HISTORY OF GRAPHIC DESIGN

Essay

Name : Claudio Reihan Hidayat

Nim : 23027011
Major : Visual Comunication Design
Lecturer : Dini Faisal, S.Ds., M.Ds
Ary Ramadhan, S.Pd., M.Pd.T

HOW MOVEABLE TYPE AND ILLUSTRATED BOOK CONTRIBUTES

TO MODERN GRAPHIC DESIGN

Introduction
The term "xylography" refers to the ancient technique of relief printing from a raised surface,
with its origins rooted in Asia. Conversely, "typography" encompasses the art of printing
using independent, movable, and reusable metal or wooden characters, each possessing a
raised letterform on one face. These seemingly dry definitions belie the profound impact of
typography on human dialogue and the vast horizons it opened for graphic design. This
extraordinary invention, pioneered in the mid-1400s by an enigmatic German inventor,
whose identity has been lost to the passage of time, ranks alongside the creation of writing as
one of civilization's most pivotal advancements. Typography facilitated the economical and
mass production of written communication, ushering in an era of rapidly spreading
knowledge and increased literacy.
The Latin word "incunabula" translates to "cradle" or "baby linen." Interestingly, this term,
initially referring to baby linen, became synonymous with the earliest years of the printed
book. This essay explores the significance of the incunabula era, which encompasses the
period between the invention of typography by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1450s and the
close of the 15th century. During this time, printing rapidly spread across Europe, resulting in
profound cultural, social, and economic transformations.
The history of graphic design in Europe is closely intertwined with the introduction of
printing technology and the evolution of the illustrated book. This essay explores five
significant printings that came to Europe and their role in shaping the German Illustrated
Book, highlighting how both moveable type and illustrated books contributed to the
foundation of modern graphic design.
Printings That Came to Europe
• The Gutenberg Bible (1455): Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the moveable type
printing press in Mainz, Germany, marked the beginning of a printing revolution. The
Gutenberg Bible, also known as the 42-line Bible, was one of the first major books
produced using this technology. It showcased the power of standardized typography,
making it easier to read and understand text, setting a precedent for typography's
essential role in modern graphic design.
• The Nuremberg Chronicle (1493): This lavishly illustrated book, authored by
Hartmann Schedel and printed by Anton Koberger in Nuremberg, Germany, was a
landmark publication. It featured detailed woodcut illustrations alongside text,
demonstrating the harmonious integration of visuals and words. The Nuremberg
Chronicle highlighted the potential for visual storytelling, a concept that would
become central to modern graphic design.
• The Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1499): This Italian work, printed in Venice by Aldus
Manutius, exemplified meticulous typographic design and layout. It showcased the
importance of page design, leading to the development of layout and composition
principles that graphic designers continue to use today.
• The Works of Albrecht Dürer: Albrecht Dürer, the renowned German artist, was a
prolific printmaker during the Renaissance. His woodcuts and engravings, including
"The Apocalypse" series, demonstrated the artistic potential of printmaking. Dürer's
meticulous attention to detail and artistic skill influenced the aesthetics of early
graphic design.
• The Bauhaus Publications (1919-1933): Although much later in history, the Bauhaus
school in Germany had a profound impact on modern graphic design. Their
publications, including "Bauhaus" and "Bauhaus Dessau," showcased a minimalist
and functional design approach, emphasizing the importance of typography, grid
systems, and geometric shapes in graphic design.

