 109cm/s [Krideret al., 1977;
 BOROVSKY: LIGHTNING ENERGETICS 11,$49

in expression(A2) variesfrom 4.9 to 7.9, so 6.4 will be

Orvilleand Idone,1982],whichyield Aq-- /leader/Vleader
= 3 x 10-5 - 4 x 10-4 C/m. Thesetwo estimates are taken as a mean value for log(h/2rbroak).Accordingly,
displayed in Figure 4. expression(A2) is solvedfor Aqto yield
The fourth method of estimating Aq utilizes return-
stroke transmission-linemodelsto analyze the drainage A(•)tot
of chargefrom the lightning channel. For return strokes Aq• 30 (A3)
with peak currents of 10 kA, these drain-wave mod-
(in cgsunits). Accordingto Appendix3, the cloud-to-
els are scaled to yield linear-charge-densityvalues Aq ground potential differenceA•bto•is in the range 3.4 x
of 5 x 10-5 - 1.6 x 10-4 C/m in the channelbehind 107- 8.5x 10s V. Forthisrange,expression
(A3) yields
the stepped-leader front [Nucciet al., 1990; Diendor-
Aq- 1.2 x 10-4 - 3.1 x 10-3 C/m. Thesevaluesare
fer and Uman,1990; Thottappillilet al., 1991].Typical recorded in the top panel of Figure 4. As a test of
peak currentsfor first return strokes(which are pre- these capacitivecalculations,expression(A3) is com-
cededby steppedleaders)are 6 - 45 kA [Berger,1967; paredwith the calculations
of Little [1978].Little used
Leteinturieret al., 1990],sothe scaledAqvaluesfor the a computer code that calculatesthe charge configura-
drain-wave
analyses
are3 x 10-5 - 7.2x 10-4 C/m. tion of a static systemof conductors(earth, cloud,and
The fifth method of estimating Aq applies static ca- lightningchannel)to determinethe linear chargeden-
pacitive argumentsto the stepped-leaderchannel. The sity on a channel that is electrically connectedto a
channel is approximated as a narrow conductingcylin- thundercloud. Little took the leader channel to have
der extendingfrom the chargedregionof the cloud(at a potentialof 1 x 10s V with respectto ground,which
height h) to near the ground. Sincethe channelis a corresponds to A•bto•= 2 x l0 s V in expression
(A3).
good conductor and since the times for stepped-leader
Usingthisvalue,expression (A3)yieldsAq= 7.4x 10-4
formation are long compared with the transit times for
C/m; the computer
codeof Littleobtains6 x 10-4 -
electricalsignalsalongthe channel(whichmoveat dart-
1.1x 10-3 C/m at the midpointof the channel
forvar-
leader or return-strokevelocities),the channelcan be ious cloud configurations.Hence the simple capacitive
assumed to be an equipotential. Because the charge
argumentshere yield results that agree well with the
within the cloud is not free to move, the channel is
computer calculationsof linear chargedensity.
not well connected to the cloud. Neither is it well con-
After examining the top panel of Figure 4, Aq - 4 x
nected to the ground (until the end of the stepped-
10-4 C/m - 1.2x 104 statC/cmistakenasa working
leader phase). If the cloud-to-groundpotential differ- value for the chargeper unit length on a channelthat
ence is A•btot,then the channel will be at a potential
is loaded by a stepped leader.
of about •xA•bto•with respectto eitherthe
difference
cloudor the ground. (Note that the channelmust re-
Channels Loaded by Dart Leaders
side at a potential that is between the potential of the
ground and the potential of the cloud, otherwisenega- As was done for channelschargedby stepped lead-
tive chargewould not efficiently migrate from the cloud ers, the chargeper unit length Xq for channelscharged
ontothe channel.)Near the midpointof the channelthe by dart leaders is estimated by various methods, and
electric field outsidethe channelwill be given by expres- the Aqvaluesare displayedin the bottom panel of Fig-
sions(3), whereAqis the chargeper unit lengthon the ure 4. Two of the five methods used for stepped-leader
channel
atitsmidpoint.
