University of Chittagong

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

University of Chittagong

Course Title : Microelectronics and Semiconductor

Technology
Course Code : EEE - 717

Assignment Name : Bulk Technology

Submitted to
Dr. Md. Shah Alam
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
University of Chittagong

Submitted by

Shah Mohammad Shahariar

ID :19702005
Session: 2018-19
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
University of Chittagong

Date of Submission: 21-08-2023

Bulk Technology :

In microelectronics and semiconductor technology, "Bulk Technology" refers to the

conventional approach of fabricating transistors and other electronic components within
the bulk or volume of a semiconductor material, usually silicon. This is in contrast to
more advanced technologies like "FinFET" (Fin Field-Effect Transistor) and "SOI"
(Silicon-on-Insulator), which involve creating structures on or near the surface of the
semiconductor substrate.

In microelectronics and semiconductors, "Bulk technology" means making tiny parts like
transistors inside a material. It's like crafting something within a block of wood. This
traditional method faces challenges as things get tinier, causing energy leakage and
heat.

Sources of Ge, Si and GaAs :

In "Bulk technology" for microelectronics and semiconductor technology, the sources of
the materials like Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si), and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) come
from raw materials that are refined and processed to create the semiconductor
substrates used in chip manufacturing.

Here's where these materials typically come from:

1) Germanium (Ge): Germanium is not as commonly used as Silicon in modern

semiconductor manufacturing due to its higher cost and some technological
limitations. It was more prevalent in early semiconductor devices. The primary
source of Germanium is usually extracted from certain minerals like sphalerite,
which is a zinc ore. Through various refining processes, Germanium can be
obtained as a byproduct of zinc processing.

2) Silicon (Si): Silicon is the most widely used material in semiconductor

manufacturing due to its abundance and excellent semiconductor properties.
The primary source of silicon is silica, which is found in sand and quartz.
Through a series of chemical and refining processes, silica is converted into pure
silicon suitable for semiconductor manufacturing.

3) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): Gallium Arsenide is an alternative semiconductor

material to silicon, often used in specific applications due to its unique electrical
properties. Gallium is typically obtained as a byproduct of mining and refining
other metals like aluminum and zinc. Arsenic, on the other hand, is sourced from
arsenopyrite, a mineral that contains both arsenic and sulfur.
These raw materials undergo complex purification, melting, crystallization, and cutting
processes to create the wafer substrates used in microelectronics.

Purification of Ge, Si and Bridgeman Technique :

In microelectronics and semiconductor technology, the purification of materials like
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) is a crucial step to ensure the quality and performance
of semiconductor devices. The Bridgman technique is a method used for crystal growth
in these materials. Here's an overview of the purification process and the Bridgman
technique:

Purification of Germanium and Silicon:

Zone Refining: Zone refining is a common method for purifying Germanium and Silicon.
In this process, a rod of the impure material is passed through a high-temperature zone
created by an induction heater. The impurities tend to concentrate in the molten zone
and can be moved along the rod to a separate location. By repeating this process
multiple times, the material becomes progressively purer.

Fig:Zone Refining process

Czochralski Process: The Czochralski process is a widely used technique for growing
single crystals of Germanium and Silicon. In this method, a seed crystal is dipped into a
crucible of molten material and slowly pulled out while rotating. As the crystal grows, it
absorbs the pure material from the melt, resulting in a single crystal with fewer
impurities.

Fig:Czochralski process
Bridgman Technique:The Bridgman technique is a crystal growth method used for
several semiconductor materials, including Germanium and Silicon.

Fig:Bridgeman Technique

It involves the following steps:

Crucible: A crucible is prepared with the material to be melted and crystallized. The
material is heated until it melts.

Cooling Gradient: The crucible is slowly pulled upward while it's being cooled from the
top. This creates a controlled temperature gradient within the crucible.

Solidification: As the crucible is pulled upward and cooled, the molten material solidifies
from the bottom to the top. This results in the growth of a single crystal with a
controlled crystalline structure.

Impurity Segregation: During the solidification process, impurities tend to segregate

toward the liquid-solid interface, resulting in a purer crystal towards the top of the ingot.

The Bridgman technique allows for the controlled growth of large single crystals, which
are then sliced into wafers for semiconductor device fabrication. This method helps
reduce impurity concentration and create higher-quality materials for microelectronics.