The European Climate for Typography

Typography's advent in Europe was spurred by several key factors. The insatiable demand
for books emerged, driven by the burgeoning literate middle class and students attending
rapidly expanding universities, breaking the clergy's monopoly on literacy and creating a vast
new market for reading material. Nevertheless, the laborious and costly process of creating
books had seen little change in a thousand years. A simple two-hundred-page manuscript
book took four to five months to craft by a scribe, and the expense of twenty-five sheepskins
for parchment often exceeded the cost of labor.
In 1424, the University of Cambridge's library in England housed a mere 122 manuscript
books, while a wealthy nobleman's collection might contain fewer than two dozen volumes.
Books were as valuable as farms or vineyards. Even with the rise in demand, independent
merchants had implemented an assembly-line approach to book production, utilizing
specialists skilled in lettering, decorative initialing, gold ornamentation, proofreading, and
binding. This production surge, however, still could not meet the growing demand.
The Role of Paper
Papermaking played a pivotal role in making typography a viable endeavor. The journey of
paper from China to Europe was a lengthy one, spanning over six centuries along caravan
routes from the Pacific Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. After the Arab world's capture of
Chinese papermakers following a conflict in 751 CE, papermaking began to take root.
Samarkand, an oasis city, became a hub for paper production thanks to abundant water and
crops like flax and hemp. The craft then spread to Baghdad, Damascus, and Egypt. By the
tenth century, paper had traversed North Africa and reached Sicily in 1102, and it was
introduced into Spain by the Moors in the twelfth century. Notably, by 1276, a paper mill was
established in Fabriano, Italy, and Troyes, France, had its paper mill by 1348.

The Origins of Woodblock Printing in Europe

The origins of woodblock printing in Europe remain shrouded in mystery. After the
Crusades opened Europe to Eastern influence, relief printing arrived, closely following the
introduction of paper. Early manifestations of block printing included playing cards and
religious-image prints. Circumstantial evidence suggests that woodblock printing also
traveled westward from China, and by the early 1300s, pictorial designs were being printed
on textiles in Europe. The popularity of card playing, despite being outlawed, led to a thriving
underground block-printing industry, possibly emerging before 1400.

The Emergence of Block Books

Playing cards were the first printed items to penetrate an illiterate culture, making them a
democratizing force in early European printing. They introduced the masses to symbol
recognition, sequencing, and logical deduction, transcending mere entertainment. The earliest
known European block printings with a communication function were devotional prints of
saints, varying in size from small images to larger ones measuring 25 by 35 centimeters (10
by 14 inches). These prints, which often featured hand coloring and combined image and
lettering cut from the same woodblock, evolved into block books—woodcut picture books
with religious content and concise text. Each page was cut from a woodblock and printed as a
complete word and picture unit. These block books were likely used for the religious
instruction of illiterates and gradually declined as literacy rates increased.
Notable subjects for block books included the Apocalypse and "ars moriendi," manuals on
the "art of dying." The latter offered guidance on preparing for one's death, which was a
prevalent concern during an era marked by the ravages of the Black Death. These block
books can also be seen as early examples of printed propaganda, advocating that one should
will their estate to the church, thus consolidating its power.

The Transition to Movable Typography in Europe

The availability of paper, relief printing from woodblocks, and the surging demand for
books encouraged printers across Europe, including Germany, the Netherlands, France, and
Italy, to explore the mechanization of book production through movable type.
 In Avignon, France, around 1444, goldsmith Procopius Waldfoghel experimented with
movable type, while the Dutchman Laurens Janszoon Coster of Haarlem explored the
concept of movable type by cutting individual letters or words from wooden blocks for reuse.
However, it is widely accepted that Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany, around 1450, was
the first to successfully integrate the various elements required for typographic printing,
including the development of type molds, metal alloys for type casting, and a sturdy press
capable of applying sufficient force to transfer ink onto paper.

Gutenberg's Invention of Movable Type

Johann Gutenberg, the third son of Mainz patrician Friele Gensfleisch, had initially
apprenticed as a goldsmith, acquiring the metalworking and engraving skills essential for
type production. He was exiled from Mainz in 1428, relocating to Strasbourg, where he
became a successful gem cutter and metalworker. In 1438, Gutenberg formed a partnership
with Strasbourg citizens Andreas Dritzehen and Andreas Hellmann, agreeing to teach them a
secret process, possibly related to mirror-making. Dritzehen's death in 1438 led to a legal
dispute, which revealed that Gutenberg was involved in printing, as witnesses attested to the
partnership owning a press and possessing type, lead, and other materials necessary for
printing.
Gutenberg's pivotal contribution was his two-part type mold, which allowed for the casting
of type with precise tolerances. His alloy of lead, tin, and antimony ensured that the type
maintained its mass consistently throughout the casting process. This innovation enabled
Gutenberg to produce large quantities of type with remarkable accuracy, stored in
compartmentalized cases and assembled letter by letter for typesetting. The use of a thick,
tacky ink and a robust, efficient press further improved the printing process.

