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Determination of the engine power for quenching of glass by forced

convection: simplified model and experimental validation of residual stress
levels

Article in Glass Structures and Engineering · January 2019

DOI: 10.1007/s40940-018-0078-5

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Glass Struct. Eng.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40940-018-0078-5
RESEARCH PAPER
Determination of the engine power for quenching of glass by
forced convection: simplified model and experimental
validation of residual stress levels
N. Pourmoghaddam · J. Schneider
Received: 21 March 2018 / Accepted: 1 May 2018
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018
Abstract This work presents a simplified model for
the determination of the engine power as a function
of the residual stress using quench parameters by
forced convection and introduces the necessary empir-
ical equations of integral heat and mass transfer coeffi-
cients suggested by Martin (1977). For a residual stress
dependent production of thermally tempered glasses,
float glasses were thermally tempered due to heat treat-
ment of the glass panes with different heat transfer
coefficients. In the method presented, quench parame-
ters for determining the engine power required to reach
the target residual stresses are taken into account. The
plausibility of the model is checked on the basis of
experimental data.
Keywords Tempered glass · Residual stress ·
Quenching · Heat transfer coefficient · Cooling air
velocity · Engine power
1 Introduction
Thermally tempered glass and heat strengthened glass
are produced by heating and rapidly cooling float glass
panes. For this purpose, glass plates are fed on rolls
into an oven where they are heated to approximately
100 ◦ C above the glass transition temperature. After-
wards they are moved further into a quench area where
N. Pourmoghaddam (B) · J. Schneider
Technical University of Darmstadt, Franziska-Braun-Str. 3,
64287 Darmstadt, Germany
e-mail: pourmoghaddam@ismd.tu-darmstadt.de
they are quenched i. e. rapidly cooled down by air jets
from both sides to an ambient temperature. This pro-
cess is illustrated in Fig. 1. When heated in the oven,
the glass is in a viscous state and when quenched, the
glass plate hardens through the thickness. First the both
surfaces cool and harden. The temperature difference
between the surface and the centre plane grows until
a maximum is reached and then the centre plane also
cools down and cools faster than the surface. The area
between the two surfaces of the plate contracts and puts
the surfaces into a permanent compressive state. Due
to the equilibration of the surface compressive stresses
tensile stresses result in the mid-plane of the glass plate.
The residual stress distribution is parabolic through the
thickness as it is shown in Fig. 2. The parabolic stress
distribution is in equilibrium and symmetric about the
mid-plane. The surface stress is approximately twice
the tensile stress in magnitude (2σm = σs ). The zero
stress level is at a depth of approximately 20% of the
thickness t.
The residual stresses are strongly process-related
and vary under different boundary conditions such as
the cooling rate, the nozzle arrangement, the nozzle
diameter, the distance between the nozzles and the glass
surface as well as the roller distances. The initial tem-
perature as well as the cooling rate in particular have a
significant influence on the residual stress development
during the tempering process, see e.g. Narayanaswamy
and Gardon (1969) and Aronen and Karvinen (2017).
123