Traveling Heater Method (THM):

The "Traveling Heater Method" (THM) is a crystal growth technique used in
microelectronics and semiconductor technology to create high-quality single crystals of
materials like silicon (Si). This method is employed to produce large cylindrical ingots of
semiconductor-grade silicon, which can then be sliced into thin wafers for the
fabrication of semiconductor devices such as integrated circuits.

For applications in electronics, optics, and other sectors, the traveling Heater Method is
useful for creating big, flawless crystals. It makes it possible to precisely regulate the
crystal's development conditions, producing crystals with predictable qualities. This
process is used to produce materials with specialized properties required for a variety
of technologies in both industrial and research contexts.

Zone Refining: Zone refining is a purification technique used in microelectronics and

semiconductor technology to produce high-purity materials, such as silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge), and other semiconductor materials. This method involves gradually
moving a molten zone through a solid material, allowing impurities to concentrate in the
liquid phase and thereby producing a more purified solid material. Zone refining is
especially valuable for creating materials with very low impurity levels, which is
essential for manufacturing high-performance semiconductor devices.

Czochralski Process :The Czochralski process, often abbreviated as CZ process,

is a widely used crystal growth technique in microelectronics and semiconductor
technology to produce single crystals of materials like silicon (Si) and other
semiconductor materials. This method is essential for creating large, high-quality single

crystal ingots that can be sliced into wafers for the fabrication of semiconductor
devices such as integrated circuits.

The Czochralski process involves the controlled solidification of a melt to form a single
crystal with controlled purity and crystalline structure.

Junction:
Alloy Technique:

The "Alloy Technique" refers to a process in which two or more elements are mixed
together to form a compound with desired properties. In microelectronics and
semiconductor technology, this might involve creating semiconductor materials by
combining different elements in precise proportions to achieve specific electrical
properties or bandgap characteristics.

Alloy technique involves mixing specific elements to create compound materials with
desired properties, often used in microelectronics to tailor semiconductor
characteristics for specific applications.

Crystal Growth Technique:

Crystal growth techniques involve the controlled solidification of a material from a liquid
or vapor phase to create single crystals with well-defined structures. Techniques like the
Czochralski process and the Bridgman technique, as discussed earlier, are examples of
crystal growth techniques used in microelectronics to produce high-quality
semiconductor crystals.

Fig:Crystal Growth by Travelling Heater Method (THM)

Growth techniques are methods to create single crystals with controlled properties,
such as the Czochralski process, Bridgman technique, and epitaxial growth, crucial for
producing high-quality semiconductor materials.

Diffusion Technique:

Diffusion techniques involve the controlled movement of atoms or molecules from

regions of high concentration to regions of lower concentration within a material. In
microelectronics, diffusion is a critical process for introducing dopant atoms into
semiconductor materials to modify their electrical properties and create different
regions with specific conductivity characteristics.

Diffusion techniques introduce dopant atoms into semiconductor materials to alter their
electrical properties in a controlled manner, playing a pivotal role in creating different
regions of conductivity within microelectronic devices.

Planar Technology:

Planar technology, also known as planar processing, is a fabrication method used in

microelectronics to create integrated circuits on a flat surface (wafer) with multiple
layers of interconnected components. The planar process involves sequentially
depositing and patterning thin films of different materials, such as insulators,
conductors, and semiconductors, to build complex electronic devices like transistors
and capacitors.
 Fig:Planar Process

Planar technology is a fabrication approach where thin film layers of various materials
are deposited and patterned to create integrated circuits on a flat surface.

Epitaxial Growth:

Epitaxial growth is a process used in microelectronics and semiconductor technology to

create thin layers of crystalline material with a specific crystal orientation on a
substrate. It involves growing a crystal layer on a substrate in such a way that the atoms
or molecules in the growing layer align with the lattice structure of the substrate. This
technique allows precise control over layer thickness, crystal orientation, and doping
levels, making it essential for creating complex semiconductor structures.

Process steps of Epitaxial Growth:

● Starting with a substrate material with a well-defined crystal lattice.

● Introducing source gasses or precursor materials into a reaction chamber.
● Decomposing or dissociating the source gasses to create reactive species.
● These reactive species deposit atomically on the substrate surface, aligning with
the substrate's crystal structure.
● Controlling parameters like temperature, pressure, and gas flow rates to achieve
the desired layer thickness and crystal quality.

Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE):

Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) is a technique in which a crystalline layer is grown on a

substrate from a supersaturated solution or melt. The substrate is dipped into the
solution or melted, and as it cools, the material crystallizes on the substrate surface.
LPE is used to create high-quality semiconductor layers and heterostructures with well-
defined properties. It has applications in producing lasers, detectors, and other
optoelectronic devices.
 Fig:Liquid Phase Epitaxy

Process steps of Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE):

● Preparing a substrate and a solution or melt of the material to be grown.

● Submerging the substrate in the solution or melt.
● Gradually lowering the temperature to initiate crystallization on the substrate.
● The material from the solution or melt deposits on the substrate, forming a
crystalline layer.
● Removing the substrate and allowing it to cool and solidify.

Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE):

Vapor phase epitaxy (VPE) is a technique where a crystal layer is grown on a substrate
by introducing vapor-phase reactants into a reaction chamber. The reactants combine
on the substrate surface to form a crystalline layer. VPE can be further categorized into
techniques like Metal Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) and Molecular Beam
Epitaxy (MBE), which offer more precise control over layer properties.

Fig:Vapor Phase Epitaxy process

Process steps of Vapour phase epitaxy (VPE):

● Introducing vapor-phase reactants into a reaction chamber.

● Decomposing the reactants using heat or other energy sources, producing
reactive species.
● These reactive species adsorb onto the substrate surface.
● Atoms from the adsorbed species incorporate into the growing crystal lattice.
 ● Controlling temperature, pressure, and gas flow rates to achieve precise growth
conditions.
●

Metal Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE):

MOVPE is a specific type of vapor phase epitaxy that involves using metal organic
precursors to introduce materials onto a substrate surface. Organometallic compounds
in vapor form are used to deposit thin layers of semiconductor materials with high
precision. MOVPE is known for its ability to grow complex semiconductor structures

with varying compositions and doping profiles, making it essential for advanced
optoelectronic and semiconductor devices.

Process steps of MOVPE :

● Introducing metal organic precursor gasses and a carrier gas into the reactor.
● Decomposing the metal organic precursors at elevated temperatures.
● The decomposed species react with other gasses or the substrate surface to
deposit material.
● Achieving controlled layer growth by adjusting temperature and precursor flow
rates.
● The deposited material follows the substrate's crystal structure due to epitaxial
growth.

Fig:Metal Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy

Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE):

Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is a high-precision technique where individual atoms or

molecules are deposited onto a substrate surface in an ultra-high vacuum environment.
This method allows for exceptional control over layer thickness and composition. MBE
is often used to create semiconductor materials with atomic-scale precision, making it
suitable for producing advanced devices like quantum dots and high-speed transistors.

Process steps of Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) :

 ● Creating an ultra-high vacuum environment in the reaction chamber.
● Introducing source materials, often in the form of effusion cells or Knudsen cells.
● Evaporating the source materials, generating molecular or atomic beams.
● Directing the beams toward the substrate, where they deposit onto the surface.
● Monitoring and controlling beam fluxes to achieve precise layer growth rates and
compositions.

These epitaxial growth techniques play a crucial role in microelectronics and

semiconductor technology by enabling the precise fabrication of layered semiconductor
structures with tailored properties.

Preparations of Single Crystals and Wafers :

In microelectronics and semiconductor technology, the preparation of single crystals
and wafers involves a series of precise steps to create high-quality materials for the
fabrication of semiconductor devices.

Here's a more detailed explanation of the process:

Preparation of Single Crystals:

Material Selection: Choosing a semiconductor material with specific properties suitable

for the intended application.

Crystal Growth: Using advanced techniques like the Czochralski process, Bridgman
technique, or epitaxial growth to create single crystals. This involves carefully
controlling temperature, pressure, and other parameters to ensure the crystal's quality
and properties.

Ingot Formation: For methods like the Czochralski process, a crystal ingot is grown by
pulling a seed crystal from a melt. The ingot forms a cylindrical shape.

Slicing: Cutting the grown ingot into thin slices called wafers using precision diamond
saws. The wafers are typically a few hundred micrometers thick.

Polishing: The wafers undergo mechanical and chemical polishing to achieve a smooth,
flat surface suitable for device fabrication.
 Fig:Preparation of Single Crystals

Preparation of Wafers:

Cleaning: Thoroughly cleaning the polished wafers using a combination of chemical

and ultrasonic methods to remove contaminants and particles.

Oxide Growth or Deposition: Depending on the application, grow a thin layer of silicon
dioxide (oxide) on the wafer's surface using thermal oxidation or deposit other thin films
using techniques like chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or physical vapor deposition
(PVD).