The Printing of the Gutenberg Bible

The Gutenberg press was employed to create the Gutenberg Bible, also known as the forty-
two-line Bible, which marked a milestone in the history of typography. The Bible featured
large pages, with two columns of type and generous margins. It is believed that the font
chosen for the Gutenberg Bible imitated the square, compact textura lettering style favored by
German scribes of that era. Each character in the font had to be engraved into a steel punch,
which was then used to create a negative impression in a softer copper or brass matrix.
Gutenberg's type mold, capable of casting narrow and wide characters, enabled the
production of large volumes of type with critical precision. In total, Gutenberg needed around
fifty thousand individual pieces of type in circulation to print his Bible.
The Gutenberg Bible, consisting of 1,282 pages printed in Latin, was completed around
1455. Approximately 180 copies were produced, with many initially sold to ecclesiastical
institutions, while some were acquired by wealthy individuals. Notably, a complete copy of
the Gutenberg Bible was sold for $5.4 million in 1987, attesting to its lasting value and
significance.
The Impact of the Printing Revolution

1. The Gutenberg Bible symbolizes the shift from manuscript culture to print culture.
The significance of this transformation can hardly be overstated:
2. Democratization of Knowledge: Printing made books more accessible and affordable,
democratizing knowledge. This facilitated the spread of ideas, promoted literacy, and
empowered individuals to access a wealth of information.
3. Standardization: Movable type allowed for consistent letterforms, leading to
standardized language and spelling. This contributed to the development of modern
national languages and helped unify dialects.
4. Scientific Revolution: Printing played a crucial role in the Scientific Revolution by
enabling the dissemination of scientific knowledge and fostering collaboration among
scholars.
5. Religious Transformation: The Protestant Reformation, led by figures like Martin
Luther, was greatly facilitated by the ability to print and distribute religious texts. This
resulted in the fragmentation of the Western Christian Church and the rise of
Protestant denominations.
6. Literary Renaissance: The printing press facilitated the publication of literary works,
paving the way for the Renaissance in literature and the arts.
7. Cultural Exchange: Printing also contributed to cultural exchange by making it easier
to disseminate works from different cultures and regions.

The German Illustrated Book: A Catalyst for Modern Graphic Design

The Spread of Printing:

The advent of typography marked a significant turning point in human history. By the year
1480, numerous European towns had embraced printing, with a significant presence in
northern Europe, Italy, France, Iberia, and England. By 1500, more than 140 towns were
engaged in printing, demonstrating the rapid diffusion of this revolutionary technology.

The Printing Boom:

The impact of printing on the availability of books was staggering. In 1450, Europe's
monasteries and libraries held only around 50,000 volumes. However, during the incunabula
era, it is estimated that over 35,000 editions, totaling a remarkable nine million books, were
printed. This proliferation of printed material included not only books but also various
ephemera like religious tracts, pamphlets, and broadsides. These single-leaf pages, known as
broadsides, would evolve into printed posters, advertisements, and newspapers.
Resistance to Printing:
While printing brought about monumental changes, it was met with resistance in some
quarters. Scribes in Genoa, for instance, demanded that the town council forbid printing,
fearing that it threatened their livelihoods. Parisian illuminators also filed lawsuits against
printers, claiming unfair competition. Some bibliophiles argued that typographic books were
inferior to handwritten manuscripts, with one cardinal even ordering a copy of a typographic
book to be handwritten for his library.

The Impact on Literacy:

One of the most significant outcomes of printing was the decline of illiteracy. Previously,
literacy held limited value for peasants who had no access to books. However, with the
reduction in book prices due to typography, reading became desirable and increasingly
necessary for people in Renaissance towns. This transition from communal scriptorium-based
learning to private, independent reading had a profound impact on education and
communication.

