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B 1,302,694
1

1
THEORY OF NOTCH STRESSES
2

THEORY OF NOTCH STRESSES

PRINCIPLES FOR EXACT STRESS CALCULATION

By
HEINZ NEUBER

Translated from The German for The David Taylor

Model Basia, U. S. Navy, by F. A. Raven, Ph. D.
Annotated by J. S. Brock

J. W. EDWARDS ANN ARBOR , MICHIGAN 1946

Engin. Library

TG
260

· NATO
1946

Alle Rechte, insbesondere das der Übersetzung

in fremde Sprachen, vorbehalten.
Copyright 1937 by Julius Springer in Berlin.
Printed in Germany.
Copyright vested in the
Alien Property Custodian, 1943,
pursuant to law.

Published and Distributed in the Public Interest

by Authority of the Alien Property Custodian
under license Number A- 360.

Published in November, 1945 , under License Number A-75,

by The David Taylor Model Basin, U. S. Navy,
and Distributed to Further War- Important Research.

Lithoprinted in U.S.A.
EDWARDS BROTHERS , INC .
ANN ARBOR , MICHIGAN
1946
 Cic ..
Eius ‫به‬
V
/ 2

2 FOREWORD

Engineering progress , especially in lightweight construction , today

requires an increasingly exact calculation of strength and stresses , which
will permit the stresses actually occurring in a structural part to be de
termined . In the use of the classical strength theory , the exact stresses
are not well known because no account is taken of non - uniform stress
distribution .

The previous literature on this subject deals primarily with ex

perimental research only . However , the latter alone cannot permanently sat
isfy the engineer's requirements for an exact determination of stresses ,
since it always deals with individual cases . In general , valid principles
can be established only with difficulty by pure experiment .
For a truly effective theory of stresses , however , the primary
necessity is for basic and comprehensive concepts , and these can be attain
ed only by thorough theoretical treatment of the material in the field . This
book is dedicated to that objective .
After I had been occupied in the field of mathematical and experi
mental stress research in the Institut für Mechanik der Technischen Hoch
schule München for several years , the solution of this problem presented an
extraordinary fascination to me .
I take the opportunity at this point to thank my most respected
teacher , Prof. Dr. Ludwig Föppl , for his numerous stimulating suggestions ,
leading to the advancement of my work .

Munich , 21 February 1937 H. Neuber

1
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION .. 1

1. CLASSICAL STRENGTH THEORY . 1

2. REQUIREMENTS FOR EXACT CALCULATION OF STRENGTH 1

CHAPTER II BASIC CONCEPT OF NOTCH EFFECT . 3

1 . THE STRESS, CONCENTRATION FACTOR . . 3
2. THE THEOREM OF THE STRESS GRADIENT 3
3. BASIC FORMS OF NOTCHES . . . . 4

4. THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR OF A NOTCH OF

ARBITRARY DEPTH . 5

CHAPTER III FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF STRESS THEORY 9

1. THE EQUILIBRIUM OF STRESSES . 9
2. THE DEFORMATION 13
3. THE DEFORMATION IN CURVILINEAR COORDINATES .
15
4. HOOKE'S LAW . . 18
5.. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BASIC EQUATIONS 20
6.. THE THREE - FUNCTION THEOREM . . 21
7. THE METHOD OF CALCULATION IN CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 26

CHAPTER IV - THEORY OF PLANE OR TWO -DIMENSIONAL NOTCH EFFECTS . 31

1 . THE BASIC EQUATIONS . . 31
2. EXTERNAL NOTCHES ON BOTH SIDES 38
A. PURE TENSION 39
B. PURE BENDING 42
C. PURE SHEAR . 43
3. DEEP EXTERNAL NOTCH ON ONE SIDE 47
A. PURE TENSION . 48
B. PURE BENDING . . .
50
C. PURE SHEAR 51
น. A CIRCULAR AND AN ELLIPTICAL HOLE IN A VERY WIDE BAR . .
52
A. PURE TENSION . .
54
B. PURE BENDING .
57
C. PURE SHEAR 58
5. THE SHALLOW EXTERNAL NOTCH 62
A. PURE TENSION . 63
B. PURE BENDING . 67
C. PURE SHEAR . 68
 viii

6. ESTABLISHMENT OF STRESS - CONCENTRATION - FACTOR NOMOGRAPHS FOR

EXTERNAL NOTCHES AND FOR ELLIPTICAL HOLES OF ANY ARBITRARY
DIMENSIONS .. 69
A. EXTERNAL NOTCHES ON BOTH SIDES . 69
B. EXTERNAL NOTCH ON ONE SIDE . .• 70
C. CIRCULAR AND ELLIPTICAL HOLES 70
7. PROJECTION ; REVERSE NOTCH EFFECT BY ACCUMULATION OR
CONCENTRATION OF MATERIAL 72

CHAPTER V - THEORY OF SPATIAL OR THREE - DIMENSIONAL NOTCH EFFECT • 76

1. BASIC EQUATIONS 76
2. SOLUTION OF THE POTENTIAL EQUATION IN ELLIPSOIDAL COORDINATES . 80
3. THE DEEP EXTERNAL CIRCUMFERENTIAL NOTCH • 84
A. PURE TENSION · • 84

B. PURE BENDING • • 89
C. PURE SHEAR • • • 93
D. PURE TORSION • • 99
4. THE SHALLOW CIRCUMFERENTIAL INTERNAL NOTCH WITHOUT AN
AXIAL HOLE . 101
A. PURE TENSION • • 102
B. 108
PURE BENDING • • •
C. PURE SHEAR • • • 116

D. PURE TORSION · • 124

5. CIRCUMFERENTIAL NOTCHES WITH TWO - DIMENSIONAL STRESS

DISTRIBUTION . . 127
A. PURE TENSION · • 129
B. PURE BENDING · · 130
C. PURE SHEAR . • 130

D. PURE TORSION . · 136

6. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF STRESS -CONCENTRATION - FACTOR NOMOGRAPHS

FOR CIRCUMFERENTIAL NOTCHES OF ARBITRARY DIMENSIONS • 138
A. CIRCUMFERENTIAL EXTERNAL NOTCH . • 138
B. THE CIRCUMFERENTIAL EXTERNAL NOTCH WITH AXIAL HOLE • · 138
C. THE CIRCUMFERENTIAL INTERNAL NOTCH . • 140

CHAPTER VI · THEORY OF PRISMATIC NOTCH EFFECT • 141

1. THE BASIC EQUATIONS • • 141

2. SOLID SECTIONS ; BARS WITH A LONGITUDINAL SPLINE 143

3. HOLLOW SECTIONS WITH THIN WALLS 144
4. TRANSVERSELY BORED SHAFTS • 746

CHAPTER VII - THEORY OF LOAD - RELIEVING NOTCHES 148

1 . EXPLANATION OF THE CONCEPT . • 148
2. LOAD-RELIEVING NOTCHES UNDER TORSIONAL LOAD 149
3. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR FOR
LOAD - RELIEVING NOTCHES . 154
 ix

CHAPTER VIII - THEORY OF POINTED NOTCHES 155

1 . THE FAILURE OF THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY POR
POINTED NOTCHES AND ITS CAUSE 155
2. THE NEW BASIC CONCEPT . . . . . . . 156
3. THEORY OF THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR FOR
POINTED NOTCHES 157
A. THE SHALLOW POINTED NOTCH UNDER SHEAR OR TORSION .
157
B. DEEP CIRCUMFERENTIAL POINTED NOTCH WITH TWO -DIMENSIONAL
FLOW OF STRESS UNDER SHEAR OR TORSION . 159
C. TENSILE BAR WITH A DEEP POINTED NOTCH ON BOTH SIDES 160
4. TRANSITION FROM THE ROUNDED NOTCH TO THE POINTED NOTCH 163
5. EFFECT OF DEFORMATION AT THE BASE OF THE NOTCH . 164
6. THEORY OF THE FLANK ANGLE 164
7. THE GENERAL TECHNICAL OR ENGINEERING STRESS
CONCENTRATION FACTOR 167
CHAPTER IX - COMPARISON OF THEORY WITH RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL
STRESS RESEARCH 170
1 . STRAIN MEASUREMENTS 170
2. PHOTOELASTIC MEASUREMENTS . . . 172

CHAPTER X - NOMOGRAPHS FOR THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR 176

. EXPLANATORY MATERIAL RESPECTING NOMOGRAPHS FOR THE
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR .
176
2. EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION 176
A. EXTERNAL NOTCH ON BOTH SIDES UNDER BENDING LOAD .
176
B. CIRCUMFERENTIAL OUTSIDE NOTCH WITH AXIAL
HOLE UNDER BENDING ... 177
REFERENCES 178
NOMOGRAPHIC TABLE ( Figures 103-106 ) 181
 х

All equations and formulas in this translation have been photographically

reproduced from the original German . For the convenience of those unfa
miliar with German notation the principal differences are listed below :

German English Equivalent German English Equivalent

E € Sin sinh
x к Coj cosh

୧ р 19 tann
9 Cot coth
tg tan ArCof arc cosh
 THEORY OF NOTCH STRESSES : PRINCIPLES
FOR EXACT STRESS CALCULATION

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1 . CLASSICAL STRENGTH THEORY

In the earliest period of machine construction it was sufficient to
use simple relative values as the basis for the design of machine parts . Por
example , the shaft diameter of a steam engine was chosen as a definite frac
tion of the diameter of the cylinder . Where there was a great similarity of
operating and structural ratios this simple method of calculation was quite
sufficient . In the course of the progressive development of engineering ,
however , this application of relative values proved inadequate because of the
increasing differences in the type and magnitude of the forces involved . It
was necessary to adopt a different comparative scale , and the method of ap
proximating the particular principal forces roughly and expressing their re
lation to the cross section of the loaded members was selected .
Later the concept of permissible loading , which still represents the
basis of what might be termed the technical strength theory , was introduced .
The credit for establishing usable coefficients for permissible loading goes
to C. von Bach . These values are still definitive for the usual materials
and scope of the problems for the average mechanical engineer . They rest up
on the assumption that the stresses are distributed equally over the section
of the structural member . Thus , for example , for tensile and bending loads
the simple linear stress distribution , which in reality is only valid for a
prismatic bar , is also used as a basis for non - prismatic bodies . The true
stress distribution and , in fact , the actual peak stress which produces fail
ure are ignored . Moreover , no method to determine it experimentally or to
express it mathematically yet exists .
This old strength theory , which was essentially restricted to the
use of elementary formulas, was still sufficient for designing stationary
engines and machines .

2.. REQUIREMENTS FOR EXACT CALCULATION OF STRENGTH

However , as a result of further engineering development , especially
in vehicular engine and machine design , minimum weight requirements compelled
the loads to be increased , and the unreliability of the assumptions previous
ly stated has become widened . Moreover , an increase in the load capacity of
materials was possible only within relatively narrow limits and it was still
 2

far from possible to obtain what was to be expected on a basis of the increas
ed strength of materials . Thus , scientific research suddenly recognized fully
the importance of form and the necessity of improving the stress flow or
stress distribution by correct contour . Therefore , with the aid of strain
measurements and photoelasticity , the true stress distribution in structural
parts was investigated , and it was recognized that deviations from uniform
stress distribution are largely determined by irregularities of surface
contour .
The foregoing effects will be summarized in this paper by the con
cept of notch effect . Due to the fact that structural requirements are pre
cisely the factors responsible for surface irregularities, even the clever
est contour design can diminish stress peaks to a limited extent only . Since
the problem of non -uniform stress still remains, for the calculation of which
the traditional theory of strength is insufficient , the first requirement made
on an exact calculation of strength is the establishment of fundamentals of
calculation for the determination of the true stress distribution .
A second requirement accompanies this initial one . The traditional
strength theory treated only simple uniform stress conditions, and this situ
ation obtained also in materials testing . Here , strength coefficients were
determined for test bars of simple shape only . However , to do justice to ac
tual conditions , strength coefficients are also necessary for irregularly
shaped specimens , i.e. , parts wherein notch effects will appear . Only in this
manner can the load capacity of material under non - uniform stress distribution
be judged correctly .
Finally , when applying a refined calculation of strength it is also
essential that the principal forces * (Hauptkräfte ) used as a basis be deter
mined with extreme accuracy . This requires that the maximum and minimum
values of the operating load , including all the additional forces produced by
thermal and fabrication stresses , be determined exactly . Only when this third
.

requirement is satisfied is success assured .

