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Modeling and Sizing of Supercapacitors

Article in Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering · June 2008

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering
Modeling and Sizing of Supercapacitors
Dorin PETREUS, Daniel MOGA, Ramona GALATUS, Radu A. MUNTEANU
Technical University of Cluj Napoca
str. C. Daicoviciu nr. 15, RO-400020 Cluj-Napoca
dorin.petreus@ael.utcluj.ro
Abstract—Faced with numerous challenges raised by the
requirements of the modern industries for higher power and
higher energy, supercapacitors study started playing an
important role in offering viable solutions for some of these
requirements. This paper presents the surface redox reactions
based modeling in order to study the origin of high capacity of
EDLC (electrical double-layer capacitor) for better
understanding the working principles of supercapacitors. Some
application-dependent sizing methods are also presented since
proper sizing can increase the efficiency and the life cycle of the
supercapacitor based systems.
Index Terms—electrochemical capacitor, modeling, sizing,
pseudo-capacitance
I. INTRODUCTION
Electrochemical capacitors have achieved substantial
acceptance in the electronics industry, replacing backup
batteries in many CMOS memory applications. Many of the
first commercially available electrochemical capacitors were
directed toward such applications and, consequently, were
of limited size and power performance. As will be shown in
the next sections, these limitations are not inherent in the
technology, so larger, higher-voltage capacitors with greatly
enhanced power performance have been available for
several years from some suppliers and currently are being
developed by others [18].
Different names like “double layer capacitors”,
“supercapacitors”, “ultracapacitors”, “power capacitors”,
“gold capacitors”, “power cache” were used to indicate
different types of capacitors displaying high values of
capacity, but the first mention of a double-layer
electrochemical capacitor realization is made just in 1957, in
a patent application of General Electric (Becker). [4]
In 1966, SOHIO (Standard Oil Company, Cleveland,
Ohio) patented a similar device having porous carbon
electrode but with a higher energy density than that of
General Electric. Further patents described improved
SOHIO developed solutions in the following years, but their
licenses are transferred to NEC which produced for the
first time commercial devices under the name
“supercapacitor”. The first high power electrochemical
capacitors were produced in the years 1980 by Pinnacle
Research Institute (PRI) for military applications like laser
weapon and guided missiles with ruthenium/tantalum oxide
electrodes under the name “PRI ultracapacitor”. [4]
Nowadays, electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLC) are
gaining more attention due to their practical potential in
applications areas with increasing power demands. Due to
reversible electrochemical energy storage these capacitors
can be recharged very quickly with best long cycle life.
Energy storage is by means of static charge rather than of an
electro-chemical process (inherent to common battery).
Digital Object Identifier 10.4316/AECE.2008.02003
Volume 8, Number 2, 2008
New applications are emerging in fields like automotive
engineering 1 , rail traction, telecommunication,
uninterruptible power supplies, renewable energy resources,
industrial electronics and medical engineering.
Recently, EDLC have become a topic of some interest in
the green energy world where their ability to quickly
immerse up energy makes them particularly suitable for
regenerative braking applications, whereas batteries have
difficulty in this applications due to slow charging times.
ELDC are electrochemical capacitors that have an
unusually high energy density when compared to common
capacitors, typically of the order of thousands of times
greater than a high-capacity electrolytic capacitor. Three
main factors determine how much electrical energy a
capacitor can store: the surface area of the electrodes, their
distance from each other, and the dielectric constant of the
material separating them. In EDLC, the effective thickness
of the "dielectric" is exceedingly thin—on the order of
nanometers—and that, combined with the very large surface
area, is responsible for their high capacitances in practical
sizes. At low working voltages, by using EDLC a
capacitance of several farads is obtained.
That means a significant improvement compared with an
electrolytic capacitor having the same size.[6]
When a supercapacitor is charged, there is no chemical
reaction, energy being stored as a charge or concentration of
electrons on the surface of a material. It is capable of very
fast charges and discharges, and apparently is able to go
through a large number of cycles without degradation -
providing long life cycle.
Supercapacitors can be an excellent replacement for
common batteries where applications requests power burst,
quick charging, temperature stability, and excellent safety
properties (immunity to shock and vibration). A taxonomy
of supercapacitors is presented in figure 6 according to [7].
Electrochemical capacitors have significant advantages
for deployment in renewable energy resources systems, like
the photovoltaic systems. Some of these are listed below
according to [18]:
- lack of maintenance - In contrast to the battery
maintenance, capacitors require no maintenance. This
greatly reduces system cost over time and allows the storage
system to be located in places impractical for chemical
battery systems (e.g., buried).
-longevity- Because capacitors store charge physically
1
As indicated in [18], one early Russian application of electrochemical
capacitors was for starting vehicles in cold climates. In Siberia, the cold-
weather advantages of electrochemical capacitors over chemical batteries
were quickly apparent.
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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 8, Number 2, 2008