The Role of Typography in Cultural Transformation:

Typography played a pivotal role in unifying languages and fostering nationalism. It
stabilized and standardized languages, erasing provincial idiosyncrasies and contributing to
the development of modern nation-states. It also became a powerful tool for disseminating
ideas about human rights and sovereignty, leading to revolutions like the American and
French revolutions. Furthermore, Gutenberg's invention paved the way for mechanization,
ultimately leading to the Industrial Revolution.

Design Innovations:
In Germany and Italy, typographic printers collaborated with woodcut artists and developed
illustrated books and broadsheets. These innovations marked a departure from the design
conventions inherited from illuminated manuscripts. Initially, typographic books closely
followed manuscript traditions, with titles and authors at the top of the page. However, as the
incunabula era progressed, new design approaches unique to typographic books emerged.

The Role of Illustrators:

Illustrators like Erhard Reuwich and Albrecht Dürer played crucial roles in shaping the
illustrated typographic book. Reuwich's work in "Peregrinationes in Montem Syon" and
Dürer's "The Apocalypse" showcased their ability to convey complex visual narratives. These
illustrated books bridged the gap between text and image, setting the stage for future
developments in book design.
The Impact of Printing Centers:
Certain cities, like Nuremberg, played central roles in the spread of printing. Anton
Koberger's print shop in Nuremberg, for example, produced masterpieces like the
"Nuremberg Chronicle" and "Schatzbehalter." Koberger's work not only contributed to the
dissemination of knowledge but also showcased the potential for print shops to become
significant cultural hubs.

The Emergence of Broadside Printing:

Printing broadsides, single-leaf pages used for various purposes, became a major form of
communication. They covered a wide range of content, from announcements and
advertisements to political and religious messages. Broadside printing was a precursor to
newspapers and other forms of mass media, demonstrating how printing technology was
transforming information dissemination.

The German Illustrated Book emerged as a pivotal genre that synthesized the influences of
earlier printings and set the stage for modern graphic design:
1. Integration of Text and Image: The German Illustrated Book exemplified the
harmonious fusion of text and imagery, illustrating the power of visual storytelling.
This concept laid the foundation for graphic novels, comics, and multimedia design,
where the interplay between text and visuals conveys complex narratives.
2. Typography and Layout: The meticulous attention to typography and page layout in
German illustrated books contributed to the development of design principles that
remain fundamental in modern graphic design. These principles include typography
choice, grid systems, and visual hierarchy.
3. Aesthetic Sensibilities: The rich illustrations and meticulous attention to detail in
German illustrated books influenced the development of design aesthetics. These
works highlighted the importance of balance, composition, and visual appeal, which
continue to be central to contemporary graphic design.
Conclusion
The advent of typography was a transformative moment in human history. Johannes
Gutenberg's invention of movable type revolutionized communication, knowledge
dissemination, and the very structure of societies. It marked the beginning of the transition
from the Medieval to the Modern Age, profoundly shaping the cultural, intellectual, and
political landscape of Europe and beyond. Typography, this seemingly humble fusion of
metal, ink, and paper, opened the door to an era of enlightenment, creativity, and innovation,
the echoes of which continue to resonate in our digital age. Gutenberg's legacy endures,
reminding us of the enduring power of ideas and the remarkable capacity of human ingenuity
to transform the world.
 The incunabula era, spanning the late 15th century, was a period of profound change driven
by the invention of typography. Printing transformed society, culture, and communication in
Europe and beyond. It stabilized languages, facilitated the spread of ideas, and contributed to
the rise of nation-states. The collaboration between typographic printers and illustrators
ushered in a new era of book design, while the emergence of broadside printing laid the
groundwork for future forms of mass communication. Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the
printing press was indeed a pivotal moment in the history of human civilization, setting the
stage for the modern world.
The five notable printings that came to Europe, combined with the development of the
German Illustrated Book, played a foundational role in shaping modern graphic design. The
introduction of moveable type and the evolution of illustrated books laid the groundwork for
typography, visual storytelling, layout principles, and design aesthetics that remain integral to
the field today. These historical influences continue to inspire and guide contemporary
graphic designers, emphasizing the enduring legacy of early printing innovations in Europe.