Integrating
1
expression
(3)f dr chargingcannot be used for dart-leader charging: the
fromr - 0 to r - •h (beyondwhichthe electricfield < /leader> / < Vleader
> method doesnot make sense
no longer is that of an infinitely long cylinder) yields for dart leaders,sincedart-leader propagationis not in-
the channel potential drop with respect to infinity: termittent and the static charge-configurationmethod
cannot be used because calculating the charge config-
A(•)tot uration of a dart leader is a transmission-lineproblem
• Tbreak
[e.g., Borovsky,1995]rather than a static Coulomb's-
law type problem.
Using expression(2) for Tbrea
k in the first term on the The first method for estimating /•q is to take /•q :
right-handsideof expression(A1) yields Qlead•/Lload•,
whereQl•ad•isthe total amountof charge
lowered by the dart leader and Llead• is the cloud-to-
ground length of the leader. The amount of chargelow-
A•tøt
2•--2/•q
[1 + 1og(2rb•eak)
I . (A2) ered by a dart leader is the amount of charge drained
by a subsequent
return stroke,whichis 0.2 - 2 C [Brook
The height h of the charge layer in the cloud will be et al., 1962; Berger, 1967; Hubert et al., 1984; Chang
takento be 5 km (seeAppendix3). If Aqis in the range et al., 1989]. Taking the length of the channelto be
1 X 10-4 - 2 • 10-3 C/m, thenaccording to expressionLch.... l = 5 - 10 km (with no blind-channelbranching)
(2) the air-breakdownradiusrbreak will be in the range and taking(•loador -- 0.2 - 2 C yieldsAq= 2 x 10-5 -
90 - 1800 cm. For this rangeof Aqvalues,the logarithm 4 x 10-4 C/m, asindicated in Figure4.
11,550 BOROVSKY: LIGHTNING ENERGETICS

The secondmethodisto take Xq-- Ileader/Vleader

, where branch and main channel was measured. The mean an-
I, eader
and V•ead•r
are the current carried by the leader and gle fromverticalfor main channelswasfoundto be 15 q-
the velocity of advanceof the leader. The mean value q- 13ø (37 measurements), and the mean anglefrom ver-
the standard deviation of the dart-leader-current mea- tical for blind branch channels was found to be 27 q-
surementsof Idone and Orville [1985]yields /leader
: 20ø (124 measurements).
The branchchannelsare def-
300 - 3000 A, and the velocities of dart leadersare typ- initely lessvertically oriented than are the main chan-
ically measured to be in the range5 x 108- 2 x 10ø nels. This meansthat projection effectsshortenthe ap-
cm/s [Orville, 1975; Orville and Idone, 1982;Idone et parent lengths of the branch channelsmore than they
al., 1984;Jordanet al., 1992]. Thesevaluesyield /•q -- shortenthe apparent lengthsof the main channels.Ap-
1.5x 10-5 - 6 x 10-4 C/m, asindicated
in Figure4. proximately accountingfor projection effectsfor chan-
The third method for estimating ,'•q is to use the nels with random azimuthal orientations, a mean mea-
transmission-line-modelanalysesof the chargedrainage sured angle from vertical of 15ø (for main channels)
from the channel during the return stroke. As stated correspondsto true angle from vertical that is closer
in the stepped-leaderdiscussionabove,thesedrain-wave to 23ø, and a mean measuredangle from vertical of 27ø
analyses yieldlinear-charge-density
values,'•qof 5x 10-5 (for branchchannels)corresponds to a true anglefrom
- 1.6 x 10-4 C/m appropriate to 10-kApeakcurrents vertical that is closerto 40ø. In going from 15ø to 23ø,
[Nucciet al., 1990;Diendorferand Uman,199.0;Thot- the value of 1/cos(0) changesby a factorof 1.05;thus
tappillil et al., 1991]. Typical peak currentsfor subse- by measuringtheir lengthson a two-dimensionalphoto-
quent return strokes(whichare precededby dart lead- graph, the true lengthsof the main channelsare under-
ers) are 5 - 20 kA [Berger,1967; Leteinturieret al., estimated by about a factor of 1.05. In going from 27ø
1990],so the scaled,'•qvaluesfor the drMn-waveanal- to 40ø, the valueof 1/cos(0)changes
by a factorof 1.16;
ysesare 2.5 x 10-5 - 3.2 x 10-4 C/m, asindicated
in thus, by measuringthe lengths of branch channelson a
Figure 4. two-dimensionalphotograph, the lengths of the branch
As can be seen in the bottom panel of Figure 4, the channels are underestimated by about a factor of 1.16.