rather than chemically, cycling has virtually no effect on capacitance it would be mandatory to produce a thin, high
their capacity or longevity. Twenty-year life is easily surface-area electrical double-layer with a combination of
achieved by proper selection of materials and control of high surface area (about 200m2/g) with extremely small
operating parameters. charge separation (δ~10Å) [3].
-environmentally benign-Capacitors do not employ toxic Regular double-layer capacitance arises from the
materials, and thus present no environmental threat in potential-dependence of the surface density of charges
manufacture, transport, or disposal. They do not outgass in stored electrostatically (non-Faradaically) at the interfaces
use and present no threat of explosion. of the capacitor electrodes [3]. A double-layer capacitor
-high discharge rate capability-Capacitors can be device must employ two double layers, one at each electrode
discharged at very high rates without damage. High rates, interface, working one against the other on charge or
however, reduce the delivered energy of the unit. discharge, as emphasized in [3] -see Figure 2.
A comparison of properties of rechargeable batteries and Pseudocapacitance arises in some electrosorbtion
electrochemical capacitors is presented in Table 1 (after processes and in redox reactions at electrode surfaces or
[12]). oxide films [3], and is Faradaic in origin involving the
passage of charge across the double layer 2 , 3 .
TABLE 1
Property Battery Electrochemical
capacitor
Storage Chemical Physical
mechanism
Power Reaction kinetics, Electrolyte
limitation mass transport conductivity
Energy High (bulk) Limited
storage (surface area)
Charge rate Kinetically limited High, same as
discharge rate
Cycle life Mechanical stability, Side reactions
limitations chemical reversibility

II. ORIGIN OF THE HIGH CAPACITANCE,

MODELING STUDY
In addition to high-surface-area carbons, even higher
capacitance can be achieved by using redox-active materials
Figure 1. Schematic of a conventional capacitor (adapted from [7]).
such as metal oxides and conducting polymers, able to store
electrochemical charge using highly reversible surface redox
reactions, commonly described as “pseudocapacitance” in
the literature [12]. The charge–storage performance can be
drastically increased using these fast, reversible surface
processes.
The high value of capacitance that is attainable through
EDLC is a result of double-layer capacitance and
pseudocapacitance:
C = C double−layer + C pscap (1)
The origin of high capacitance is studied using a
thermodynamic approach: the simulation of pseudo-
capacitance by electroabsorbtion isotherms.
The electric charge is stored performing adsorption and
desorption of the ions in electrolysis liquid to electrode.
Considering an analogy with a conventional capacitor (see
Figure 1), Helmoltz proposed already in 1853 a model to
Figure 2. Schematic of an electrochemical double-layer capacitor (adapted
estimate the double-layer capacitance: from [7]).
εA
C double −layer = (2)
4πδ
where C is the double-layer capacitance, A is the surface 2
capacitance arises due to the special relation that originates from
area, ε is the relative dielectric constant of the medium thermodynamic reasons between the extent of charge (Δq) and the change
between the two layers (the electrolyte), and δ is the of potential (ΔV), so that a derivative d(Δq)/ d(ΔV), which is equivalent to a
capacitance can be formulated and experimentally measured [3]
distance between the two layers (from the electrode surface 3
Another type of pseudocapacitance is the capacitive component of the
to the centre of ion layers). Warburg impedance associated with diffusion-controlled processes when
More elaborate (and accurate) models of the double- layer examined under ac modulation. As pointed out in [3], this pseudo-
capacitance has no value for storage purposes and is significant only for the
capacitance can be found in [1]. For a larger double-layer frequency response of electrochemical reactions involving diffusion.