The present volume serves to satisfy the first requirement, which is
also the most urgent one , i.e. , the calculation of the true stress distribu
tion occurring . Therefore , attention is directed to irregular stress condi
tions , such as are produced by notch effects . As a preliminary survey the
general basic concepts of notch effect will first be explained .

Translator's Note : " Hauptkräfte " here signifies principal forces , depending on a knowledge of loading .
 CHAPTER II
BASIC CONCEPT OF NOTCH EFFECT

1 . THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR

To present the calculation of the true stress distribution simply
for practical application by engineers , it is well to relate the stress which
would be determined according to elementary methods of calculation to the
true maximum stress occurring in a given case . According to a suggestion by
A. Thum , the stress determined by the elementary formulas of traditional
strength theory is designated as the nominal stress . As will be shown in the
sections following , the ratio of the maximum stress actually occurring to the
nominal stress is independent of the absolute value of the nominal stress as
well as of the material , provided that the latter remains elastic and that the
surface of the notch is not too sharply curved .
The behavior of a material can , as is well known , be designated as
elastic if it obeys Hooke's law of elasticity . This condition is fulfilled
with sufficient approximation provided the loading is not so great that the
maximum stress exceeds the elastic limit . Beyond the elastic limit the ratio
of the maximum stress to the nominal stress is no longer constant as a result
of the fundamental deviation from Hooke's law but depends principally on the
material .
The ratio of the maximum stress Tmax which occurs within the elastic
limit to the nominal stress in has a very definite value which is a function
of the shape of the structural member and of the type of loading . This ratio
will be termed the stress concentration factor and will be designated by ako
Corresponding to this definition
Imar
11 ]

Familiarly , for normal stresses , the symbol o is used instead of T.

As there are often various possibilities in the choice of the refer
ence plane for calculating the nominal stress , the corresponding nominal
stress must be defined in all expressions pertaining to the stress concentra
tion factor .

2. THE THEOREM OF THE STRESS GRADIENT

In order to make the reader familiar with the nature of notch effect
in a graphic way , its basic principle , which is found confirmed repeatedly ,
will be examined .

*
For sharply curved notches , especially pointed notches , the stress concentration factor is also
affected by the texture of the material ; see Chapter VIII .
 4

The sharp increase in stress around all notches always results in a

considerable decrease of the stresses at the edges toward the margin of the
highly loaded zone . The more highly developed the stress peak , the more sharp-
ly the stresses fade out as the distance from the highly loaded area increases .
To a certain extent the problem deals with a law of reactions of notch effect .

It will be called the law of the stress gradient . The law of the stress gra-
dient is satisfied for three - dimensional stress distribution to a specially
high degree , as will be seen in Chapter V.
The decrease of load in the area surrounding a notch is simultane-

ously a means of decreasing chance stresses present in the immediate area .

For example , if the case deals with a notch to meet particular requirements
in a machine part and if this notch produces a great increase in stress , a
considerable decrease of the stress peak can in fact be attained by cutting a
second notch nearby . In Chapter VII this effect of stress - relieving by multi-
ple notches will be taken up again .

The law of stress gradient can also be used advantageously as a cri-

terion for judging notch shapes . Only that part of the surface of the notch
which belongs to the most highly loaded zone will essentially affect the maxi-
mum stress , whereas the shape of the structural part at a considerable dis-
tance from the notch is no longer a determinative factor for the stress peak
occurring in the notch itself . From the foregoing , for example , it followS
for round notches ** that the curvature of the base of the notch will be of

primary importance , ( whereas the effect of the flank angle is only of second-
ary importance .

3. BASIC FORMS OF NOTCHES

It is advantageous to classify notches with respect to their basic

shapes for the range of the problem of the theory of notch stresses .
First , a differentiation will be made according to the contour of
the notches , as shown in Figure 1 .
These may be shallow and deep ,
external and internal ,
single and multiple , or
round and pointed .

*
Translator's Note : The German term " Abklingungsgesetz " signifies literally "The law of fading or
diminution . "

** The determinative shape of a notch may be defined as the shape at the bottom in a plane perpendic-
ular to the long dimension at the bottom . A " round notch" is one in which this shape corresponds to
a portion of a circular arc , as in all but the lower right -hand diagram of Figure 1 .
 5

According to the type of stress distribution , differentiation will

be made between the plane notch effect in flat bars and plates , the axially
symmetric and three - dimensional notch effect , as
in circumferential notches , and the prismatic
notch effect , as in a shaft with a keyway .
Furthermore , there are a great number Single Shallow Deep Notch
Round Notch
of additional cases which deal with more com
plicated notch shapes that cannot be directly
related or traced to the foregoing basic shapes . D
External Circumfer- inside
However , the stress concentration factor in ential or
Peripheral Notch
Peripheral
Notch
these cases can as a rule be calculated from
the known stress concentration factors for the Multiple Notch Pointed Notch
or V Notch
basic shapes . A typical example of this case
Figure 1 Various Notch
is furnished by a notch of arbitrary depth whose Shapes
stress concentration factor can be calculated
from that of the shallow and deep notches . As a
result of its extensive applicability , this approximate method of calculation
has achieved basic importance and therefore will be explained at this point .

4. THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR FOR A NOTCH OF ARBITRARY DEPTH

As an example consider a tensile bar notched symmetrically on both
sides , as shown in Figure 2. Without a notch a uni
form stress condition first prevails . By cutting a 26
" shallow notch , " the stress variation is distribut ed
only in the immediate vicinity of the notch , corres aga au
ponding to the law of the stress gradient . At a 6
7

5
greater distance , it is merely a case of uniform 4
Par

stress distribution regardless of the notch . There 3

fore , as the mathematical treatment also shows , the 14

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
only magnitudes which are considered relative to a

the stress concentration factor are those which 30 20 10

characterize the boundary of the disturbed zone .

e

Here these values include only the depth t and the

radius of curvature p of the notch . This problem a

will be taken up in detail in Chapter IV . a

35
In contrast , the width of the bar is non
essential with respect to the stress concentration
factor if t is sufficiently small compared to the Figure 2 - A Tensile Bar
width 2b of the bar . The limiting value which the
Symmetrically Notched
on Both Sides
stress concentration factor assumes in this case
represents the " stress concentration factor of the
shallow notch " ( " Formzahl der flachen Kerbe " ) , which will be designated by ajke
 6

On the other hand , if we are concerned with a very deep notch ,

stress variation will extend over the entire narrowest section . Therefore ,
in addition to the radius of curvature , the width of the narrowest cross sec
tion will determine the stress concentration factor ; as a result of the sym
metry assumed a priori half the width of the narrowest section can be
introduced ; this will be designated by a in Figure 2 . In contrast , the ef
fect of the depth of the notch can henceforth be neglected , since the stress
es rapidly fade with the distance from the notch according to the law of the
stress gradient . The stress concentration factor
-26
can then merely be conceived as a function of the
non -dimensional ratio alp. The fact that the
stress concentration factor becomes independent of
7
a alik the depth at appreciable depths is also confirmed
6
5 by theory , which gives an entirely finite stress
4
at
3
concentration factor depending only on ale for an
2
1.
infinitely deep notch . This limiting value which
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 represents the " stress concentration factor of the
30 20 10
deep notch " will be designated by a tkº .
Who

Both limiting values can be rigorously

derived in some cases . In others they can be cal
13

culated with good approximation by a simple con

a
sideration of the section ( Schnittbetrachtungen ) . .

art- 35 To obtain from them the correct value for a notch

of arbitrary depth let us again consider Figure 2 .
Starting from the shallow notch , the tensile bar
Figure 2 - A Tensile Bar
Symmetrically Notched is successively provided with ever deeper notches
on Both Sides which should all have the same radius of curva
ture . From a reference line transverse to the
axis of the bar , the stress concentration factor pertaining to the notch is
sketched above the notch base . The abscissa of the diagram thus obtained ,
reading from left to right , is a , whereas it is t reading from right to left .
However , the ratios a / p and t / p can also be selected as abscissas , since the
radius of curvature was previously assumed to be constant . The stress con

centration factor must coincide with the limiting value ark in the region
ale = 0 , t / p = 6b / e ; in the vicinity of a / p = 0 / e , t / p = 0 it must coincide
with the limiting value ajkº At both points the stress concentration factor
becomes equal to unity , because when t = 0 the notch disappears . On the other
hand when a / p = 0 the narrowest section becomes so slender that the immediate
vicinity of the narrowest section can be regarded as a straight bar because
the radius of curvature was kept constant .
 7

In the region of both limit points , the curve of the stress concen-
tration factor must unite with the particular limiting curve in question . In

the intervening points , as shown in Figure 2 , the curve of the stress.concen-

tration factor will run below these limiting curves because a weakening of the
notch effect is produced by the edge which is in finite proximity . The fol-
lowing expression satisfies these conditions :

1 1 1
= + [2 ]
(α- 1 )² (αrk - 1 )2 (α,* - 1 )²
or solved

(αyk — 1 ) (α, --
— 1)
αι = 1+ [3]
√(α- 1)² + (∞₁ -= 1)²

As develops from Equation [ 2 ] , the limits become

lim (xx) = afk', lim (α ) = ∞tk

ark → 1 α11 [4 ]

In fact , therefore , a close approach to the limiting curves occurs . Further-

more , when aƒk > atk , the denominator of Equation [ 3 ] is always greater than
· 1 and therefore a < at k < αƒ k •
αfk In contrast , if atk > ask the denomi-
nator becomes greater than atk · 1 and therefore αk < αƒk, < αtk . The curve of

the stress concentration factor determined by the foregoing statement there-

fore always lies within the area enclosed by the limiting curves . Instead of
the exponent 2 appearing in Equation [ 2 ] , another exponent such as 3 could be
selected . However , experimental research showed that the actual relationship

is expressed by the exponent 2 .

The expression for the stress con-
1
20

0-
47

centration factor for a notch of arbitrary

6-
ax
1-

depth , which was derived in this way , has the

additional advantage that a nomographic rep-

resentation in a simple manner is possible .