Fig. 1 Sketch of the process line for tempering flat glass
Fig. 2 Residual stress distribution through the thickness in the
far field area of a tempered glass plate
The heat transfer coefficient, which describes the
cooling property of a surface and governs the cooling
process is very difficult to determine experimentally.
For this reason, many authors who have numerically
simulated the tempering process have always focused
on the analytical or complex numerical determination
of the heat transfer coefficient. The tempering process
has been numerically calculated by several authors, e.g.
Narayanaswamy and Gardon (1969), Laufs and Sed-
lacek (1999a), Laufs and Sedlacek (1999b), Schneider
(2001), Daudeville et al. (2002), Bernard et al. (2005),
Nielsen et al. (2010), Aronen (2012), Pourmoghad-
dam et al. (2016) and Pourmoghaddam and Schnei-
der (2018a). This work presents equations, which have
been compiled by Martin (1977) from experimental
data for the determination of the heat transfer coef-
ficient knowing the process boundaries as described
above. This can also be used for the determination of
Table 1 Series for the
Series Specimens
tempering process
per series
ScA 24
ScB 24
ScC 24
123
N. Pourmoghaddam, J. Schneider
the desired residual stresses in glass panes from the
tempering process.
It is important for the manufacturer to be able to
calculate the residual stress before the process for an
effective utilization of the tempering oven and also for
an accurate residual stress result. Our motivation was
to produce glass specimens with systematically varying
residual stresses for a subsequent fragmentation anal-
ysis (Pourmoghaddam and Schneider 2018b).
In order to study the correlation between the resid-
ual stress, particle count, particle weight and particle
size, glass plates with three different thicknesses of 4,
8 and 12 mm were tempered with heat treatment condi-
tions for a predetermined residual stress range. For the
different heat treatment of the specimens the engine
power of the tempering oven was estimated and var-
ied by recalculating the air velocity and the air pres-
sure from the iteratively determined heat transfer coef-
ficients needed for yielding the target residual stress.
After the tempering process, the residual stress in the
glass specimens were measured, using a scattered light
polariscope (SCALP).
2 Specimen preparation for the thermal tempering
For the fracture tests we produced three series of tem-
pered glass specimens of size 360 mm ×1100 mm
with three different thicknesses of 4, 8 and 12 mm
(see Table 1). There were 24 specimens in each series
Specimens Runs per Dimension [mm] Thickness
per run series [mm]
3 8 360 × 1100 4
3 8 360 × 1100 8
3 8 360 × 1100 12
Determination of the engine power for quenching of glass
Fig. 3 Eight target mid-plane tensile stresses for the heat treat-
ment of the series with three different thicknesses 4, 8 and 12 mm
considering the level of strain energy for the start of crack branch-
ing according to Fineberg (2006)
divided into eight groups of three specimens for each
run of the tempering process. Hence, there were eight
runs of the tempering process per series for achieving
eight different residual stresses in each series. In order
to choose the target residual stresses for the heat treat-
ment of the series, the elastic strain energy level for
the start of the crack branching of glass according to
Fineberg (2006) was considered. However, this level
of energy represents the start of local crack branching
by one rapidly moving tensile crack. The question was
how this level would influence the fracture pattern of
a tempered glass. Therefore, in the first step the target
residual stresses were chosen above as well as below
the strain energy level of 35 J/m2 . As it is shown in
Fig. 3 , eight target residual mid-plane tensile stresses
were chosen from 10 to 60 MPa for the 8 and 12 mm
thick specimens and from 10 to 45 MPa for the 4 mm
thick specimens.
For the heat treatment of the series, the engine
power of the thermal tempering oven was varied. Thus,
the engine power needed for the corresponding resid-
ual stress was determined considering the procedure
sketched in Fig. 4. The engine power for the cooling
section of the thermal tempering oven was recalculated
by the determination of the required heat transfer coef-
ficient h, which in turn leads to a certain cooling air
velocity w and subsequently a required air pressure P.
The engine power was then calculated considering the
experience values for the relation between the adjusted
engine power and the resulting air pressure P.
3 Heat transfer coefficient
The heat transfer coefficient, which is required for
yielding the target residual stresses (Fig. 3), was cal-
culated by means of a Finite Element simulation of
the tempering process using an infinite 2D-axisymetric
model. A FE-Model for the simulation of the thermal
tempering process and the numerical calculation of the
residual stresses has been discussed in detail by several
authors, see e.g. Laufs and Sedlacek (1999a, b), Aronen
(2012), Nielsen (2009), Pourmoghaddam et al. (2016)
and Pourmoghaddam and Schneider (2018a). The vis-
coelastic material behaviour of glass in the glass tran-
sition range is considered in the FE-Model. The struc-
tural relaxation is taken into account using the model
of Narayanaswamy (1971). For the simulation of the
tempering process the FE-Model of the glass plate was
given an initial temperature of T0 = 650 ◦ C and cooled
down to the ambient temperature of T∞ = 25 ◦ C.
The time increments needed for converged results of
the tempering process for different glass thicknesses
were given in Pourmoghaddam and Schneider (2018a).
The resulting time-temperature relationship was put in
terms of load steps on a structural mechanical model
to calculate the stress response due to the tempering
process. The different heat transfer coefficients were
determined for yielding a residual surface compressive
stress as shown in Fig. 5.
4 Cooling air velocity
The various cooling air velocities w were calculated
using the empirical equations of integral heat and mass
transfer coefficients suggested by Martin (1977). The
Nusselt-number N u, the Reynolds number Re and the
Prandtl-number Pr are material dependent, dimension-
less values and can be written as:
hD
Nu = (1)
λ
wD
Re = (2)
ν
123
 N. Pourmoghaddam, J. Schneider