Photolithography: Applying a light-sensitive photoresist onto the wafer's surface.

Expose the photoresist through a mask to transfer the desired pattern. Develop the
resist to reveal the pattern on the wafer.

Etching: Using chemical or plasma etching to selectively remove material from the
wafer's surface according to the patterned resist, creating defined structures.

Doping: Introducing dopant atoms into specific regions of the wafer using diffusion or
ion implantation to modify the electrical properties of the material.

Deposition: Depositing additional thin films of various materials onto the wafer surface
to create layers with specific functionalities, such as conductive, insulating, or
semiconducting properties.

Annealing: Heating the wafer in a controlled environment to activate dopants, repair

crystal defects, and enhance the material's properties.

Packaging: Once all desired structures and layers are created, wafers are further
processed to connect devices, encapsulate components, and prepare for integration
into electronic systems.

Throughout these steps, precise control over parameters like temperature, pressure,
and material composition is crucial to ensure the quality, uniformity, and reliability of the
resulting semiconductor devices.

Preparations of Zone Melting Process :

Zone melting or zone refining is a method developed by John Desmond Bernal and
further expanded by William Gardner Pfann. The technique was invented to prepare high
purity materials, like semiconductors, for the production of transistors.
Here's how the preparation process works:

1) Material Selection: Choosing the impure semiconductor material that needs to be

purified. This is typically a rod or ingot of the material, such as silicon (Si) or
germanium (Ge).

2) Zone Refining Apparatus Setup:

● Setting up a zone refining apparatus, which consists of a heating coil or
induction heater and a movable mechanism to move the sample.
● The heating coil is wound around the rod or ingot, creating a localized
heating zone.

3) Initial Heating and Melting:

● Applying heat to a small portion of the rod using the heating coil. This
creates a molten zone within the material.

4) Zone Movement:
● Gradually moving the molten zone along the length of the rod while
maintaining the solid-liquid interface within the desired region.

5) Impurity Concentration:
● As the molten zone moves, impurities tend to concentrate within the liquid
phase of the molten zone.

6) Solidification:
● Allowing the molten zone to solidify as it moves along the rod.
● The impurities remain concentrated in the liquid phase, while the solidified
region becomes purer.
7) Repeat the Process:
● Moving the molten zone back and forth along the rod multiple times, each
time concentrating impurities in the liquid and leaving behind a more
purified solid region.

8) Multiple Passes:
 ● The number of passes depends on the desired level of purification. More
passes result in higher purity.

9) Annealing (Optional):
● After completing the zone refining process, the final rod or ingot may
undergo an annealing process to relieve internal stresses and improve the
overall crystal quality.

10) Cutting and Utilization:

● Cutting the purified rod or ingot into smaller pieces or wafers for further
processing and integration into semiconductor devices.

Fig: Preparation of Zone Refining Process

The Zone Melting Process is effective in removing impurities from the material, as the
impurities tend to concentrate in the molten zone and are gradually pushed along the
length of the rod. This technique is essential for producing high-purity semiconductor
materials used in microelectronics, where even tiny amounts of impurities can affect
device performance.

Segregation Coefficient:
In bulk technology in microelectronics and semiconductor t , the segregation coefficient
(also known as partition coefficient) is a parameter that describes how different
elements or impurities distribute between the solid and liquid phases during the
crystallization or solidification process. It quantifies the tendency of an element to
preferentially concentrate in one phase over the other.

The ratio of the concentration of an impurity in a liquid to the concentration of an

impurity in a solid.
The segregation coefficient is defined as the ratio of the concentration of an element in
the solid phase to its concentration in the liquid phase at equilibrium. It is usually
denoted by the symbol "k" and is expressed as:

K= Cs ∕ Cl

where,

Cs= the concentration of the element in the solid phase (crystal).

Cl = the concentration of the element in the liquid phase (melt).

A segregation coefficient greater than 1 indicates that the element has a higher affinity
for the solid phase, meaning it tends to concentrate in the crystal as it grows during
solidification. On the other hand, a segregation coefficient less than 1 suggests that the
element prefers to remain in the liquid phase and is excluded from the crystal.

In semiconductor manufacturing, understanding the segregation coefficient is crucial

for controlling the purity and properties of the final material. During crystal growth
processes like the Czochralski method or zone refining, the segregation coefficient
helps in the selection of appropriate conditions to achieve the desired level of impurity
concentration or doping. By carefully managing the segregation behavior of impurities,
engineers can optimize the quality and performance of semiconductor devices.