If aƒk · 1 and atk - 1 are the short legs of Figure 3 - The Relationship
between the Stress Concen-
a right triangle , the altitude of the tri- tration Factor of Shallow
Notches , Deep Notches , and
angle is found to be ak - 1 ; see Figure 3 .
a Notch of Arbitrary Depth
The proof follows from the equation

- - - [5]
(∞ƒk − 1 ) ( k − 1 ) = ( α₂ − 1 ) √( ∞ƒ½ − 1)² + (αtk — 1 )²

which follows directly from Equation [ 3 ] . Twice the area of the triangle ap-
pears on each side , on the one hand as the product of the short sides of the

triangle , on the other hand as the product of the hypotenuse and altitude .
In a nomographic representation , erection of the perpendicular can be omitted
by constructing circles about the apex of the triangle . In this case the

circle which is just touched by the hypotenuse is the determinative factor for
the stress concentration factor . As an example of this , refer to Figure 104
 8

which shows various nomographs for the stress concentration factor ; see table ,
Figure 103 , on page 181 . Among the foregoing is included a nomograph for a
flat bar under tensile load having an external notch symmetric on both sides .
Correct manipulation is indicated by arrows .
Following these preliminary observations on the fundamentals of
notch effect , we turn to the basic principles of stress theory which will fur .
nish the necessary mathematical framework for the calculation of the stress
distribution actually occurring .
 CHAPTER III
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF STRESS THEORY

First the conditions will be established for the equilibrium of the

stresses as well as for the possibility of geometric deformation . The combi-

nation of both these systems of equations will then culminate in the basic
equations of elasticity which will be in general solved with the help of a
theorem of three functions . As the last preliminary to the calculation of

the stress distribution in notches , the method of calculation with curvilin-

ear coordinates will be treated .

1. THE EQUILIBRIUM OF STRESSES

If the force dP acts on an element of area dF, the expression dP/dF
is defined as the stress acting on the surface . It is termed a normal stress

if it is perpendicular to the surface ; however , if its direction is tangen-

tial in contrast to the surface , it is termed a shear stress .
To set up the equations for equilibrium, Cartesian coordinates x ,
y , and z are used as a basis and an element of volume having the edges dx , dy ,
and dz cut out in the direction of the coordinates is considered ; see Figure
4. Next , the stresses are in general designated by the character T. Two
subscripts are familiarly used ; the
first gives the direction of the stress ,
the second the direction of the perpen- (Try+ dy)dzdx
Tzz dxdy
dicular to the plane . For example , Tzy

denotes a stress which acts tangential- Ox dydz No₂+30%dx dydz

ly in the x- direction on an area Tzy dzdx ( xr+ #dz)dxdy

y = constant . Hence this case deals

with a shear stress . On the other hand

Tyy represents a stress which acts on a

Figure 4 - Disposition of the
surface y constant in the y - direction , Stresses on Cartesian
1.e. , perpendicular to the surface . Con- Coordinates

sequently , this is a case of a normal

stress . In general , therefore , the particular problem always is concerned
with a normal stress if both subscripts coincide . For brevity the normal
stresses are written o ,, etc. , instead of Trx, etc.

The positive direction of the stresses will be established as fol-

lows : They are the stresses acting on the surfaces x + dx = constant ,
y + dy = constant , and z + dz = constant in the positive direction of the co-
ordinate axes , whereas they act in the negative direction of the axes for the
*
Translator's Note : This order of the subscripts is opposite to that given in Timoshenko , Grammel ,
Föppl , and other standard texts .
 10

surfaces x = constant , y = constant , and z = constant . According to this

convention the normal tensile stresses are positive and normal compressive
stresses are negative . In formulating the equilibrium of stress , it is es-
sential , moreover , that the stresses acting on the surfaces x + dx = constant ,
y + dy = constant , and z + dz = constant be increased by certain small amounts

compared to the stresses on the areas x = constant , y = constant , and z = con-

მძ
stant . Thus , for example , the normal stress σ , + dx acts on the surface
ax
x + dx = constant , whereas σ, acts on the surface x = constant . To avoid im-

pairing the clearness of the diagram, only the stresses acting in the
x-direction are included in Figure 4 .
The forces exerted on the element of volume are determined from the

stresses by multiplying the stresses by the area on which they act in each
case , as has already been done in Figure 4. Equilibrium against translation
in the x-direction then requires

(0₂ + az dz) dx dy
%; dx) dy dz + ( Tzy + ay dy) dz dx + ( 1,2 + 01½
[1 ] *
= σ, dydz + Txy
ry d z dx + 7₁₂Z dx dy

The stresses Ox , Try , Trz retain their equilibrium and mutually cancel ; only
their derivatives remain . Dividing by dx • dy • dz results in the first of

the following three equations of equilibrium .

da, όταν OT :
= 0
dx + dy + Oz
da, atv
+ a =0
ay z + Jx [2 ]
მი . 1721. ότιν
+ Ix + 0
Cy

The second and third of these equations are obtained in exactly the same way

from the equilibrium against translation in the y- and z - directions . They

can also be obtained from the first equation by cyclic permutation of x , y ,

and z.
Thus the element of volume is in
(Txy + dy)dzdx
translational equilibrium when Equation [ 2 ]
is satisfied . However , a body with a three-
M
Tyrdzdy dr (Tyx + y dx
)dydz dimensional system of forces is only com-
pletely in equilibrium if three additional
Trydzdr conditions which arise from equilibrium
against rotation are satisfied . Figure 5
I represents the projection of this element
Figure 5 - On the Equilibrium
of volume on the x- and y-plane .
of Shear Stresses

*
In the original text the equations are numbered separately in each chapter . To facilitate reference ,
these numbers have been retained .
 11

Equilibrium against rotation about an axis in the z - direction which passes

through the midpoint M of the element of volume will be investigated . Only
those forces are considered which possess a turning moment with respect to
this axis ; these are indicated in Figure 5. The equation of moments with
respect to the point M then gives

dx dy
(27, x + dx) dydz - ( 27 , + dy ) dzdz [3 ]

or

1 Tyd x
Tyx + 2 = Try +
dx 2 dy [4]

Terms containing dx and dy as a factor are small quantities of a higher order

and drop out . This leads to the first of the following three equations
Txy - Tyr , Tyz Tzys Tzz Txz [5]

The second and third of these equations which are again obtained from the
first by cyclic permutation correspond to equilibrium against rotation about
two additional axes through M in the y- and z - directions . In this way a re-

markable symmetric property of shear stresses has been derived which is ex-
pressed in the ability to interchange the indices . This is the case of the

so - called theorem of the equality of the cross - shears , in which there are mu-
tually perpendicular shear stresses .

Thus all conditions for the equilibrium of the stresses on the co-
ordinates x , y, and z are established . However , the problem concerning those
stresses which act on arbitrarily inclined sections still remains open . This

problem can also be solved on the basis of an analysis of equilibrium .

Through a plane of arbitrary inclination , whose normal lies in the direction
λ , let a corner of the element of volume be cut ; see

Figure 6. Let the stress acting upon this new section

lie in the direction x ; it will be designated as Txx.
F
The stresses familiarly known to pertain to this ele-

ment of volume again act on the remaining surfaces .

Gv

F-Fcos(2 )
Fc

For purposes of simplicity in each case the stresses

o
sa,

acting on each surface will be summarized as a result-

Figure 6 · On the
ant stress . Select one of the three surfaces on which
Calculation of a
the stress Ύμν acts . In general the direction of the Stress of Arbi-
trary Orientation
stress , including the sign , is designated by u and the
direction of the normal by v . The directions of μ and v are chosen as posi-

tive toward the body and the directions K and λ are positive away from the
body . Corresponding to the convention for signs made at the beginning , the
stresses themselves must be always indicated as positive in the direction away

from the body .

 12

In setting up the condition for the equilibrium against translation

in the k-direction , the stress Tuv must first be multiplied by the appertain
ing area F ' to get the force . However , F ' represents the surface of projec
tion of the section F and hence is found from F by multiplying by cos ( a , v ) ,
where ( 1 , v ) is the angle formed by the direction of 1 and v . of the forces
Tuv F · cos (1 , v ) only its component in the x -direction comes under con
sideration , i.e. , it is still necessary to multiply by cos ( x , y ) . The value 2

which tka must assume to maintain equilibrium with the stress Tuy acting on
the area F ' is accordingly Turcos ( K , u ) · cos ( ^ , v ) . If stresses act on
all three surfaces then x , y , and z must be successively substituted for u
and the results inust be added . When doing this the direction of the result
ant stresses of the surface in question are to be substituted for u in each
case . It is now possible to get away from the resultant stresses by perform
ing separately the additions for the x , y, and 2 components of the resultant
stresses , i.e. , substituting x , y , and z successively for, u . This then gives
the double summation

Txi Σ Σ των cos((κ ,,) ν).

cos (λ ,, .
μ) (
1 = X , Y , Z V = X, Y.Z [6]
Its expansion gives nine terms . As a result of the equality of the cross
shears their number is reduced to six . The direction k , which is still arbi
trary , can now be made to coincide with the direction 1 or it can be permit
ted to form a right angle . In the first case the result is the normal stress
acting on the section , in the second it is the shear stress .
As an example , let all the stresses on the coordinates x , y , and 2
be equal to zero , except the shear stress Tay . What stresses then prevail
over the sections which are inclined at 45 degrees to the x- and y -axes ?
Corresponding to Figure 7 , the directions 1 and 2 are determined on the
X- , y-plane . Then
Tu = 0 Trycos( 1 , x) cos ( 1 , y) + Tyz cos (1 , y) cos ( 1 , x)
T12 Try cos ( 1 , x) cos (2 , y) + Tyo cos ( 1 , y) cos (2 , x)
2
17 ]
T22 62 Try cos (2 , x) cos (2 , y) + Tyr cos (2 , y) cos (2 , x)
>

Now ,

cos ( 1 , x) cos ( 1 , y) = cos ( 2 , y) cos ( 2 , x)

12
[8]
Therefore ,
01 = Tays 02 : - Trys T12 = 0 [9]
i.e. , over the sections at 45 degrees with respect to the x- and y - axes, a
pure tension -compression stress condition prevails in this case .
All these relationships can be determined without considering the
material . Now , however , to establish the basic equations for the possibility
of geometric deformation , the elastic behavior of material must be examined .
 13

2. THE DEFORMATION

The symbols $ , n , and $ will be used to denote the components of

the displacement lying in the direction of the coordinate axes which any
arbitrary point on the elastic body experi
ences , if a condition of stress and deforma 112
y 02 12 01
1
tion is produced by the effects of external x
forces . When the displacement at every point
450
is known , the total condition of deformation Try
50

is completely determined . The actual magni

tudes concerned in the deformation , the elon- Figure 7 Stresses under
Pure Shear Loading
gations and the changes of angles , can be
determined from the displacement .
The concept of strain is defined as the ratio of the elongation of
an infinitely small element to its original length . The character e is used
to designate it and a subscript which expresses the original direction of the
elongated segment is included .
The change of angle represents the diminution of an original right
angle . It is designated by Y and the original directions of the legs of the
right angle are indicated by two subscripts ; the order in which the sub
scripts are written is immaterial .
In the following consideration of deformation , it must be noted
that as a result of the very high modulus of elasticity of structural materi
als , the deformations are so extremely small in most cases that the quadrat
ic values which occur can always be neglected as small terms of a higher
order , when compared to the linear values . An important conclusion drawn from
the foregoing is the principle of superposition . According to this principle ,
the serial order in the superposition of conditions of deformation is immate
rial with respect to the final condition , because the magnitudes of deforma
tion , related to the same system of coordinates , simply add .
This principle will now be applied by first considering only the
displacement . From the corresponding ody B
'
B
strains er , and so on , which represent only
the components originating from & , those com dy
‫ول‬

ponents which originate only from n or Š can -do Redi

‫شی‬
easily be determined . On the basis of the dz A
principle of superposition , the complete ex C C"

pressions for the strains are attained by

simple addition of these components . As a Figure 8 - The Displacement
in Cartesian Coordinates
reference point , the corner or angle 0 of the
element of volume is selected where the edges OA = dx , OB = dy, and OC = dz
meet ; see Figure 8. Due to the displacement , O goes to O ' . Corresponding
 4

The sharp increase in stress around all notches always results in a

considerable decrease of the stresses at the edges toward the margin of the
highly loaded zone . The more highly developed the stress peak , the more sharp.
ly the stresses fade out as the distance from the highly loaded area increases
To a certain extent the problem deals with a law of reactions of notch effect .
It will be called the law of the stre88 gradient . * . The law of the stress gra

dient is satisfied for three - dimensional stress distribution to a specially

high degree , as will be seen in Chapter V.
The decrease of load in the area surrounding a notch is simultane
ously a means of decreasing chance stresses present in the immediate area .
For example , if the case deals with a notch to meet particular requirements
in a machine part and if this notch produces a great increase 'in stress,, a
considerable decrease of the stress peak can in fact be attained by cutting a
second notch nearby . In Chapter VII this effect of stress - relieving by multi
ple notches will be taken up again .
The law of stress gradient can also be used advantageously as a cri .
terion for judging notch shapes . Only that part of the surface of the notch
which belongs to the most highly loaded zone will essentially affect the maxi.
mum stress , whereas the shape of the structural part at a considerable dis
tance from the notch is no longer a determinative factor for the stress peak
occurring in the notch itself . From the foregoing , for example , it follows
for round notches** that the curvature of the base of the notch will be of
primary importance , whereas the effect of the flank angle is only of second
ary importance .