value•q -- I X 10--4C/m -- 3 X 103statC/cmwillserve Accordingly,the ratio of the total channellength Ltot•
as a working example for the charge per unit length on to the main-channel length Lm•inis
a channel that is loaded by a dart leader.
Lto•, 1.05Lmai...... + 1.16Lb .... h.....
Lm•n 1.05 Lma•......
Appendix B' Estimates of the Total
Lbranch-meas
Lengths of Blind Channels
= 1.0+ 1.10Lm•
...... I (B1)
In this appendix a rough estimate is obtained for the
ratio of the total length of all channelsbelow a cloud where Lm•,...... and Lb.... h..... are the measuredlengths
of the main channel and the total of the branch chan-
(main channelplus all branchchannels)to the length
of the main channel. The estimate is obtained by mea- nels. For the 17 lightningflashesLb.... h..... /Lm•i......
suring the lengths of main and branch channelsin pho- - 4.7- 1 - 3.7, sothe valueof L•o•,/Lma,,is 5.1 q- 2.3.
tographs of lighting and then correcting the measured For an example, if the main channel extends 4 km
valuesto statistically account for projection effectsonto below a thundercloud, then the total length of branch
the two-dimensionalimages. channelsbelowa thundercloudmay be about (5.1 - 1)
x 4kmm16km.
Measurementsof the main-channel length and the to-
tal length of all visible branch channelswere made for 17
lightning flashesappearing in photographsin the book
Appendix C' Cloud-to-Ground
by $alanave[1980]. Only photographswherechannel Electrostatic Potential
branches were visible were used, only wide-angle pho-
tographs were used, and only lightning flashesthat had The electrostatic potential difference A•b•otbetween
a single main channel were used. The channel-length a region of negative charge in a thundercloud and the
measurements were made with a map measurer. For ground is not directly measured, and A•b•o•cannot be
the 17 flashes, the mean value of the ratio of the total directly inferred from single-pointmeasurementsof the
channellength (main plusblind channels)to the main- electric field within a thundercloud. In this appendix,
channellength was 4.7 q- 2.1 as projected into the plane estimatesof A•b•o•are obtained by utilizing information
of the photographs. about the configurationsof chargeregionswithin thun-
The value of 4.7 is approximately correctedfor projec- derclouds.
tion effectsas follows. On the photographscontaining In situ measurements of thundercloud electric fields
the 17 lightning flashes, two or three horizontal lines [Winn et al., 1981; Byrne et al., 1983; Marshall and
were drawn thougheachflash (a total of 37 horizontal Rust, 1991; Marshall and Lin, 1992]and ground-based
lines were drawn). For every lightningchannelcross- measurements of electric-fieldchanges[Krehbielet al.,
ing each horizontal line, the angle from vertical of each 1979] indicate that negativechargein the lowerpot-
 BOROVSKY' LIGHTNING ENERGETICS 11,551

tions of thunderclouds accumulatesinto horizontal lay- muchlessthan the value4.6 x 109V estimatedby Meek
ers. The height of sucha layer will be denotedhere as [1939].
h. Near a fiat layer of chargethat has an areal charge
densityE (= chargeper unit area), the electric-field
strength E is Acknowledgments. The author wishesto thank Charlie
Rhodes for useful conversations. This work was supported
= by the U.S. Department of Energy.