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 8, Number 2, 2008

If a property y is proportional to the charge passed and is

C pscap =
(q1 − q0 )2 θ (1 − θ ) (9)
related to the potential by an equation of the form:
VF RT ⋅ Γm (1 − 2 gθ (1 − θ ))
y
= Ke RT The models presented in this section are useful in
1− y grasping some of the basic principles of the electrochemical
then, from a thermodynamic point of view, a pseudo supercapacitors (see Figure 6). More complex models are
capacitance arises [3] . An example for the quantity y is the needed for a closer and more in-depth characterization of
extent of the fractional coverage θ of an electrode surface – these devices.
generated by the charge required for deposition of adatoms. Carbon black supercapacitors and carbon black-supported
There are two types of reactions that can involve a charge noble metal oxides pseudo-supercapacitors, as well as
transfer that is voltage dependent: surface redox reactions or porous coatings, consisting of noble metaloxides on
adsorption of ions. A model for study of the electrode activated titanium anodes are indicated in [13] as typical
potential influence on the extent of fractional coverage, θ, of examples of porous electrochemical systems, and the fact
the absorbed species is proposed in [3] using Frumkin’s that the capacitive properties of these materials are strongly
isotherm, as follows: influenced by the real surface area, porosity and particle size
θ and distribution is acknowledged.
= KC i e 2 gθ (3) Generally speaking, results of methodical experiments
1−θ
should provide better understanding, but, as mentioned in
where, Ci is the species concentration and K is a constant [16], the electrochemical measurements do not provide
that depends on V (K=f(V)). enough insight into the structural and electronic changes
The Langmuir isotherm (6) applies for the case when the associated with the redox processes, despite their
interaction parameter, g, is null (g = 0) (4), at adsorption extraordinary sensitivity. Scanning electron microscopy
equilibrium: (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and
K ⋅ Ci surface-area measurements are frequently used to
θ = (4)
1 + K ⋅ Ci investigate the electrode micro and macro structure. Figure 7
reproduces a cross section of an electrode and current
with: collector together wiht a plan view of an electrode surface as
dθ in [17].
Cθ = qm (5)
dV Pseudocapacitance according to Temkin Isotherm

where qm is the charge on the metal surface that can be

expressed as:
q m = q 0 (1 − θ ) + q 1θ (6)
it is obtained:
Pseudocap acitan ce [F]

(q1 − q0 )2 θ (1 − θ )
C pscap = (7)
RT ⋅ Γm
where q1 is the charged associated with the coverage of the
absorbed species, θ, and q0 is the charged associated with
the uncovered surface, R universal gas constant, T
temperature in Kelvin, Гm¸ maximum amount of adsorbed
species. Electrode Potential [V]
If g>0, corresponding to pairwaise adsorbate repulsion in
Figure 3. Pseudocapacitance values directly dependent on interaction
the layers, Temkin’s equation is used instead of Langmuir parameter.
equation:
Pseudocapacitance according to Temkin Isotherm
θ = θ max ⋅ ln( K ⋅ C i ) (8)
where θmax corresponds to maximum coverage surface, with
the normalization θmax = 1.
The influence of the interaction parameter on the
pseudocapacitance is presented in Figure 3. Figure 4
Pseudocapacitance [F]

presents the pseudocapacitance dependence by temperature

in [-20C, +60C], (using g = 1), in an interval which is
commonly specified by producer as normal operation
conditions. In Figure 5 is presented the user interface, and
the simulations results for both, the Langmuir and Temkin’s
Isotherms.
The pseudocapacitance corresponding to Temkin
isotherm is expressed by: Electrode Potential [V]
Figure 4. Pseudocapacitance values indirect dependent on temperature
variation.

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 8, Number 2, 2008

Coverage according to Langmuir Isotherm Coverage according to Temkin Isotherm

Coverage [100%]
Coverage [100%]

Electrode Potential [V] Electrode Potential [V]

Pseudocapacitance according to Langmuir Isotherm Pseudocapacitance according to Temkin Isotherm

Pseudocapacitance [F]

Pseudocapacitance [F]

Electrode Potential [V] Electrode Potential [V]

Figure 5. Simulation interface. Graphical representation of coverage and pseudocapacitance vs. electrode potential using:
a) Langmuir isotherm, and b) Temkin isotherm.

Figure 6. Taxonomy of supercapacitors (according to [7]).