3. BASIC FORMS OF NOTCHES

It is advantageous to classify notches with respect to their basic
shapes for the range of the problem of the theory of notch stresses .
First , a differentiation will be made according to the contour of
the notches , as shown in Figure 1 .
These may be shallow and deep ,
external and internal .,
single and multiple , or
round and pointed .

*
Translator's Note : The German term " Abklingungsgesetz " signifies literally " The law of fading or
diminution ."

** The determinative shape of a notch may be defined as the shape at the bottom in a plane perpendic
ular to the long dimension at the bottom . A " round notch " is one in which this shape corresponds to
a portion of a circular arc , as in all but the lower right -hand diagram of Figure 1 .
 5

According to the type of stress distribution , differentiation will

be made between the plane notch effect in flat bars and plates , the axially
symmetric and three - dimensional notch effect , as
in circumferential notches , and the prismatic
notch effect , as in a shaft with a keyway .
Furthermore, there are a great number Single Shallow Deep Notch
of additional cases which deal with more com Round Notch

plicated notch shapes that cannot be directly

related or traced to the foregoing basic shapes . D
External Circumfer- Inside
However , the stress concentration factor in ential or
Peripheral Notch
Peripheral
Notch
these cases can as a rule be calculated from
the known stress concentration factors for the Multiple Notch Pointed Notch
or V Notch
basic shapes . A typical example of this case
Figure 1 - Various Notch
is furnished by a notch of arbitrary depth whose Shapes
stress concentration factor can be calculated
from that of the shallow and deep notches . As a

result of its extensive applicability , this approximate method of calculation

has achieved basic importance and therefore will be explained at this point .

4. THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR FOR A NOTCH OF ARBITRARY DEPTH

As an example consider a tensile bar notched symmetrically on both
sides , as shown in Figure 2. Without a notch a uni
form stress condition first prevails . By cutting a 26
11
" shallow notch , the stress variation is distributed
only in the immediate vicinity of the notch , corres ac a
7
ponding to the law of the stress gradient . At aa 6
5
greater distance , it is merely a case of uniform 4

3
stress distribution regardless of the notch . There 2
1
fore , as the mathematical treatment also shows , the
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
only magnitudes which are considered relative to
dia

| 30 20 10
the stress concentration factor are those which
characterize the boundary of the disturbed zone . i
Here these values include only the depth t and the
radius of curvature p of the notch . This problem L.
will be taken up in detail in Chapter IV . 1
a

35
In contrast , the width of the bar is non
essential with respect to the stress concentration
factor if t is sufficiently small compared to the Figure 2 - A Tensile Bar
width 26 of the bar . The limiting value which the Symmetrically Notched
on Both Sides
stress concentration factor assumes in this case
represents the " stress concentration factor of the
shallow notch " ( " Formzahl der flachen Kerbe " ), which will be designated by Ajk
 12

In setting up the condition for the equilibrium against translation

in the k-direction , the stress Tuv must first be multiplied by the appertain
ing area F ' to get the force . However , F ' represents the surface of projec
tion of the section F and hence is found from F by multiplying by cos ( a , v ) ,
where ( 1 , v ) is the angle formed by the direction of 1 and v . of the forces

Tuv · F · cos (1 , v ) only its component in the x -direction comes under con
sideration , i.e. , it is still necessary to multiply by cos ( K , 4 ) . The value
which ten must assume to maintain equilibrium with the stress Tuv acting on
the area F ' is accordingly tuvº cos ( K , u ) · cos (1 , v ) .
UV If stresses act on
all three surfaces then x , y , and z must be successively substituted for u
and the results must be added . When doing this the direction of the result
ant stresses of the surface in question are to be substituted for u in each
case . It is now possible to get away from the resultant stresses by perform
ing separately the additions for the x , y, and 2 components of the resultant
stresses , i.e. , substituting x , y , and z successively for, H. This then gives
>

the double summation

τηλ : Σ
II, B2 VI, 1,2
Tuy cos(x ,y) cos(a , v). [ 6]
Its expansion gives nine terms . As a result of the equality of the cross
shears their number is reduced to six . The direction K , which is still arbi
trary , can now be made to coincide with the direction 1 or it can be permit
ted to form a right angle . In the first case the result is the normal stress
acting on the section, in the second it is the shear stress .
As an example , let all the stresses on the coordinates x , y , and 2
be equal to zero , except the shear stress Tay . What stresses then prevail
over the sections which are inclined at 45 degrees to the c- and y -axes ?
Corresponding to Figure 7 , the directions 1 and 2 are determined on the
2- , y-plane . Then
Tu = 0 = Try cos (1 , 2) cos ( 1 , y) + Tyr cos ( 1 , y) cos (1 , xx)
]
17

T12 Trycos ( 1 , x) cos (2 , y) + Tya cos ( 1 , y) cos (2 , x)

>

T22 02 Try cos (2 , x) cos (2 , y) + Tyz cos (2 , y) cos ( 2 , x)

Now ,

1
cos (1 , x) = cos (1 , y ) = cos ( 2 , y) cos (2 , x) [8]
12
Therefore ,
01 = Trys 02 - Trys T12 = 0 19 ]
i.e. , over the sections at 45 degrees with respect to the x- and y-axes , a
pure tension-compression stress condition prevails in this case .
All these relationships can be determined without considering the
material . Now , however , to establish the basic equations for the possibility
of geometric deformation , the elastic behavior of material must be examined .
 13

2. THE DEFORMATION
The symbols $ , n , and $ will be used to denote the components of
the displacement lying in the direction of the coordinate axes which any
arbitrary point on the elastic body experi
ences , if a condition of stress and deforma
a
tion is produced by the effects of external
forces . When the displacement at every point
45 °-7450 Try
is known , the total condition of deformation
is completely determined . The actual magni
tudes concerned in the deformation , the elon- Figure 7 - Stresses under
Pure Shear Loading
gations and the changes of angles , can be
determined from the displacement .
The concept of strain is defined as the ratio of the elongation of
an infinitely small element to its original length . The character is used
to designate it and a subscript which expresses the original direction of the
elongated segment is included .
The change of angle represents the diminution of an original right
angle . It is designated by y and the original directions of the legs of the
right angle are indicated by two subscripts ; the order in which the sub
scripts are written is immaterial .
In the following consideration of deformation , it must be noted
that as a result of the very high modulus of elasticity of structural materi
als , the deformations are so extremely small in most cases that the quadrat
ic values which occur can always be neglected as small terms of a higher
order , when compared to the linear values . An important conclusion drawn from
the foregoing is the principle of superposition .. According to this principle ,
the serial order in the superposition of conditions of deformation is immate
rial with respect to the final condition , because the magnitudes of deforma
tion , related to the same system of coordinates , simply add .
This principle will now be applied by first considering only the
displacement 5. From the corresponding ‫گی‬
B B'
strains er , and so on , which represent only
the components originating from $ , those com dy
ponents which originate only from n or Ŝ can dr
1
easily be determined . On the basis of the A

principle of superposition , the complete ex

dz
pressions for the strains are attained by
Figure 8 . The Displacement
simple addition of these components . As a in Cartesian Coordinates
reference point , the corner or angle 0 of the
a

element of volume is selected where the edges OA = dx , OB = dy , and OC = dz

meet ; see Figure 8. Due to the displacement 5 , O goes to O ' . Corresponding
 14

to the difference of coordinates dx , the displacement must be increased by

the small amount ax dx at A. The like is also true for B and C. The edge dx
is accordingly displaced toward O'A' and undergoes the strain

dx + E + dx dx
(x 05
ε - [ 10 ]
dx Jx

The edge dy is displaced toward O'B ' and rotated or turned at the same time .

The decrease of the right angle AOB thus produced is the change in angle Yiy .
Since such a small angle can be equated to its tangent , it is found that

05
ミナ dy
dy อะ [ 11 ]
=
dy dy

In a corresponding way , the angle AOC is decreased by

05
+ dz
Y'iz = [ 12 ]
dz

The strain produced by the oblique position of the edge OB

DE
dy² + dy -dy
= -1 [ 13 ]
dy √1 + (

is to be set equal to zero as it is a small term of higher order , because the

small quantity ot /dy appears squared . The same holds true for the edge OC, '
so that e ', also vanishes . It can also easily be seen that the change of angle
Y'yz is also to be considered as infinitesimal .

By substituting n for and y for x , the components arising from the

component of displacement ʼn can be determined from the foregoing . The like is
valid for the components which arise from . The addition of these components
finally gives the complete values for the deformation

= อะ δη 28
Ey = dy Ez - Iz
dx
อะ ac อะ [ 14 ]
δη δη
Yxy = d + Ix Yyz az + by " Yzx = dx +
y

An important factor is cubical dilation , which expresses the ratio

of the three - dimensional increase in size of the element of volume to its

original size . It will be designated by e and is expressed

e = dx (1 + ¿,) dy ( 1 + ɛ„) dz ( 1 + ‹, ) − d x dy d z [ 15 ]
dxdydz

Since the product of the elongations can be neglected as small terms of high-

er order , it is found that

δη
e = εr + εy + ε2 + + こ [ 16 ]
ey
 15

1.e. , the cubical dilation is equal to the sum of the unit elongations in
three directions perpendicular to each other .
In this way , the magnitudes of deformation have been related to the
three components of displacement in Cartesian coordinates . Since the use of
curvilinear coordinates offers great advantages in calculating the stress dis-
tribution in notches , the corresponding considerations will now be expressed
for curvilinear coordinates .

3. THE DEFORMATION IN CURVILINEAR COORDINATES

We transfer to the curvilinear orthogonal system of coordinates u ,

v , and w ; in so doing u , v , and w are assumed to be space functions which can

be differentiated . Conversely , x , y , and z are then also functions of u , v,

and w which can be differentiated , i.e. , the following equations can be stated :

x = x (u , v , w) , y = y (u , v , w) , 2= z
2 ( u , v , w) [ 17 ]

The u-direction is understood to be the direction normal to the surface u =

constant and moreover , positive in the sense of the increasing value of u .