[e.g.,Jackson,1975,expression
1.22]. (Note that the
symbol E is chosenhere to representthe areal charge References
density to avoid confusionwith the electrical conduc-
Baker, L., R. L. Gardner, A. H. Paxton, C. E. Baum, and W.
tivity or.) The electricfield pointsupward belowthe Rison, Simultaneous measurement of current, electromag-
layerand pointsdownwardabovethe layer;withinthe netic fields, and optical emission from a lightning stroke,
layer, the electric field goesto zero. In situ measure- in Lightning Electromagnetics,editedby R. L. Gardner,
ments of the vertical-electric-fieldstructure yield values pp. 365-374, Hemisphere,New York, 1990.
of E of 0.2- 5 C/km2 - 0.06- 1.5statC/cm
2 [Winnet Barasch, G. E., Spectral intensities emitted by lightning dis-
charges,J. Geophys. Res., 75, 1049, 1970.
al., 1978, 1981; Byrne et al., 1983; Marshall and Rust, Beasley,W. H., M. A. Uman, D. M. Jordan,and C. Ganesh,
1991; Marshall and Lin, 1992]. These E valuescorre- Simultaneous pulses in light and electric field from stepped
spondto verticalelectricfieldsof 11 - 280 kV/m, which leadersnear groundlevel, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 8617,
are comparableto or strongerthan the tens-of-kV/m 1983.

electric fields typically measuredbelow thunderclouds Berger,K., Novelobservations on lightningdischarges: Re-

suits of researchon Mount San Salvatore, J. Franklin
[e.g., Changet al., 1989; Chauzyet al., 1989; Soula Inst., 283, 478, 1967.
and Chauzy,1991;DeaverandKrider, 1991].The total Berger, K., The earth flash, in Lightning, vol. 1, edited by
amount of chargeQ,o, in a layer is given approximately R. H. Golde, pp. 119-190, Academic, San Diego, Calif.,
1977.
byQ,o,- •rr•2•yer
E, wherer:-..•er
isthehorizontal
radius
of the layer of charge. If, for example, r•ayer-- 3 km Borovsky, J. E., An electrodynamic description of lightning
return strokes and dart leaders: Guided-wave propagation
(seediscussion below),then the total amountof charge alongconductingcylindricalchannels,J. Geophys. Res.,
Q,o, in a layer is 5.6 - 140 C for the range of E values 100, 2697, 1995.
0.2 - 5 C/km2. This rangeof Q,o,valuesseemsrea- Brook, M., N. Kitagawa, and E. J. Workman, Quantitative
sonablewhen comparedwith estimatesin the literature study of strokes and continuing currents in lightning dis-
[e.g.,Holzerand Saxon,1952;Winn and Byerley,1975; chargesto ground, J. Geophys. Res., 67, 649, 1962.
Bruce, C. E. R., The initiation of long electrical discharges,
Driscollet al., 1992]. Proc. R. $oc. London A, 183, 228, 1944.
The differencein electrostatic potential A½to,between Bruce, C. E. R., and R. H. Golde, The lightning discharge,
the chargelayer and the groundis obtained by integrat- J. IEEE, 88, 487, 1941.
ing the vertical electricfield from the chargelayerto the Byrne, G. J., A. A. Few, and M. E. Weber, Altitude, thick-
ground. If the horizontalradius r•aye•of the flat layer ness and charge concentration of charged regions of four
thunderstorms during TRIP 1981 basedupon in situ bal-
of chargeis muchlarger than the layer height h, then loon electric field measurements,Geophys. Res. Lett.,
the electricfield givenby expression(C1) will be valid 10, 39, 1983.