Fig. 4 Procedure for the

determination of the engine
power of the tempering
oven

ν
Pr = (3)
a

where D is the inner diameter of a nozzle, h the heat

transfer coefficient and w is the cooling air velocity.
The material values of the cooling medium, air, are the
thermal conductivity λ, the kinematic viscosity ν and
the thermal diffusivity a at an arithmetically averaged
fluid temperature Tm = (TN + TS )/2 between the tem-
perature at nozzles outlet TN and the temperature at the
surface of the glass plate TS . The empirical equations
for the integral heat and mass transfer coefficients for
an array of round triangular arranged nozzles (ARN),
as shown in Fig. 6, in terms of the practical application
is suggested by Martin (1977) as:

N u A R N = G · Re2/3 · Pr 0.42 (4)

d ∗ · (1 − 2.2d ∗ )
Fig. 5 Heat transfer coefficient [W/m2 K] versus surface com- G=
1 + 0.2 · (h ∗ − 6) · d ∗
pressive stress [MPa] from FE simulations    −0.05
10 · h ∗ · d ∗ 6
· 1+ (5)
6

Fig. 6 Left: Nozzle configuration: a single round nozzle (SRN), and Martin 2013), right: sketch of the impinging jet flow, inner
b single slotted nozzle (SSN), c array of round nozzles (ARN), d diameter of a nozzle D and distance H between the nozzles and
array of slotted nozzles (ASN) from VDI Heating atlas (Schabel the surface of the glass plate

123
Determination of the engine power for quenching of glass

Fig. 7 a Calculated cooling air velocity [m/s] versus heat trans- L T = 5 mm (ARN) and the material values of the cooling
fer coefficient [W/m2 K], b calculated cooling air velocity [m/s] medium air W/mK, m2 /s and m2 /s for an arithmetically aver-
versus surface compressive stress [MPa], calculations in a and aged temperature Tm from the temperatures TN = 25 ◦ C and
b based on the geometry values H = 50 mm, D = 5 mm and TS = 650 ◦ C

with the validity range for G: using Eq. (8) the value for the air velocity w was varied
iteratively until the numerically determined heat trans-
0.004 ≤ (d ∗ 2 = f ) ≤ 0.04, fer coefficient h was yielded. The cooling air velocities
∗ in correlation of the target residual surface compres-
2≤ (h = H/D) ≤ 12,
sive stresses are shown in Fig. 7b. The calculations
2000 ≤ Re ≤ 100, 000
were carried out with the nozzle values L T = 5 mm,
H = 50 mm and D = 5 mm for the cooling section of
In the case of triangular arranged array of round nozzles
the thermal tempering oven.
(ARN) the relative nozzle area f can be written as:

π D2 5 Engine power of the tempering oven

f = √ · 2 (6)
2 3 LT
 D The glass plates were tempered in groups of three using
d ∗ = f = 0.9523 (7) the thermal tempering oven of the company Semcoglas
LT
Holding GmbH (December 2016). Once the cooling air
where L T is the distance between the nozzles and H velocity w for different target residual stress states is
is the distance between the nozzles and the surface of determined, the air pressure P can be calculated using
the glass plate (see Fig. 6). The cooling air velocity Eq. (9) for the total pressure with the air velocity pres-
was recalculated using the Eqs. (1)–(7). Inserting the sure and the hydrostatic air pressure:
Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) in Eq. (4) we obtain for the heat 1
transfer coefficient: P = ρw 2 + ρgh j (9)
  2
Gλ w D 2/3  ν 0.42 where h j is the distance between the pressure chamber
h= · · (8)
D ν a and the air jets, ρ the air density and g is the gravity.
In Fig. 7a), the heat transfer coefficient depending on After the determination of the required air pressure
the calculated cooling air velocity w is shown. Thereby, for each target residual stress considering the cool-

123
 N. Pourmoghaddam, J. Schneider

responding heat transfer coefficients, cooling air veloc-

ities and subsequently the required engine powers are
summed up in Table 2 for the three thicknesses of 4, 8
and 12 mm. For the determination of the air pressure
an average atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 Pa and the
temperature of 25◦ C was assumed (ρ = 1.184 kg/m3 ).

6 Stress measurements

In order to check the actual stress state in the spec-

Fig. 8 Engine power E P in percentage of the total power vs.
air pressure P [Pa]; points show experience values of the tem-
pering oven and solid curve show the trend line including the
corresponding function and the coefficient of determination R 2
ing air velocity and the heat transfer coefficient, the
air pressure was matched to the empirical function of
the thermal tempering oven in terms of the correla-
tion between the engine power E P as the percentage
of the total power of the thermal tempering oven and
the resulting air pressure in the height of the air jets.
The empirical function of the thermal tempering oven
is shown in Fig. 8. The eight target residual mid-plane
tensile stresses, which were plotted in Fig. 3 and the cor-
imens the residual stresses were measured after the
tempering process using a scattered light polariscope
(SCALP) developed by GlasStress Ltd. The residual
stresses in vertical and horizontal direction in thirteen
measurement points were measured at both surfaces of
the specimens, see Fig. 9. The anisotropy of the residual
compressive surface stresses in the area of the measure-
ment points was quite low with a coefficient of variation
around 3%. In Fig. 10, the optical path difference under
polarized light is shown for three different thicknesses.
It was observed that the anisotropy and the inaccura-
cies in yielding the target residual stresses increased for
the 12 mm thick plates. In Fig. 11a, the target residual
stresses in comparison to the average of the measured
mid-plane tensile stresses in the measurement points
after the tempering process is shown.
Due to the lack of accuracy of the thermal tempering
oven for the low engine power range, it was not possi-
ble to reach the lowest target residual stress states, espe-
cially for the 12 mm thick plates, see Fig. 11a. However,

Table 2 Target residual mid-plane tensile stresses σm [MPa] and power E P [%] as the percentage of the total power, h j = 0.65 m,
the corresponding heat transfer coefficients h [W/m2 K], cooling ρ = 1.184 kg/m3 (atmospheric pressure and 25 ◦ C)
air velocities w [m/s], air pressure P [Pa] and the required engine

t = 4 mm t = 8 mm t = 12 mm
σm h w P EP σm h w P EP σm h w P EP
[MPa] [W/m2 K] [m/s] [Pa] [%] [MPa] [W/m2 K] [m/s] [Pa] [%] [MPa] [W/m2 K] [m/s] [Pa] [%]

10 76.8 9 55.5 6.6 10 35.5 5 22.9 4.0 10 25.0 4 16.1 3.3

15 115.2 16 159.1 12.1 15 51.8 9 54.4 6.6 15 35.0 6 30.3 4.7
20 153.6 25 377.5 19.7 20 67.7 13 112.3 9.9 20 45.6 9 57.7 6.8
25 192.0 35 732.7 28.8 25 86.4 19 225.8 14.7 25 56.6 13 103.0 9.4
30 240.0 49 1428.9 42.1 30 106.1 26 410.8 20.7 30 68.5 17 178.6 12.9
35 278.4 61 2210.4 54.0 40 149.8 44 1138.1 37.0 40 94.2 27 452.0 21.9
40 335.0 78 3609.3 71.3 50 203.5 70 2891.8 62.9 50 123.8 41 1012.4 34.6
45 393.6 103 6288.1 97.8 60 264.0 102 6215.1 97.2 60 157.4 59 2068.3 52.0