By proceding by one linear element dsu farther in the u-direction , the u - value
changes by the differential du . Since the power to differentiate was assumed

a priori , the differential quotient ds /du will have a very definite value at

every point which will be termed hu . Accordingly , the linear element is hudu .
If an area u = constant is considered , hudu gives the distance to the directly
neighboring u- area for which the u- value has changed by the differential du .
As a result of the differing curvature of both surfaces , this distance will
be different at every point although du always has the same infinitesimal
value . This curvilinear distortion is taken account of by the factor hu which
will therefore be designated as the factor of distortion . The factors of dis-

tortion in the v- and w- directions , i.e. , normal to the surfaces v = constant

and w = constant are designated by h , and h , respectively . The corresponding

linear elements are h , dv and hdw .

The angle included between two directions

du
hu
is again designated by the expression of both direc-

tions ; thus , for example , ( x, u ) is the angle between (xu)

the x- and u-directions . Its cosine is found from 3 du

the linear element hudu and its x- component ; see Fig- Figure 9 · Linear
Element in Curvi-
ure 9. The like is valid for the angles ( y , u ) and linear Coordinates
(z , u ) as well as for the angles which are formed by with the x- Component

the v- or w- directions with the coordinate axes .

This gives
1 dx 1 dy 1 Ez
cos (x , u):= hu du ' cos (y , u) cos (z , u) and so on ; [ 18 ]
hu du hu Ju
 16

Two additional systems of equations exist which arise by substituting v and

w for u . According to a familiar theorem of solid geometry

cos² (x , u) + cos² (y , u ) + cos2 (z , u ) = 1 and so on . [ 19 ]

If the expressions forthe direction cosines are substituted from Equation

[ 18 ] , it is found that

2 12
h₂ = (3x)² + (3 )² + ( 97) and so on . [ 20 ]
ди

These equations permit the factors of distortion to be derived from Equation

[ 17 ] .

The displacements in the u- , v- , or w- direction will be designated

by U, V, and W. Based on the principle of superposition , U can be combined

from the u-components of the displacements § , n , and by addition . The cor-

responding operation is valid for V and W. The components are most simply
formed by multiplication with the direction cosine in each case . This gives

U= cos (x , u) + cos (y , u ) + cos (z , u) and so on [ 21 ]

or considering Equation [ 18 ]

oy
ૐ J17+ + nau [ 22 ]
hu (5 o
U = 11 u + n + 50%
u ) and so on .

Substituting v or w for u , from this point on , requires substituting V or W

for U.

The magnitudes for the deformation now contain those constituent

factors which arise from Equation [ 14 ] , simply by substituting the new nota-
tions for the coordinates , linear elements , and displacements . The foregoing
components or terms will be designated by น and the like . The result is

1 ĈU 1 OU 1 OV
= Yue = ho dv + hu ди and so on . [ 23 ]
ha ou

Thus , in the first approximation , the curvilinear coordinates have

been treated as rectilinear . Although it is to be expected that the small

changes of the deformation produced by the curvature of the coordinate system
could be neglected as being small and of high order , a fundamental error would
be committed in so doing . In establishing the magnitudes of the deformation
2
in Cartesian coordinates , only the very small increments a 5 dx and the like
x
were left over , whereas the displacements themselves had dropped out . For

the deformation , which owes its origin to these small increments , the curva-
ture is an effect of higher order , to be sure ; this , however , is no longer
valid for the displacements themselves . Whereas no condition of deformation
can be produced in Cartesian coordinates by constant displacements & , n , and
(the elastic body would move as a rigid body under such conditions ) , this
is , in contrast , entirely possible in curvilinear coordinates with constant
 17

deflections U, V, and W because of the curvature . As will be seen , this de-

formation is no longer negligible , since it is produced by the displacements

themselves and not by their small increments . The magnitudes of strain will
be designated by " น... Therefore , they are to be added to the components

given in Equation [ 23 ] to get the total magnitudes of strain .

Let us consider a small portion of an area in the plane w = constant

in Figure 10 , to whose corners only the con-
stant displacement U is first applied . The
ahydvdu
Ov
length of the edge OB which lies in the v-
C
direction is h , dv . By shifting it by the B. da

hvd
distance hudu to the position AC ' , its length

v
Əh v

hvd
would increase by ди dv du, i.e. , αβ
it would hudu

v
undergo the elongation 1
ah du . Accordingly
по ди
ότι όι
the strain occurring during the deflection U
U
is found by multiplication by the ratio hdu Figure 10 - Deformation in
f Curvilinear Coordinates
to be

U ohr
huh du [ 24 ]

In contrast , when the edge OB is displaced to the position AC, the

original right angle between this edge and the u - direction is increased by a
1 ohu du . As this case deals with the
small angle dB, which is found to be
hv a v
increase of a right angle , it is concerned with a negative change in angle .

The change in angle y " , which corresponds to the displacement U is obtained

U
by multiplication with hudu ; it is

U Əh
Yue = hh dv [ 25 ]

Further components are found using a small portion of an area v = constant .

They are derived from Equations [ 24 ] and [ 25 ] by substituting w for v :

U ah U dhu
εἴ = huhw ди " Yuw = hh w [ 26 ]

The remaining magnitudes resulting from the constant displacement U are small
terms of higher order .

According to the principle of superposition , the components origi-

nating from the constant displacements V and W are added to this . They are
determined from Equations [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] , and [ 26 ] by substituting v and w for u .
Moreover , the components found from Equation [ 23 ] are still to be added in ;
in so doing , the expression for the changes of the angles can be modified

somewhat . Finally , the complete magnitudes of deformation are :

V ohu Ꮃ ᎧᏂ hu d / U h. a V
Eu == 1(0+
อน h. dv
+ h dw Yuv = h, dv h + hu du and so on . [ 27 ]
 18

In determining the cubical dilation , it must be noted that the

length of the edges which are in the same direction diverge somewhat from
each other for the curvilinear element of volume used here . Due to the fact
that the problem deals with very small effects in these differences in
length , just as was the case for the deformation magnitudes , mean edge
lengths ku
km , kv
Ky , and kw of the edges running in the u- , v- , and w-directions
can be used as a basis for the calculation of the cubical dilation . The cu

bical dilation is then

e
k. ( 1 + E )k.(1 + ) kw (1 + E ) - k, k,kw
kukuku [ 28 ]

from which , if the products of the elongation are neglected , it follows that
e = Eu + En + Ex ( 29 )
that is , in curvilinear coordinates , the cubical dilation is also equal to
the sum of the strains .
Thus the total deformation in curvilinear coordinates has also been
described . The relationships by which the conditions of stress and deforma
tion , previously treated separately , are combined will now be investigated .

4. HOOKE'S LAW
Hooke's law of elasticity requires proportionality between normal
stresses and strains on the one hand and between shear stresses and angular
changes on the other .
First , let the normal stress Og alone be assumed present .
> Then in
its own direction the strain produced is
0
Er ( 30 )
E

where E represents the modulus of elasticity . Simultaneously , however, a

contraction or negative strain amounting to
0,
Ey Ez ( 31 )
mE

occurs in both transverse directions . In Equation [ 31 ] , mis Poisson's num

for moka
ber , which can be set equal to 10/3 . If all three normal stresses act simul
taneously , it is found by superposition that
1
E1 ox
m (0, ++ )0-)
1
Ey E Oy m (0; + 0-) [ 32 ]
1
Ez
E 10 : - (02 +0,
(0 +
m
 19

If these expressions are substituted in Equation ( 16 ) , the cubical dilation

is found to be

1
E 3 (0, + 0 , + 0.);)
(1 – t) ( 33 )
The sum of the three normal stresses occurring here will be briefly termed
the stress sum in subsequent sections .
Moreover , the shear stresses are proportional to the corresponding
changes in angles , for which the modulus of shear designated by G serves as
a factor of proportionality . We then have the following relations
.

Tay = Gyiy , Tyz = GYyz,, Gy21

Tax = Gyez ( 34 )
From this relationship of the stresses to the magnitudes of defor
mation it is found that the principle of superposition previously applied only
to the deformation is also valid for the stress condition .
The three constants E , m, and G, which have thus been introduced
into the calculation , are related to each other by an additional important
condition . This condition is most simply obtained by the following consid
eration . If only the shear stress Tty prevails , a square with the side b
whose edges were parallel to the x- and y-directions before deformation will
be converted to a rhombus ; see Figure 11 . The
change of the diagonals is found from the change htyo
b Tryb
by
in angles to be Yuvva; this is also
V2 GV2
Equation ( 34 ) . On the other hand , it was seen
o V2
in Chapter III , Section 1 , that a pure tension Muy enova
compression stress condition corresponds to this Figure 11 - Relationship
between Elongation and
pure shear stress condition over sections at 45 Change of Angle
degrees , i.e. , the tensile stress Oo 1 = Tzy
IV
pre
valls in the direction of the diagonal, and in the transverse direction the
compressive stress o, = - Ty prevails . Consequently, corresponding to Equa
tion ( 32 ) , the diagonal undergoes an extension
1 1 1

4 = ( - ) - ( + ) ..
E 01 m
02
E m
Tzy

and hence a strain equal to be? ((1 + *) Trzyy By equating the two expressions
E т,
obtained for the lengthening of the diagonal , the expression found for the
relationship between the three constants of elasticity is

G =
( 35 )
2(1+ ) m

This equation will be used again to modify somewhat the expressions

in Equation ([ 32 ] . For the first of these equations we can also set
 20

Ex Oy + a.)] [ 36 ]
/
E ((1 +
+ 1)) σ, − m
1 (0, + σ,

In this way the sum of the stresses appears ; this can be expressed by the
cubical dilation with the help of Equation [ 33 ] . Then

e
// (1 + 1 ) 0, -
εx = E m 2 [ 37 ]
1 -
m

Solved for σ , this becomes

E
1 εz + m [ 38 ]
1+
m

Using Equation [ 35 ] , the first of the following equations

e
= 2G
G( + ) and so on [ 39 ]
m 2

results . Correspondingly , in curvilinear coordinates the following is valid

e
σu = 2G (Eu + m -2), Tuv = Gyuv and so on . [ 40 ]

5. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BASIC EQUATIONS

We now revert to the conditions for equilibrium , Equation [ 2 ] , the

first of which was

მძ . JTxV + όəτzι
=0
ax + ay [ 41 ]

From Equations [ 39 ] and [ 14 ] , the normal stress o , is found to be

e
σz = 2G + m [42 ]

Moreover , from Equations [ 34 ] and [ 14 ] the shear stresses Try and Txz are
expressed by

δη
Try = G 85 +0 Txz := G +
[ 43 ]
( 7) z

Substituting these expressions into Equation [ 41 ]

± 2 де o² n 225
2 0 + + dx dz = 0
dx2 m 20x + dya + dx dy + [ 44 ]

For brevity the operator

2 22
Δ = 2 +
4 2 [ 45 ]
д дуг + 22

will be introduced . Furthermore , by differentiation , it is found from Equa-

tion [ 16 ] that
 21

225 де
dx² + Oxoy +
dx dz dx [ 46 ]
Therefore , the first of the following equations finally results
m де
AE + m 2 дх
0

m де
Δη + m 2 ay
0 [ 47 ]
m де

=
45 + 0
m 2 дz

Together with
es as
++
dx дz -
= e
[ 48 ]

These equations represent the so -called basic equations of elasticity . If

they be satisfied , all equations made thus far , including not only those for
displacement but also those for the magnitudes of deformation and stresses ,
have been satisfied .
The problem of satisfying the basic equations in the simplest pos
sible manner now arises . As will be shown in the following , the displacements
can always be derived by differentiation with the aid of my new three - function
proposition in such a way that these equations are satisfied a priori .