all the way from the cloudto the ground,similar to the Chang, J.-S., T. G. Beuthe, L. Seto, A. Duft, N. Hayashi,
caseof an ideal parallel-plate capacitor. If the horizon- W. Chisholm, and W. Janischewsky,An investigation of
tal radius r of the layer is much lessthan h, then the the possible relationships between thundercloud electric
fields and the lightning parametersfor tall structures, J.
electricfield givenby expression(C1) will be valid only Geophys. Res., 9•, 13,197, 1989.
nearthe layer (to a distance <• r•ye•) and then E will Chauzy, S., S. Soula, and S. Despiau, Ground corona and
decrease
as(distance)
-2 beyond.ThustheintegralofE lightning, J. Geophys. Res., 9•, 13115, 1989.
from the cloudlayer to the groundcan be approximated Cobine, J. D., Gaseous Conductors, sec. 7.11, McGraw-
as Hill, New York, 1941.
A½,o, m 2•rEh h < rlayer (C2a) Condon, E. U., Quantum mechanics and atomic structure,
in Handbook of Physics, edited by E. U. Condon and
H. Odishaw, Table 1.8, p. 7-35, McGraw-Hill, New York,
AqStot • 2•rEr•ye• h > r•ye• (C2b) 1967.
Conner, T. R., Efficiency of conversionof electrical energy
Examining the four panels of Figure 16 of Krehbiel et
into visibleradiation in lightningreturn strokes,Eos Trans.
al. [1979],onecanseethat in thesecasesr•yer >• 3 km A G U, J 9, 686, 1968.
and h >• 5 km. Usingexpressions (C2b) with r•aye•
-- 3 Deaver, L. E., and E. P. Krider, Electric fields and current
km andusingE - 0.06- 1.5statC/cm-2 yieldsvalues densitiesundersmallFlorida thunderstorms,J. Geophys.
of the cloud-to-groundelectrostatic potential of ACtor Res., 96, 22273, 1991.
= 1.1 x 105 - 2.8 x 106 statV - 3.4 x 107 - 8.5 x 108 V. Diendorfer, G., and M. A. Uman, An improved return stroke
model with specifiedchannel-basecurrent, J. Geophys.
Thesevaluesare comparable to the -• 108V estimated Res., 95, 13621, 1990.
by Malan [1963]and by Tzur and Roble[1985]andthe Driscoll, K. T., R. J. Blakeslee,and M. E. Baginski, A mod-
3 - 6 x 107V estimated by Bruce[1944],but theyare eling study of the time-averaged electric currents in the
 11,552 BOROVSKY: LIGHTNING ENERGETICS

vicinity of isolated thunderstorms,J. Geophys. Res., Advancesin AtmosphericElectricity,editedby L. G.

97, 11535, 1992. Smith, pp. 485-501, Pergamon, New York, 1958.
Evans, W. H., and R. L. Walker, High-speedphotographs Krehbiel, P. R., M. Brook, and R. A. McCrory, An analysis
of lightningat closerange, J. Geophys.Res., 68, 4455, of the chargestructure of lightning dischargesto ground,
1963. J. Geophys.Res., 8•, 2432, 1979.
Few, A. A., Powerspectrumof thunder, J. Geophys.Res., Krider, E. P., and C. Guo, The peak electromagneticpower
7.4, 6926, 1969. radiated by lightningreturn strokes,J. Geophys. Res.,
Ganesh, C., M. A. Uman, W. H. Beasley,and D. M. Jordan, 88, 8471, 1983.
Correlated optical and electric field signalsproducedby Krider, E. P., G. A. Dawson,and M. A. Uman, Peak power
lightningreturn strokes,J. Geophys. Res., 89, 4905, and energy dissipationin a single-strokelightning flash,
1984. J. Geophys.Res., 73, 3335, 1968.
Gilmore, F. R., Thermal radiation phenomena, vol. 1; The Krider, E. P., C. D. Weidman, and R. C. Noggle,The electric
equilibrium thermodynamic properties of high tempera- fieldsproducedby lightningsteppedleaders,J. Geophys.
ture air, Rep. R-LMSC-3-27-67-1, Lockheed Missiles and Res., 82, 951, 1977.