123
Determination of the engine power for quenching of glass

considering the objective of yielding different residual the development of high residual stresses. The inaccu-
stresses for a reasonable fragmentation analysis, the racy due to the lower cooling rates could be due to the
heat treatment of the specimen series was both neces- inaccuracy of the fan power. The determined engine
sary and successful.
In Fig. 11b the correlation between the residual mid-
plane stress and the engine power of the tempering oven
is shown. The values given on the x-axis for the engine
power are the required fan powers of the motor relative
to the maximum power. It was observed that the accu-
racy of the residual stresses decreased with thicker glass
plates and at lower cooling rates. Especially the inac-
curacy due to the thickness was expected. For thicker
glass plates, a very low cooling rate is sufficient for

Fig. 10 Optical path difference under polarized light, a t=

3.8 mm, σs = − 91.3 MPa (rel. deviation of 1.28%), b t=
Fig. 9 Positions and directions of the residual stress measure- 7.9 mm, σs = − 91.1 MPa (rel. deviation of 1.15%), c t=
ments 12.0 mm, σs = − 97.4 MPa (rel. deviation of 2.01%)

Fig. 11 a Elastic strain energy U [J/m2 ] vs. mid-plane ten-
sile stress [MPa]; coloured points show the average residual
mid-plane stress from thirteen measurement points; hollow cir-
cles show the target residual mid-plane stress from Fig. 3;
U = 35 J/m2 is the start of the crack branching (Fineberg
2006), b mid-plane tensile stress [MPa] versus engine power
[%] of the tempering oven; coloured points show the measured
residual stress after the tempering process,solid lines are trend
lines including the corresponding function and the coefficient of
determination R2

123

power for achieving low residual stresses could not be
set exactly.
7 Summary and conclusion
This work comprehensively demonstrated a simplified
model for the determination of the engine power as
a function of residual stresses for quenching of glass
by forced convection. For a residual stress dependent
production of thermally tempered glasses, float glasses
were thermally tempered due to heat treatment of the
glass panes with different heat transfer coefficients.
After specifying the target residual stresses the corre-
sponding heat transfer coefficients were calculated by
means of FE simulations. The value of the heat trans-
fer coefficient was adjusted iteratively until the targeted
residual stress was reached. After the determination of
the corresponding heat transfer coefficient the cooling
air velocity was recalculated using the empirical equa-
tions suggested by Martin (1977). Knowing the empir-
ical function of the tempering oven engine power, the
fan power was set according to the determined nozzle
air velocity. The experiments in this work were only
carried out on one tempering line, thus factors that may
differ in different tempering lines were not taken into
account.
With the help of SCALP measurements it could
be shown that this approach is promising. In about
70% of the glass panes, a smaller deviation than 5%
to the target residual stress was observed. Inaccura-
cies of the residual stress results for thicker plates
(12 mm) at lower engine powers than 20% were
expected. Due to the glass cooling property, based
on the viscoelastic material behavior at temperatures
above glass transition temperature and the tempera-
ture dependency of the glass structure, in thicker plates
very high residual stresses occur at very low cooling
rates.
It is important for the manufacturer to be able to
determine and set the engine power according to the
residual stress. This increases or optimizes the effec-
tiveness of the tempering oven and production. It was
observed that the accuracy of the residual stresses
decreased with thicker glass plates and at lower cooling
rates. However, at the typical industrial cooling rates
and the engine power range of 30–100% the process
123
N. Pourmoghaddam, J. Schneider
parameters for the quenching of glass plates can be
determined from this simplified calculations.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no con-
flict of interest.
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