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering
The electrode thickness and internal area, the porosities
and particle sizes of the active material, as well as the
materials selected for the electrolyte and electrode are the
design elements that can be more accurately investigated
with microstructural models such as that described in [17].
Figure 7. Carbon particle sizes on the order of a micron as shown by the
SEM images and cross section of an electrode and current collector.
III. SIMPLE SIZING METHODS
The supercapacitors have usually to work in a series of
discharge and charge cycles. Recharge current depends on
the supercapacitance value and on the internal losses. The
number of supercapacitor cells required can be determined
by the system variables such as allowable change in voltage
(max and min voltage), current (or power) and required
charge/discharge time.
The supercapacitor’s voltage profile has a capacitive and
resistive component. The capacitive component is in relation
with the charge/discharge voltage and the resistive
component represents the voltage variation due to internal
resistance (ESR – equivalent series resistance). A simple
model for a EDLC can be represented by a capacitance with
an equivalent series resistance (ESR) and an equivalent
parallel resistance (EPR) (Figure 2) 4.
This can be described by:
t
i be associated to an average value, as indicated in (13)), the
v = ∫ dt + iR
C following algorithm based on this simple model can be
0
4
As suggested in [4], the series resistor ESR (accounting for the
dissipation during charging and discharging) can be determined
from the time constant τS corresponding to a discharge through a
load R, and the parallel resistor EPR (accounting for the self-
discharge phenomenon which became apparent after long times -
days) and can be computed from the self discharge time constant
τS τP
τP: ESR = − R , EPR =
C C
Volume 8, Number 2, 2008
where:
- v is allowable change in voltage in [Volts],
- i is current in [Amps],
- R is equivalent internal series resistance (ESR) in
[Ohms],
- t is charge or discharge time is [sec], and
- C is capacitance in [Farads].
Figure 8. Simple EDLC equivalent electric model.
The equivalent serial resistance (ESR) models the losses
by Joule effects.
The equivalent parallel resistance (EPR) represents the
current loses that influences the energy storage. The IEC
62391 standard [8], [9], [10], which has been written to be
adapted to high series resistance supercapacitor
measurement, defines that the mean value should be
calculated between 80% and 40% of the nominal voltage
value.
Internal resistance, ESR, blocks instant discharge of the
supercapacitor. In the equivalent model of supercapacitor
[15] the parallel resistance has a visible effect only at very
low frequency (below the milihertz range). It is responsible
for the capacitor’s self discharge time.
Considering this model, the equivalent parameters of a
supercapacitor system (pack), based on a number of
individual supercapacitors groups connected in series or in
parallel, can be described as:
parallel _ number _ cells
C system = C cel (11)
serial _ number _ cells
The equivalent resistance of supercapacitor system is:
serial _ number _ cells
Rsystem = Rcel (12)
parallel _ number _ cells
Assuming constant charge/discharge current, i (that can
(10)
applied (see also [4], [5], [6]):
Step 1: Supercapacitor technical properties
- Voltage variation during the charge/discharge cycle,
calculated as difference between known operating
voltage (Vop – often Vmax of the system) and minimal
voltage (Vmin) required by the system (often 50% Vmax ).
- The time constant t of the self charge/discharge is
equal to: τ P = EPR ⋅ C
- Power P (assuming constant power,
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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 8, Number 2, 2008

P = Vmax · I min = Vmin · I max )

- Specific application energy requirement specification
(W)
- Current value (constant):
I max + I min
i = I average = (13)
2 Figure 9. Simplified model (after [11]).

Step 2: Cells of supercapacitor used For example, if an excursion of VCsup max 2 is allowed, the
- serial cells number: 3
energy variation willΔWCsup * = CsupVC2sup max ,
be
Vmax 8
serial _ number _ cells = (14) accounting for 75% of the stored energy.
Vindividual _ cell
Considering the needs of the system to which the
supercapacitor has to deliver its charge, as defined by the
Usually V individual_cell = 2.5V. (15) value ΔWneed , some simple calculations [11] lead to the
*
dimensioning of the capacity through ΔWCsup = ΔWstoc :
- parallel cells number iteration:
Loop: parallel_number_cells = 1 8 ΔWneed
Csup = . (17)
If after the computation results an inadequate 3 VC2
sup max
capacitance for the specific application, it needs to
Consider now the powers and the energies delivered by
modify:
the supercapacitor (the suffix “i” stands for internal), as
a. the number of parallel cels, parallel_number_cells
noted in figure 10.
= parallel_number_cells + 1 and then return to
computation loop , or:
b. the individual cell type and then return to the
beginning, at Step 1.