Space Co., Palo Alto, Calif., May 1967. Leteinturier, C., C. Weidman, and J. Hamelin, Current and
Golde, R. H., Lightning currents and related parameters, in electricfield derivativesin triggeredlightningreturn strokes,
Lightning, vol. 1, Physics of Lightning, editedby R. J. Geophys.Res., 95, 811, 1990.
H. Golde, pp. 309-350, Academic, San Diego, Calif., 1977. Lin, Y. T., M. A. Uman, and R. B. Standler, Lightning
Guo, C., and E. P. Krider, The optical and radiation field return strokemodels,J. Geophys.Res., 85, 1571, 1980.
signaturesproducedby lightning return strokes,J. Geo- Little, P. F., Transmissionline representationof lightning
phys. Res., 87, 8913, 1982. returnstroke,J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 11, 1893,1978.
Guo, C., and E. P. Krider, Anomalous light output from Mach, D. M., and W. D. Rust, Photoelectric return-stroke
lightningdart leaders,J. Geophys. Res., 90, 13,073, velocity and peak current estimatesin natural and trig-
1985. geredlightning, J. Geophys. Res., 9d, 13,237,1989.
Hill, R. D., Channel heating in return-stroke lightning, J. Mackerras, D., Photoelectricobservationsof the light emit-
Geophys. Res., 76, 637, 1971. ted by lightningflashes,J. Atmos. Terr. Phys., 35,
Holitza, F. J., H. W. Kazemir, W. E. Cobb, and W. D. 521, 1973.
Rust, Aircraft measurements of electric fields in and below Malan, D. J., Physics of Lightning, sects. 3.6 and 16.1,
thunderstorms,
Eos Trans. A GU, 55, 1131,1974. English Univ. Press, London, 1963.
Holmes, C. R., M. Brook, P. Krehbiel, and R. McCrory, Marshall, T. C., and B. Lin, Electricity in dying thunder-
On the power spectrum and mechanism of thunder, J. storms,J. Geophys. Res., 97, 9913, 1992.
Geophys. Res., 76, 2106, 1971. Marshall, T. C., and W. D. Rust, Electric field soundings
Holmes, C. R., E. W. Szymanski, S. J. Szymanski, and C. throughthunderstorms,J. Geophys. Res., 96, 22,297,
1991.
B. Moore, Radar and acousticstudy of lightning, J. Geo-
phys. Res., 85, 7517, 1980. Mazur, V., and L. H. Ruhnke, Common physical processes
Holzer, R. E., and D. S. Saxon, Distribution of electrical in natural and artificiallytriggeredlightning,J. Geophys.
Res., 98, 12913, 1993.
conduction currents in the vicinity of thunderstorms, J.
Meek, J. M., The mechanismof the lightning discharge,
Geophys. Res., 57, 207, 1952.
Phys. Rev., 55, 972, 1939.
Hubert, P., P. Laroche, A. Eybert-Bernard, and L. Barret,
Nucci, C. A., G. Diendorfer, M. A. Uman, F. Rachidi, M.
Triggeredlightning in New Mexico, J. Geophys. Res.,
89, 2511, 1984. Ianoz, and C. Mazzetti, Lightning return stroke current
models with specifiedchannel-basecurrent: A review and
Idone, V. P., Highly time-resolvedchannelcross-section
record-
ings in triggered lightning return strokes, Eos Trans.
comparison,J. Geophys.Res., 95, 20395,1990.
A GU, 73(43), Fall Meet. Suppl.,115, 1992. Orville, R. E., A high-speedtime-resolvedspectroscopic study
of the lightning return stroke, Part II, A quantitative anal-
Idone,V. P., and R. E. Orville, Correlatedpeakrelativelight
ysis,J. Atmos. $ci., 25, 839, 1968.
intensity and peak current in triggered lightning subse- Orville, R. E., Spectrum of the lightning dart leader, J.
quent return strokes,J. Geophys. Res., 90, 6159, 1985. Atmos. $ci., 32, 1829,1975.