6. THE THREE - FUNCTION THEOREM

To solve the basic equations in general , Maxwell ( 1 ) * developed a
relationship of stresses and displacements to three functions and set up the
differential equation expressing the relationship between the functions by
substitution in the basic equation . However , he did not continue to a gener
al solution of this differential equation with the help of an additional
proposition or assumption . In later propositions , on the one hand , the same
method was followed whereby the differential equation occurring in each case
could be successfully integrated . Thus , for example, one of these proposi
tions contains an integration with respect to x in Cartesian coordinates ( 2 ) .
On the other hand , the problem was related to boundary value problems of po
tential theory ( 3 ) .
Although each of these propositions represents a solution of the
problem which is mathematically not objectionable , their use entails such a
large amount of calculation that they have found no application for problems
of three -dimensional stress distribution in notches . In contrast to the

foregoing, the new proposition which I have developed has the advantage that
the determination of displacements and stresses can be achieved successfully

* Numbers in parentheses indicate references on page 178 of this report.

 22

without integration ( 4 ) .
The theorem contains a general three - dimensional
stress function which is composed of three functions . As a result of symme
try of the appertaining system of equations , the process of calculation as
sumes relatively simple form even in curvilinear coordinates , so that it is
even possible to state solutions in a closed form for a number of cases .
My three - function theorem is expressed by ( 4 ) :
OF
2G 5 дх + 2α Φ,
OF
2Gn = ay + 2α Φ , ( 49 )
OF
2G5 az
+ 2α Φ,3

In the foregoing expressions , F denotes a three-dimensional stress function

which is yet unknown ; a is a constant . The magnitudes $ 1 , 2 , and $ , are
harmonic functions ; i.e. , they satisfy the condition
ΔΦ, = ΔΦ, = ΔΦ,3 = 0
1 2 ( 50 )
In other words , they satisfy the potential equation .
To throw light on the connection of these functions with the stress
function F , the displacements are substituted into the basic Equation [ 47 ) ,
according to our theorem . Then , with consideration for Equation ( 50 ) :
ar m де
-4001) + 2G
дх
aF
m

m
2 0x
de
0

151 )
=
-

+ 2G 0
. -4000 m 2 oy
IN де
-400))++ 2G m 2 oz
0

Since the order of differentiation is immaterial in Cartesian coordinates ,

these equations can also be written :
a m
26
ax m 2
e
AF) = 0
a m

ay
2G
m
e -
AF) == 0 ( 52 )
д m

del
CZ
2G
m 2
AF
F) = 0
It follows follows from the foregoing that the term enclosed in parentheses
must be independent of x , y , and 2 , 1.e. ,
in
2G
m
е AF = constant . [ 53 ]

Since the constant which appears on the right side is non - essential , it can
be set equal to zero and then

AF
( ( 54 )
26e = (1 - ) 4F m
 23

Again , our theorem expressed in Equation [ 49 ] is substituted into

Equation [ 48 ] which , of course , must likewise be satisfied . This gives

02 F аф , 02 F 02F JP3
2Ge - - + 2a dx - дуг + 2x a
dx² y dz2 + 2x az [ 55 ]

or by applying the A-operator ,

P2
2Ge = --
− AF + 2a ); + ¿ P₂ + √P3
Φ,
2x ( 0 D³)\
[ 56 ]
dy

If the expression for 2Ge thus obtained is substituted into Equation [ 54 ] ,

we have

JP2 ap
JP3
(2 − 2 ) ▲ F = 2 × dx + dy + az [ 57 ]

Thus the desired relationship between the stress function and the three har-
monic functions has been found . Whereas the corresponding equation could only

be solved in integral form in former propositions , it can here be satisfied in

a simple way. By setting

F= 。 + xÞ₁ + y P₂ + zP3 [ 58 ]

wherein is also a harmonic function, that is , satisfying

ΑΦΟ
1 % = 0 [ 59 ]

then application of the 4- operation gives

δΦ , მთვ
AF = 1 + 1 , + 20 + y4 ,+ 2 dy + z 4 Ø3 + 2 дъ [ 60 ]

With consideration for Equations [ 50 ] and [ 59 ] this becomes

Φ, Ф.
AF = 2(07 + + Oth³) [ 61 ]
dy дъ

If this is substituted into Equation [ 57 ] , the value for the constant a is

found to be
( −
α = 2 ( 1.
[ 62 ]

In this manner all the requirements have been fulfilled . For purposes of con-
trol , the stresses will now be stated also .

The normal stresses are obtained from Equation [ 42 ] , if from Equa-

tion [ 49 ] and e from Equation [ 54 ] are substituted . This gives

DE 2Ge 2F ΟΦ ,
σ = 2G + = + 2x + AF and so on . [ 63 ]
dx m 2 îx2 dx m

With the help of Equation [ 62 ] , 1 /m can be expressed in terms of a as

1 =1-10
=1 [ 64 ]
m
 24

In view of the foregoing , Equation [ 63 ] is converted to :

C2F
=
dx2 + 2x + (1 − 2) 4F and so on . [ 65]

By definition on the one hand

02 F J2 F 22 F
AF = + + [ 66 ]
dx4 дуг მ 22

On the other hand , considering Equation [ 61 ] ,

მი მდ . 803
{ ΔΕ
}
{
2 }} + ду + อะ
AF = 007 [ 67 ]

so that the Equation [ 65 ] can finally also be written

F FF მთ.
dy² + Əz² κα θα Jy 4) and so on . [ 68 ]

For the shear stresses , it follows directly from Equations [ 43 ] and

[ 49 ] that

22F ΟΦ , მ.
Την = dx dy + α dy + d ) and so on . [ 69 ]

It should be noted here 1 that Ø₁

ø ,,, ½, and ø¸ participate in the permutation
as well as x , y, and z . It is easy to convince oneself that the conditions

for equilibrium expressed by Equation [ 2 ] are now actually fulfilled . Like-

wise all the remaining equations are satisfied which can additionally be
established by combining Equations [ 2 ] , [ 14 ] , [ 33 ] , [ 34 ] , and . [ 39 ] (5) .
It is noteworthy with respect to the general stress condition that

one of the four harmonic functions may always be set equal to zero without
affecting completeness . The proof of this is apparent from the following
substitution

ΟΦ JP's ΕΦ'
Ø3 - P2 = +Φ % , Φ, dx + Øi
ду
JP's [ 70 ]
- ΟΦ
Þ₁0 = 2 xÞ' – (x Ox + y ay + zobi + Þú

wherein '3 ' 2, ' 1' and If a stress

0 are four new harmonic functions .
condition has been described by a suitable choice of the functions 。, $ 1 ,
P2, P3 the newly introduced functions are established or determined by Equa-

tion [ 70 ] ; consequently ' 3, results directly from

მი =
dz P3 [ 71 ]

whereas & • 2 , ' ,1 and p then follow from $ 2 , $ 1 , $ 。 , and ø ' 39 by means of

Equation [ 70 ] . By differentiation one can be readily convinced that the

introduction of the new harmonic functions does not contradict Equations [ 50 ]

and [ 59 ] .
 25

With the help of Equation [ 58 ] , the stress function is found to be

F = Po0 + xP₁ + yP2

y❤₂ + zØ3 = 2 x P3 + Þó
Φ + xÞí + yÞ½ [ 72 ]

This substitution is now applied to the theorem, Equation [ 49 ] , and it is

found that

a
2GE = dx (Þó + x Pi + y ) + 2x Pi
a
2Gn = - (P% + xPi + yP2) + 2 x P₂2 [ 73 ]
dy

2GS = ¦z· (Þó + xÞí + yØ2)

The result shows that the displacements are completely independent of '3

To be sure , ø' 3 was required in order to be able to determine the functions

Φ ' 2 , Φ ' 1' and '0• However , the final result no longer depends on this func-

tion ; it was already considered to some extent with ' 2, $ ' 1 , and ø '' , which

assumed the parts played by Ø2 , Ø1 , and 。. With the foregoing it has been
proved that the general stress condition can always be described completely
by only three functions . Therefore , from the very outset one of the func-

tions Ø₁ , ½, or 3 can be set equal to zero in the theorem stated in Equa-

tion [ 49 ] .

By another substitution , it can be finally shown that can also

be set equal to zero . That is , by setting

JP.' JP%
Φο = 2 xP - x ΟΦ Y dy Z
Jx az
[ 74]
ΟΦ Q ӘФ .
Φ , = dx + Φ , Ø2 = Φ3 = + P's
dy + Φ

it is found that
2
2GE = - dx (xÞí + yÞ¿ + zØ3 ) + 2 x Ø´

2Gn = -- dy (x P{ + yP½ + zØz ) + 2 x ؽ [ 75 ]

a
2GC = - √z (xÞ{ + yؽ + 2Þ%) + 2xPz
2a

In this way the function ø ' 0 in fact no longer occurs . Since the three fun-

tions ' , ' 2 , and ø' 3 now appear in the same form as the functions 1, 2,
Þ 3 did previously , it has been proved by this that can be set equal to
zero from the very beginning without injuring completeness .

In reality , only three harmonic functions are required . Which one

of the four functions is set equal to zero is immaterial . Consequently , only
three stress conditions which differ from each other and which cannot be pro-

duced by another harmonic function , save in a few exceptional cases , corre-

spond to a definite harmonic function . The multiplicity of the general elas-

tic condition is , therefore , equal to three times the multiplicity of the

harmonic functions .
 26

7. THE METHOD OF CALCULATION IN CURVILINEAR COORDINATES

The most important requirement made on the calculation of stresses

is the satisfaction of the boundary conditions which describe a very definite
pattern for the stresses which act on the surface of the body . On a no - load
surface , for example , these stresses vanish . Since the surface of the body
is generally curved , this condition cannot be satisfied easily in Cartesian
coordinates . In contrast , if a curvilinear system of coordinates is used , in
which the surface is contained , for example , as an area u = u 。 in the sense
of the definition given in Chapter III , Section 3 , all stresses having the
subscript u disappear , hence

= 0, Tuv = 0 , ¸ Tuw = 0 for u = uo [ 76 ]

As a result of this simple form of the boundary condition , the method of cal-
culation with curvilinear coordinates is preferable .