In some situations using a lower number of serial cells

with higher voltage supply is a good option but is a
compromise between performance and life-cycle of the
system.
System resistance calculation can be done with (12).
Usually, a high capacitance and low resistance system is
preferred [19].

IV. POWER TRANSFER BASED SIZING

This section will present further consideration for
dimensioning the supercapacitors based on the specific Figure 10. The energies an the powers associated to the supercapacitor’s
power needs of the application where they are intended to be model considered (after [11]).
used. The approach is mainly the one described in [11],
starting with a pre-dimensioning and introducing then the
stored energy versus delivered power diagrams (Ragone In order to plot the stored energy versus delivered power
plots). * 1
one starts from the energy stored: WCsup = CsupVC2sup i .
Figure 9 presents a simplified model of the super- 2
capacitor that will be used in this section, characterized by Observing that VC sup i = VC sup + RC sup I C sup and that
the values of the parameters Csup , RCsup .
PC sup = VC sup I C sup , the expression of WCsup * becomes:
*
Denoting with WCsup the energy stored in the
⎛1 C ⎞
supercapacitor at a certain moment, this can be expressed sup
⎜2 I ⎟
( )
⎛1
⎝ 2
⎞
WCsup * = ⎜ 2 ⎟PC2sup + RCsup Csup PCsup + ⎜ RC2sup CsupIC2sup ⎟
⎠
(18)
(neglecting the series resistance) as: ⎝ C sup ⎠

1 This formula is useful for tracing the stored energy versus

WCsup * = CsupVC2sup (16)
2 delivered power plots for a given supercapacitor at different
current regimes. As one can see in the figures 11 to 13, a
If the allowable limits of the voltage between which the
parabola is obtained for each value of the current. These
discharging process takes place are considered, then the
*
variation of the energy is ΔWC * = 1 Csup VC2
sup
2
sup max
(
− VC2sup min . ) parabolas touch the horizontal axis when WC sup = 0 , i.e.,

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 8, Number 2, 2008

for the case PCsup = − RCsup I C2 sup (meaning that the

recharging of Csup with a current I Csup will be effective
only if the power received by the supercapacitor is larger
than RCsup I C2sup ).

The result of (18) can be rewritten in terms of the voltage

value, as follows:
⎛ RC2 C sup ⎞
WCsup * = ⎜⎜
1 sup
⎜ 2 VC2 ⎟⎟ sup
C (
⎟P 2 + R C P )
⎛1 2 ⎞
Csup sup Csup + ⎜ C supVCsup ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎝ sup ⎠
By limiting the voltage trip across the supercapacitors, the
extremities of the parabolas are also limited, as can be seen
in figures 11 to 13.
A final remark on the shape of the curves in these figures
is that the right side extremities of the parabolas are equally
Figure 11. Stored energy versus delivered power.
* 1
limited to the value WCsup max = CsupVC2sup i max . That can be
2
easily observed considering (16) and the fact that VCsup max is
the upper limit of VCsup i max .
The above mentioned equations were applied for a
supercapacitor with the following parameters: nominal
capacity Csup=350F, nominal voltage U=14V, and weight
m=24kg (produced by the Russian company Econd Ltd).
The results obtained for operating currents of 20A, 40A,
60A, and 80A are presented in figures 11, 12 and 13.

V. CONCLUSION
In order to approximate the coverage of the adsorbed
species, θ, and the pseudocapacitance, some simple models
(based on Frumkin isotherm, Langmuir isotherm and
Themkin isotherm) were simulated in Matlab and a friendly
user interface for studying with graphical representations
these interactions was developed. More accurate modeling
Figure 12. Stored energy versus delivered power.
methods for supercapacitors have to take into account the
pseudocapacitance variation as a function by electrode
potential (voltage on the capacitor).
A better understanding of the processes characteristic to
electrochemical supercapacitors can be gained only by
developing more accurate models. If these models will
provide enough information on factors that are critical to the
rational design of materials composing the supercapacitors,
then new generations of devices with optimal performance
characteristics will appear in coming years.
This paper also introduced some optimal sizing
algorithms of a supercapacitor pack, based on power and
energy requirement for specific applications. These
algorithms were used as a basis of simulation in storage
applications of the electric power, based on supercapacitors,
for the practical applications of terrestrial transportation.[15]

Figure 13. Stored energy versus delivered power.

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering
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