Idone, V. P., R. E. Orville, P. Hubert, L. Barret, and A. Orville, R. E., Lightningspectroscopy, in Lightning, vol. 1,
Eybert-Bernard,Correlatedobservations of threetriggered Physics of Lightning, edited by R. H. Golde,pp. 281-
lightningflashes,J. Geophys. Res., 89, 1385, 1984. 308, Academic, San Diego, Calif., 1977.
Jackson,J. E., ClassicalElectrodynamics,2nd ed., sects. Orville, R. E., and V. P. Idone, Lightning leader characteris-
1.10 and 2.1, John Wiley, New York, 1975. tics in the ThunderstormResearchInternational Program
Jones,R. C., Return stroke core diameter, J. Geophys. (TRIP), J. Geophys.Res., 87, 11,177,1982.
Res., 73, 809, 1968. Orville, R. E., J. H. Helsdon, and W. H. Evans, Quantita-
Jordan,D. M., and M. A. Uman, Variationin light intensity tive analysis of a lightning return stroke for diameter and
with height and time from subsequentlightning return luminosity changesas a function of space and time, J.
strokes,J. Geophys.Res., 88, 6555, 1983. Geophys.Res., 79, 4059, 1974.
Jordan, D. M., V. P. Idone, V. A. Rakov, M. A. Uman, W. Paxton, A. H., R. L. Gardner,and L. Baker, Lightningre-
H. Beasley,and H. Jurenka, Observeddart leader speed turn stroke. A numerical calculation of the optical radia-
in natural and triggeredlightning,J. Geophys.Res., 97, tion, Phys. Fluids, 29, 2736, 1986.
9951, 1992.
Pierce, E. T., The developmentof lightningdischarges,Q.
Kasemir, H. W., A contribution to the electrostatictheory J. R. Meteorol. $oc., 81, 229, 1955.
of a lightning discharge,J. Geophys. Res., 65, 1873, P looster, M. N., Numerical model of the return stroke of the
1960.
lightningdischarge,Phys. Fluids, ld, 2124, 1971.
Kawasake, Z.-I., and V. Mazur, Common physicalprocesses Price, G. H., and E. T. Pierce, The modeling of channel
in natural and triggered lightning in winter storms in current in the lightning return stroke, Radio $ci., 12,
Japan, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 12935, 1992. 381, 1977.
Kitagawa, N., and M. Kobayashi, Field-changesand vari- Proctor, D. E., VHF radio picturesof cloud flashes,J. Geo-
ations of luminosity due to lightning flashes,in Recent phys. Res., 86, 4041, 1981.
 BOROVSKY: LIGHTNING ENERGETICS 11,553

Proctor, D. E., Lightning and precipitation in a small multi-derstormwith its global electricalenvironment,J. Geo-
cellularthunderstorm,J. Geophys. Res., 88, 5421, 1983. phys. Res., 90, 5989, 1985.
Prueitt, M. L., The excitation temperature of lightning, J. Uman, M. A., The diameterof lightning,J. Geophys. Res.,
Geophys. Res., 68, 803, 1963. 69, 583, 1964.
Rees,M. H., Physics and Chemistry of the Upper Atmo- Uman, M. A., Lightning, sec. 7.3.3, Dover,New York, 1984.
sphere, table 2.2.1, CambridgeUniv. Press, New York, Uman, M. A., The Lightning Discharge, secs. 5.4 and
1989. A.1.6, Academic, San Diego, Calif., 1987.
Rhodes, C. T., X. M. Shao, P. R. Krehbiel, R. J. Thomas, Uman, M. A., and E. P. Krider, A review of natural light-
and C. O. Hayenga, Observations of lightning phenomena ning: Experimental data and modeling, IEEE Trans.
usingradio interferometry,•. (•½ophys.•½s., gg, 13,059, Electromagn. Cornpat., 2•, 79, 1982.