The principles for the calculation with curvilinear coordinates

have already become familiar from Chapter III , Section 3. The proposition
stated in Equation [ 49 ] will now be transferred to curvilinear coordinates

and reference will be made to the relationships given by Equation [ 22 ] to

find the displacements U, V, and W, 1.e. ,

1 dx ду θε
U = + n Ju + 502) and so on . [ 77 ]
hu

By substituting the expressions for & , n , and from Equation [ 49 ] , the fore-
going gives

dx OF az
2 G U = 1 (-
− +
+ 2x ) 5% + ( x
+ 2α ) สิน + ( − Iz + 2α
(− + 3) ди ] and so on . [ 78 ]

Now, familiarly

OF Ox OF dy JF_dz OF
dx du + ду ди + дъ ди du and so on . [ 79 ]

Therefore , it follows that

1 OF ду
2GU $2
ди + 2 x (0, 3 x + P₂ + ) and so on . [ 80 ]

These equations which supply the displacements in curvilinear coordinates are

in fact almost as simple as in Cartesian coordinates .
Further calculation consists in the establishment of the elonga-

tions ; see Equation [ 27 ] on page 17 :

1 OU V dhu W chu
Eu = + h. dv + how and so on . [ 81 ]
hu
 27

From the foregoing , the cubical dilation is obtained , * that is

e = Eu + Ep + Ew ( 82 )
and finally on the basis of Equations [ 40 ] and [ 62 ] the normal stresses are
2
Ou = 2G [ 83 ]
2G (Eu ++
20 2a 2 e) and so on .
From Equations ( 27 ) and ( 40 ) , the shear stresses are found to be
h, O V hu д U
and so on .
tu. GA ) +
Tuo =
hu du lho ή , ου (, ( 84 )

All the relationships which are required to get the stresses from the stress
function in curvilinear coordinates are built up in this manner .
The method of calculation which has thus been obtained assumes the
determination of the displacements as a preliminary problem of the stress
calculation . In most cases , however , it is simpler to derive the stresses
from the stress function directly by differentiation . However , certain prop
erties of the displacements such as single-valuedness and continuity are de
cisive factors in the selection of the functions $ 2 , P2 , 03 , and Do. For this
purpose it is as a rule not necessary to know the displacements themselves .
As is evident from Equations ( 49 ) , 158 ) , and ( 80 ) , these properties need only
be satisfied by the functions ,, P2 , and themselves ; for ø , only by the
1 3
10
derivatives 20./ox, and the like ; or in curvilinear coordinates by hu 0du0,' and
so on , to be valid also for the displacements . Therefore , the method of the
direct determination of stresses , which is somewhat shorter as a rule , will
also be treated .
The displacements from Equation ( 80 ) are substituted into Equations
( 81 ) and ( 84 ) for this purpose . For brevity , the following operators are
substituted :
on

1 c 1 Ich a + 1 dh , a
ho du h . c ) + hh dvou h , how o w
and so on . 185 )

22 1 0 1 1 0 1 ді , а
inan ôn, on , ਨੇ. ( .
hi, Julh, ov hih, ovou
-

[ 86 ]
0 1 0
= ਲੈ, ਲੋੜ
( )-
ho dv \hu o uu
1Oh ,
hnh Ĉu du ਲੈ ਕ ਕ 2hu
ਲ ਦ lheਵ +
du ਲ, ou hiਵ ou
2h
1 a
+
a
es
with cyclic permutation in u , v , and w. Expressions which can still be con
siderably simplified then arise . In this respect let us consider the special
case

Φ, constant = C, 0, = -x (' , 0, = 0 , Φ, = 0 , F = 0 [ 87 ]

See Equation [ 29 ) on page 18 .

 28

In this case the constant displacement

= C [ 88 ]

occurs in the x- direction only . Therefore , all points of the body are dis-
placed in the same direction by the same distance , i.e. , the body remains
rigid and no deformation is possible . In fact , all magnitudes of deformation
vanish . Moreover , even in curvilinear coordinates , no magnitudes of deforma-

tion may occur if a body remains rigid ; that is , the terms in which $ 1 , $ 2 ,
or 3 appear must vanish . From the foregoing , it follows that

J2 x 22 x
-0, o and so on, [ 89 ]
In In an

with cyclic permutation in u , v , and w, and in x, y, and z . For the final es-

tablishment of the normal stresses , the cubical dilation will be expressed by

the stress function . With Equations [ 54 ] and [ 62 ] ,

2 α
2Ge = (α - 1)AF thereby - [ 90 ]
2α 2 Ge = (1 − 2 ) 4 F

The normal stresses are then found to be

22F 2 x (dP₁ d x дф, ду dz

σu - dn + hidu du + Ju du + du) + ( 1-2) 4F and so on .
10 [ 91 ]

The shear stresses are expressed by

02 F α 1 Ο Φι dy
oP₂
των In on + huha v + ου δυ + du dv +
u
[ 92 ]
JP3 dz
dP, JP3 az
+ дФг ду
dv du + Du dv + ου δυ and so on .

If the expressions just found are compared to the corresponding ones

expressed in Cartesian coordinates , that is , Equations [ 65 ] and [ 69 ] , on page
22 a2 and the like are
24 , it can be recognized that the operators an ann
дпидп ,'
nothing but the second differential quotients in a system of Cartesian coor-
dinates . Let the later be termed u ' , v ' , and w ' , for which the coordinate

directions at the point considered on the body exactly coincide with the u- ,
v- , and w-directions of the curvilinear system of coordinates . Furthermore ,

this line of reasoning also explains Equation [ 89 ] .

The general equation for equilibrium , Equation [ 6 ] on page 12 , is
also satisfied , if it be considered that the following relationships

22
d n* d nx Σ
ΣΣ cos (x , µ) cos (2 , 1') ομον
μ,v = x, y,z
a [ 93 ]
=
In onz Σ Σ cos ( x , μ ) cos (iv )
μ, x, y, z
 29

which can easily be derived , exist between the differential operators in

Cartesian coordinates x , y , and z and those in both arbitrary directions κ and

λ . Finally , it can be shown generally that a stress acting in the x- direction

and on area whose normal direction is λ can be determined from the stress
functions in the following manner :

02 F ӘФ . ax дФ , дә dp₂ dy
Tix - τα a + a + on
Jnx on +
nyx on n on
[ 94 ]
dP₂ dy dz dz
1 AF
+
on, dn,
+ Jn(x + δηλδη , ) +
+ ( - ) cos (x , 2 ) AP

In the foregoing a/an , and a/an , denote differentiations along straight lines
which run in the x- or λ -direction at the reference point .
In order to set up the stress function itself , suitable harmonic
functions must be used for which , therefore , the operator ▲ vanishes . In do-

ing this it is necessary to know the form of this operator for curvilinear
coordinates as well ; it can be easily derived from the latter equations . For

this purpose , it is most simple to use the cubical dilation . In Cartesian

coordinates it was found that : *

2Ge = − AF + 2x ( + by ἐφ
+ [ 95 ]
ду

Using Equations [ 85 ] , [ 86 ] , and [ 89 ] , it follows from Equations [ 80 ] to [ 82 ] ,

for curvilinear coordinates , that

02F 02 F 22 F ox
2Ge = A
ni + ont + an
+ h น Tu + Du du
JP3 dz
ФзD₂ dz) + 2α
+ ddu dv + с Ф,2 ду +
he (ddv,1 dx [ 96 ]
du dv c v Dv dv +
2αγδΦ,1 δε дф,2 ду dz dz
+ + dw dw + Iw Iw

Comparison of the terms not containing a in both expressions gives the

operator

O 02 02
s=
nt + dni + In² [ 97 ]

If the detailed expressions from Equation [ 85 ] are substituted for the three
individual operators , it is found by brief intermediate calculation that

1 NJ a a
Δ [ 98 ]
( ( x^ d ) + 35
4 = huh , hu ου ( ho hw
3 ) + Tw( x^ 2))

On the other hand , from the agreement of the terms containing the factor 2a ,
as well as from Equation [ 61 ] on page 23 , the following expression for AF

results , which is advantageously used to determine the normal stresses :

*
See Equation [ 56 ] on page 23 .
 30

ΟΦ
ΔΕ = 2
dx + dy + dz
= 2 dB, dx + д Ф,2 ду + da dz 2 / δΦ , dx [ 99 ]
hi du du Ju du ди ди + hov dv +
aP₂ dy d03 dz\
JP, 2 (d , dx do₂2 dy dz dz
+ ου ου + d v d v +
h² Iw dw + dw dw + δω δω

In discussing the individual problems , we will return to the har-

monic function in each case for which the operator determined by Equation [ 98 ]
vanishes . In so doing the lines of reasoning which are conducive to the cor-

rect choice of functions from the very outset will be stressed particularly .
Thus , we come to the treatment of the notch stress problems and
begin with plane notch effects .
 CHAPTER IV
THEORY OF PLANE OR TWO - DIMENSIONAL NOTCH EFFECTS

1. THE BASIC EQUATIONS

To get to the initial equations for plane notch effects , it will be
assumed that magnitudes of stresses and deformation depend on two coordinates
only , say x and y . The general statement , which was introduced in Chapter
III , Section 6 , then assumes a very special form . The four harmonic functions ,
of which 02 will be immediately set equal to zero at the outset , are only
functions of u and y . In order that the stress function become independent
of 2 , 0 must also be set equal to zero , as Equation [ 68 ] on page 24 shows.
3

Therefore ,

[
1
]
Φ, = Φ ,( α , 9) ,
o > 0, = (x , y) , Φ, = 0 , Φ,3 = 0 , F' = Φ . ++ ΥΦ,, ]
Corresponding to Equation [ 49 ] ( on page 22 the displacements are :

]
2
[
OF OF
2G5 ar + 2a , 2Gn Ś=0
ду

To get the simplest possible expressions for the stresses ,

0, = ΟΦ
o0 x Φ ., == «α Φ , + Φ ; (3)

will additionally be written , where o ' and ' , are two new plane harmonic
functions . Thus
ΟΦ
F= Φ.+ 1 дх + αΦ [4]

For purposes of brevity , let

ОФ .
Φ,+
+ or
F 15 ]

be written so that
a a
F = F+ a , 2GE - дх F( F ' –– a®
a ;),
), 2Gn ду
( F' + a ), Ś = 0 [6]
may be expressed . The stresses are most simply found by Equations [ 68 ] and
[ 69 ] on page 24 . If it be considered that 40 ' , = 0 , then
02 F 02 F' 02F
0 O r2 Tuy
@y ? охсу 17 ]
22 F 22 F ;
Or ? + @ ya
T12 = 0 , Oz a
Tyz = 0 , dr2

Because
€20
AF = AF = 2 0 x2 [8]
 32

by Equation [ 67 ] on page 24 , it follows for the third normal stress that

= (1 - ΔΕ = AF
2) AF m [ 9]

or as may be seen from Equation [ 7 ] preceding

Oz = m (σ₂ + Oy) [ 10 ]

In this manner the condition of plane deformation or strain has

been determined , in which the displacement disappears in the z - direction but

not the normal stress . However , if the problem deals with a plate - shaped
body , both of whose limit surfaces are given by z = constant , normal stresses
I + o, ) act on these surfaces .
of the value m (o ;

Of practical significance , however , is

the so - called two - dimensional stress condition

wherein the normal stress vanishes in the z-

direction but not the displacement . This requires

3/2 a special three - dimensional theorem .

Again the plane harmonic functions '1

Figure 12 - Coordinates and ' will be used , but now the coordinate
of the Plate
must be included in a suitable manner . The theo-
rem is

4-4x + a² ΟΦ ΟΦ 2 -α d² ² p₁
Φο - z2
dx2
x + 4 x 12 x2 + ∞ ΦΦ + ΦΦ%
α (4 - α)
[ 11 ]
4 JD; -4 + 2x J² Pi
Φ, = P₂ = 0 , Φ, = 2
a (4 x) dx x(4 - x) მ 12

where d denotes the thickness of the plate . The plane z = 0 is taken as the
center surface of the plate ; see Figure 12 . It is easy to see that go , $1 ,
and 3 in this way are in fact three - dimensional functions .
The stress function is expressed

-2+ α d²\ d² Pi მთ
F= 22
4 ∞ 12 მ2 + 4
-12) α Pi + Pi + x dx [ 12 ]

Again if

ΟΦ
% + x dx = F' [ 13 ]

then

Ο Φι
AF' = 2 [ 14 ]
dx2
 33

and hence

2 α d2
F =F'+
2 (4 a) 1/2
12 − 2²) AF′ + 4 [ 15 ]

The displacements are :

a 2 d2
2GE = - F '+ -
4 ∞Φ
dx 2 (4 -α) ( 12 -22) AF
a 2 - α d2 4
2Gn -
12 − 2² ) AF' + 4 — Φ í
ду F' + 2(4 - a) (( 1/2 [ 16 ]
-x AF
2G5 = 'z
x

The stresses are found from Equations [ 68 ] and [ 69 ] ( on page 24 , considering

that A ' , = 0 , as :

62 2 a d2
σ = dy2 F+F + 2(4 - a) ( 12-22) 4F ]
22 2 d2
σy = F+ Δ
2 (4 α) 12 — 2²) 4 F" | [ 17 ]
22 2 d2
Try = x d F +243 ( 122 ) 4 F |
Joy
= 0, Tzz - 0 , Tyz = 0

In thin plates , d is small compared to the remaining dimensions . Hence the

plane z = 0 was arbitrarily selected as the meridian plane of the plate ;

zd/2 likewise assumes very small values only . Therefore , the terms con-
taining d² and z² can be neglected in the first approximation . As shown by
Equation [ 17 ] preceding , the stresses are related to the stress function F
in the same manner as in the condition of plane deformation or strain ; com-

pare Equation [ 7 ] preceding .