In summary, the segregation coefficient plays a significant role in determining how

impurities distribute between solid and liquid phases during crystal growth, which is a
fundamental aspect of bulk technology in semiconductors and microelectronics.

Dielectric and Polycrystalline Film Deposition:

In microelectronics and semiconductor technology "dielectric film deposition" and
"polycrystalline film deposition" are two important processes related to thin film
fabrication for semiconductor devices.
Dielectric Film Deposition:

Dielectric films are insulating materials that are used to electrically isolate different
components within semiconductor devices. Dielectric film deposition involves the
process of depositing a thin layer of insulating material onto a semiconductor
substrate. This layer acts as an electrical insulator to prevent current leakage and
interference between adjacent conductive components.

Common dielectric deposition methods include:

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): Precursor gases react on the substrate surface to
form a solid dielectric layer.

Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD): Material is physically sputtered or evaporated onto

the substrate to form a thin film.

Spin-Coating: A solution containing the dielectric material is spun onto the substrate,
forming a uniform thin film.

Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD): Precursor molecules are sequentially adsorbed and
reacted on the substrate, creating precise thin films layer by layer.

Dielectric films are crucial in microelectronics to insulate and protect active electronic
components, reduce parasitic capacitance, and enhance device performance and
reliability.

Uses of Dielectric Film Deposition:

● Insulation: Dielectric films are used to insulate and isolate different components
within integrated circuits and semiconductor devices, preventing electrical
interference and leakage between adjacent conductive layers.

● Gate Dielectrics: Dielectric films serve as gate insulators in metal-oxide-

semiconductor (MOS) devices, such as MOSFETs. They control the flow of
current between the gate electrode and the semiconductor channel.

● Interlayer Dielectrics: Dielectric films are used as insulating layers between

different metal or semiconductor layers in multilayered devices, reducing
parasitic capacitance and enabling miniaturization.
 ● Passivation: Dielectric films are employed to protect the exposed semiconductor
surfaces from environmental factors like moisture, contaminants, and oxidation,
ensuring device reliability and longevity.

Polycrystalline Film Deposition:

Polycrystalline films are composed of small crystalline grains that are randomly
oriented, in contrast to single crystals with well-defined orientations. Polycrystalline film
deposition involves growing thin films made up of these small crystalline grains. These
films are often used for various applications, including thin-film transistors (TFTs),
photovoltaic cells, and memory devices.

Polycrystalline film deposition methods include:

Sputtering: Energetic ions bombard a target material, causing atoms to be ejected and
deposited onto the substrate.

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): Precursor gasses react on the substrate surface to
form polycrystalline films.

Evaporation: Material is heated until it evaporates and then condenses on the substrate
to form a thin film.

Uses of Polycrystalline Film Deposition:

● Thin-Film Transistors (TFTs): Polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) films are

used to create thin-film transistors in active matrix displays, such as LCDs
and OLEDs, which control individual pixel elements.

● Photovoltaics: Polycrystalline thin films are used in solar cells to convert

sunlight into electrical energy. These films are cost-effective and can be
deposited on flexible substrates.

● Memory Devices: Polycrystalline films are used in non-volatile memory

devices like Flash memory, where they store data by trapping charges in
floating gate structures.
 ● MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems): Polycrystalline films are
utilized in MEMS devices, which integrate mechanical elements, sensors,
and actuators on a single chip.

● Transparent Conductive Layers: Some polycrystalline films can be

transparent and conductive, making them suitable for applications like
touchscreens and transparent electrodes in displays and solar cells.

Polycrystalline films are useful when single crystals are not practical or necessary for
the device's function. They can be engineered to exhibit specific properties based on
grain size and composition.

Both dielectric and polycrystalline film deposition are essential techniques in the field of
microelectronics and semiconductor technology, contributing to the fabrication of a
wide range of electronic and optoelectronic devices.

Junction Formation:
In microelectronics and semiconductor technology, "Junction Formation" refers to the
intentional creation of a region within a semiconductor material where the electrical
properties, such as conductivity and carrier concentration, change abruptly. This region
is called a "Junction."

Junctions play a crucial role in the operation of various semiconductor devices,

enabling the control and manipulation of electrical currents within the material.