1994. Wagner, C. F., and A. R. Hileman, The lightning stroke, II,
Rustan, P. L., M. A. Uman, D. G. Childers, and W. H. Power Appar. $yst., 53, 622, 1961.
Beasley, Lightning source locations from VHF radiation Wagner, C. F., and G. D. McCann, Induced voltages on
data for a flash at KennedySpaceCenter, J. Geophy3. transmission
lines, Trans. Am. Inst. Electr. Eng., 61,
Res., 85, 4893, 1980. 916, 1942.
Salanave,L. E., Lightning and Its Spectrum,chaps.4 and Waldteufel, P., P. Metzger, J.-L. Boulay, P. Laroche, and
6, Univ. of Ariz. Press, Tucson, 1980. P. Hubert, Triggered lightning strokes originating in clear
Schonland,B. F. J., Progressivelightning IV- The discharge air, J. Geophys. Res., 85, 2861, 1980.
mechanism,Proc. R. $oc. London A, 16•, 132, 1938. Williams, E. R., C. M. Cooke, and K. A. Wright, Electrical
Schonland, B. F. J., The pilot streamer in lightning and the discharge propagation in and around space charge clouds,
longspark, Proc. R. $oc. London A, 220, 25, 1953. J. Geophys. Res., 90, 6059, 1985.
Schonland,B. F. J., The lightningdischarge,Encycl. Phys., Wilson, C. T. R., Somethundercloudproblems,J. Franklin
22, 576, (sects.20, 22, and 55), 1956. Inst., 208, 1, 1929.
Schonland,B. F. J., D. J. Malan, and H. Collens, Progressive Winn, W. P., and L. G. Byerley, Electric field growth in
lightning,II, Proc. R. $oc. London A, 152, 595, 1935. thunderclouds,Q. J. R. Meteorol. $oc., 101, 979, 1975.
Schonland, B. F. J., D. B. Hodges, and H. Collens, Pro- Winn, W. P., G. W. Schwede, and C. B. Moore, Measure-
gressiveLightning V. A comparisonof photographic and ments of electric fields in thunderclouds,J. Geophys.
electricalstudiesof the dischargeprocess,Proc. R. Soc. Res., 79, 1761, 1974.
London A, 166, 56, 1938. Winn, W. P., C. P. Moore, C. R. Holmes, and L. G. By-
Soula, S., and S. Chauzy, Multilevel measurement of the erley III, Thunderstorm on July 16, 1975, over Langmuir
electric field underneath a thundercloud, 2, Dynamical
Laboratory: A casestudy, J. Geophys. Res., 83, 3079,
evolutionof a ground spacechargelayer, J. Geophys. 1978.
Res., 96, 22,327, 1991. Winn, W. P., C. B. Moore, and C. R. Holmes, Electric field
Taylor, A. R., Diameter of lightning as indicated by tree structure in an active part of a small, isolated thunder-
scars,J. Geophys. Res., 70, 5693, 1965. cloud, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 1187, 1981.
Thomson, E. M., M. A. Uman, and W. H. Beasley, Speed Zeleny, J., The discharge of electricity from pointed conduc-
and current for lightning stepped leaders near ground as tors differingin size, Phys. Rev., 25, 305, 1907.
determinedfrom electricfield records,J. Geophys. Res.,
90, 8136, 1985.
Thottappillil, R., D. K. McLain, M. A. Uman, and G. Di-
endorfer, Extension of the Diendorfer-Uman lightning re- J. E. Borovsky, Mail Stop D466, Los Alamos National Labo-
turn stroke model to the case of a variable upward return ratory, LosAlamos, NM 87545. (eraall: jborovsky@lanl.gov)
stroke speed and a variable downward discharge current
speed,J. Geophys. Res., 96, 17,143, 1991. (ReceivedOctober 15, 1997;
Tzur, I., and R. G. Roble, The interaction of a dipolaf thun- acceptedOctober30, 1997)