There are two main types of junctions:

PN Junction:

A PN junction is formed by bringing together a P-type semiconductor (with excess holes

or positive charge carriers) and an N-type semiconductor (with excess electrons or
negative charge carriers). At the junction interface, a diffusion of charge carriers occurs,
resulting in a region called the depletion zone or the space charge region. This zone
contains immobile ions and creates an electric field that prevents further carrier
diffusion. The PN junction is the fundamental building block of diodes, which allow
current flow in one direction and are used in rectification, signal modulation, and other
electronic applications.
PNP and NPN Junctions (Bipolar Transistors):

Bipolar transistors, such as NPN and PNP transistors, consist of two PN junctions in
close proximity. These transistors are essential components in amplification and
switching circuits. The behavior of bipolar transistors relies on the control of current
flow at these PN junctions.

Junction formation involves precise control over the doping concentrations of the P-
type and N-type materials, as well as the techniques used to bring these materials
together. Doping is the process of intentionally introducing impurities (dopants) into the
semiconductor crystal lattice to alter its electrical properties.

Junction formation has a significant impact on the functionality of semiconductor

devices, allowing for the manipulation of charge carrier concentrations and the creation
of controlled electrical barriers.

Oxide and Nitride Masks:

"Oxide masks" and "Nitride masks" refer to layers of oxide (silicon dioxide, SiO2) and
nitride (silicon nitride, Si3N4) materials that are selectively deposited or grown on a
semiconductor substrate to serve as protective masks during various processing steps.

These masks are crucial for defining patterns, controlling material deposition, and
isolating specific regions of the substrate during device fabrication.

Oxide Masks:

Oxide masks are thin layers of silicon dioxide deposited on a semiconductor substrate
to act as a barrier or mask during subsequent processing steps. They are typically
formed through processes like thermal oxidation or chemical vapor deposition (CVD).

Oxide masks have several applications:

Etching Mask: Oxide masks can resist certain etching processes, allowing selective
removal of exposed regions of the substrate. This is useful for defining patterns in the
substrate.

Implantation Mask: During ion implantation, oxide masks can block ions from
penetrating the substrate in certain areas, controlling the doping of specific regions.

Diffusion Barrier: Oxide masks can prevent the diffusion of dopant atoms, isolating
regions of the substrate and controlling the formation of doped areas.
Gate Oxide: In MOS (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) devices, the oxide layer serves as the
gate insulator, controlling the flow of current between the gate electrode and the
semiconductor channel.

Nitride Masks:

Nitride masks are layers of silicon nitride deposited on a semiconductor substrate.

Similar to oxide masks, they serve as protective barriers during processing steps and
have unique properties that make them suitable for specific applications:

Etching and Implantation Mask: Nitride masks can resist etching and ion implantation,
making them useful for defining patterns and controlling doping in specific regions.

Strain Engineering: Silicon nitride layers can induce strain in the underlying
semiconductor material, which can modify its electronic properties and improve device
performance.

Stress Engineering: Nitride masks can be used to engineer mechanical stress in the
substrate, affecting carrier mobility and enhancing device characteristics.

Both oxide and nitride masks play vital roles in microelectronics and semiconductor
technology by enabling precise material deposition, doping, and patterning processes.
Their selectivity in blocking certain processes while allowing others allows for the
creation of intricate and functional semiconductor devices.

Drift Transistors:
"Drift transistors" refer to a specific type of transistor designed to operate in a "drift"
mode, where the flow of charge carriers (electrons or holes) is primarily governed by the
drift process rather than diffusion. Drift transistors are used for high-power and high-
voltage applications due to their ability to handle larger currents and voltages compared
to conventional diffused transistors.

The operation of a drift transistor involves the controlled movement of charge carriers
through a drift region, often a lightly doped or intrinsic semiconductor layer. This drift
region extends between the source and the drain terminals of the transistor. Drift
transistors are particularly suited for devices that require efficient power amplification,
such as in radio frequency (RF) and power management circuits.
Characteristics of Drift Transistors:

● High Voltage Handling: Suitable for power applications with high voltages,
avoiding breakdown due to excessive electric fields.
● Low On-Resistance: Lower on-resistance than diffused transistors, reducing
power losses during conduction.
● Breakdown Voltage: Engineered for high breakdown voltages, tolerating
substantial voltage differences.
● Charge Carriers Drift: Efficient current conduction through charge carrier drift
under an electric field.
● Substrate Doping: Lightly doped drift region enhances charge carrier mobility.

Applications of Drift Transistors:

● Power amplifiers
● Voltage regulators
● Motor control
● RF circuits and high-power switching devices.