To be sure , this stress relationship is no longer valid at every
point for thick plates , but probably valid for the mean values

2
[ 18 ]
ō½ = ½
-
½ √σdz and so on

taken over the thickness d . Therefore it is found that

+ 2
d2
√(1/2 − 2²) dz = 0 [ 19 ]

and it follows that

22 F' 02FI 22F'

01 - =
dx2 โ zy = dxdy [ 20 ]
дуг
 34

The relationships which were obtained for the stresses or , σ , and

Tay , in the condition of plane deformation or strain , are therefore valid in

the condition of plane stress for the mean values of these stresses . It is

noteworthy , moreover , that the latter are no longer functions of Poisson's

ratio .

In this section attention will be exclusively devoted to the con-

dition of plane stress . For purposes of simplicity the terms o₂ , σ,, and
Try will be understood as the mean values of these stresses taken over the

section of the plate . Moreover , F will be written instead of F ' , o instead

of ' 。 , and instead of ' /ax . In this way , the initial equations for
the condition of plane stress are found to be

F = Þ。 + xØ₁ , $0 = $ o( x , y ), P₁1 = P₁ (x , y) , ΔΦ = 0 , ΔΦ, = 0 [ 21 ]

02 F 02F 2F
= σy = Txy
Jy2 , dx dy [ 22 ]

The stress function F now corresponds to that developed by , and

named for , G.B. Airy for the theory of plane elasticity . Therefore , the
stresses are determined from the second derivative of this function in a sim-

ple manner . As will be shown , a further advantage is included in that the

boundary conditions of the stress pattern can be interpreted as boundary con-
ditions of the stress function . Therefore , the stresses themselves do not
have to be first set up when determining the stress function .
For the derivation of these simpli-

fied boundary conditions , the force system on

M1,2
a triangular element of a plane whose edges
are dx, dy ( parallel to the coordinate axes ) ,
X1,2
OR and ds will be considered ; see Figure 13 .
ds
dx. Along the edge ds , the force dX acts in the
Ox dy
K dx dy x-direction , the force dY in the y-direction .
+ dy
Trydr
aydr Forces operate along the edges dx and dy

which originate from the stresses o ,, • ,, and

Figure 13 · Diagram for the
General Boundary Conditions Tzy . From the equilibrium opposed to trans-
of a State of Plane Stress lation in the x- direction it follows that

dxo, dy + T₂y dx [ 23 ]

Correspondingly for the y-direction ,

dY = σ dx -
— Try dy [ 24 ]

Using Equation [ 22 ] preceding ,

2F 2F
dX = dy -1 dx = - d [ 25 ]
dy2 dx dy
 35

and

F 2F
dY =
dx2 dx + dx dy dy = d (07) . [ 26 ]

We now integrate along a line y which follows an uninterrupted course in the

material and connects the points P, and P₂ ; see Figure 13. Let M₁ , 2 be the

moment , and X₁ , 2 and Y1,2 be the total forces which are exerted by the mate-
rial on the left of the curve on the material to the right of the curve .
This is expressed by
2 2
OF OF
X1,2 =-
x ду 2 [ 27 ]
/dx : = -[d( 35) — — ( ~14) + ( 25 ),
X₁ = fa

2 2
OF OF
Y₁ ,2 = dY = = - [ 28 ]
2 ax

Moreover, with respect to the point x = 0 , y = 0 , the moment becomes

2 2
M1,2 = [xdY =
y dX] = [ [xd(37) + yd( 37)]
[ 29 ]
OF
OF OF OF OF OF
+y F = x +y F
ду F)₂ (x
12 일을 +0 일 -8) -(2일을 + 0-8) -( 2일을 +0 일 -8

The non- loaded boundary is expressed directly by

OF OF
= constant , = constant .
ax მე [ 30 ]

As a final preparation for the derivation of the individual solu-

tions , the relationship of the stresses to the stress function will be given
for curvilinear coordinates . The fact that the desired relationships are not

a function of Poisson's ratio is utilized here ; compare Equations [ 7 ] , [ 20 ] ,

and [ 22 ] . Hence , an arbitrary value may be selected for Poisson's ratio
and therefore for the constant a . It will be assumed that a = 0 , since this

considerably shortens the calculation . Since a drops out of the final re-
sult , this special assumption made for the calculation constitutes no error .
It has already been determined in Cartesian coordinates that the
relationship between the stress function and the stresses operating in the
plate in a state of plane stress and plane deformation is identical . However ,
when a = 0 , there no longer exists any difference between the state of plane
deformation and the general three -dimensional stress condition . Under such

conditions , we must merely remember that the coordinates is an independent

factor . For this reason , it is possible simply to start from a three-
dimensional stress condition and to use equations already derived for the
curvilinear coordinates , but the stress function must be restricted to two
coordinates
 36

F = F (u , v) ( 31 )
For the third coordinate w = 2 18 postulated . From Equation ( 20 ) ( on page
16 , it follows that
θαr \
h ( 7)*( )"., hahi = (du*)*+ (@y ),2 herho = 1
+ @y ( 32 )

From Equation ( 91 ) on page 28,when a = 0 it is found that

1

32 F 22F
an + AF
on
Ou + AF, 0 + ( 33 )
ant

From Equation ( 97 ) on page 29 it follows , by considering Equation ( 31 ) pre

ceding , that
22 F 02 F
AF + on ( 34 ]
on i

Substituting in Equation ( 33 ) gives

02 F 22 F
Ou
ani O, an
135 )

If the operators from Equation ( 85 ) on page 27 are substituted and if Equa

tion ( 31 ) is considered , the following expression is finally obtained for the
normal stresses :
1 a 1 OF
0.- h, du h . 2 ) + hih1 , ou
дћ, ОF

a
ou
+
( 36 )
10 1 ᎧᎨ 1 hu OF
o
,

+
he u he h, hi du du

The shear stress is directly determined from Equations ( 92 ) and ( 86 ) on pages

28 and 27 as :

1 OF 1 ah, aF
Tuo
hou Ch. or) + hih , ovou ( 37 )

' page 29 , here becomes

The A -operator , which was stated in Equation ( 98 ) on
ha

1 a h, a a
1- huh ,
1
dulhu da)u + dol ho do ) [ 38 ]

when hw = 1 .
To apply the boundary conditions , Equations [ 26 ] to ( 29 ) , requires
in addition the expressions for @ F /ox and af /ay. According to a familiar
theorem of differential geometry , the aF /ar can be combined by addition from
the x - components of the differential quotients in two mutually perpendicular
directions , i.e. , in this case
 37

OF 1 OF OF = 1 OF
= and [ 39 ]
8 hu ди 8 h dv

The x-components can be most simply constructed by multiplication with the

appropriate direction cosine and stating

OF 1 OF 1 OF
Jx = cos (x , u) hu du + cos (x , v) h, dv [ 40 ]

Correspondingly ,

OF 1 F 1 OF
dy = cos (y , u) hu + cos (y , v ) h, dv [ 41 ]

If the expressions from Equation [ 18 ] on page 15 are substituted for the di-

rection cosine , the result is finally

OF 1 dx OF 1 ax aF
=
dx hu du du + h dv dv [ 42 ]

OF
- 1 ду дF + 1 dy dF
მყ ha du du h dv dv [ 43 ]

These relationships could also have been read from Equation [ 99 ] on

page 30 with $3 = 0 .
3 = 0 or $ 1 = Øg
= 43
Such coordinate systems are advantageously used in the calculation
because the factors of distortion become equal to each other . This is the

case , if the conditions

dx მყ dx ay
Ju = ± მა ου
=F
ди [ 44 ]

are fulfilled for x = x (u , v) and y = y(u

y(u ,, v)
v) .. It is apparent from Equation
[ 31 ] preceding that

hu = h₂ = h [ 45 ]

becomes valid . Such a case is termed an isometric network . The equation

ΔΦ = 0 takes the simple form

Ap
ΟΦ ἀφ
=0
du2 + dv2 [ 46 ]

which signifies a great simplification for finding the harmonic functions . As

a result of the formal agreement of this equation in both Cartesian and iso-
metric coordinates , the harmonic functions may be defined in both systems of
coordinates .

In Cartesian coordinates ( x , y ) , the real component ( or the imagi-

nary component ) of every complex function f( x + y ) is familiarly a harmonic

function . Similarly , in isometric coordinates (u, v ) the real component of

each complex function f ( u + iv ) is also a harmonic function .

 38

2. EXTERNAL NOTCHES ON BOTH SIDES

As is evident from Figure 14 , the problem deals with a very deep

symmetrically shaped notch on each side . As was already mentioned in Chapter

II , Section 4 , page 5 , the stress concentra-

tion factor approaches a limiting value which
is not a function of the depth as the latter
increases . The following considerations will

serve for the determination of this limiting

value . At the same time the stress distri-

bution in the individual types of loading

NO
Figure 14 - Deep External will be studied exactly . As a result of the
Notch on Each Side
diminution theorem the curvature of the base

of the notch exerts the most considerable effect on the stress concentration
factor . The additional contour of the notch , which is only of slight impor-

tance for the stress concentration factor , will be chosen to permit the sim-

plest possible calculation . In fact , a hyperbola will be chosen as the shape

of the notch . In this way , elliptical coordinates where

x = Sinu cos v , y = Coju sin v [ 47 ]

can be used as a basis . Then

2 y 2
[ 48 ]
(Sinu)² + (coju )² = 1 , (sinv
2) ²- (~~
(cos )
² = 1

Accordingly , the lines u = constant are ellipses and the lines v

are hyperbolas .
Moreover , from Equation [ 32 ] on page 36 it follows for the distor-
tion factors that

h₂ = h² = h² = Cof²u cos²v + Sin² u sin² v

= Coſ²u ( 1 — sin²v) + (Coſ² u - 1 ) sin²v
[ 49 ]
= Cos² u - sin2 v = Cof²u — 1+ cos² v
= Sin2u + cos2 v

Hence , both distortion factors become equal to each other . Accordingly , it

is a problem of an isometric network . The simplified form of Equation [ 46 ]

is therefore used to solve the expression Ap = 0 .

Equations [ 42 ] and [ 43 ] are converted to

OF OF OF
= Coju cos v Ju Sinu sin v dv [ 50 ]
Ix h2 Coju
1

OF 1 OF OF
Sinu sin v [ 51 ]
მყ
= h2 Ju + Coju cos v ουย
 39

As a boundary line , a hyperbola with the parameter v. is in general

assumed . Therefore , corresponding to Equation [ 30 ] on page 35, the Fox and
the OF/Oy must become constant when v =

The general solution of the stress problem will now be split up in

such a way that with the help of Equations [ 27 ] to [ 29 ] on page 29 , always

only one of the three stress resultants X,,

1, 2, Y1 , 2, and M ,, becomes differ-
ent from zero in the integration of the stresses transmitted to the narrow-
est cross section . In this way , the problem is split into three individual

problems which correspond to pure tension , pure bending , and pure shear .

A. PURE TENSION

The stress function for pure tension must be determined in such a

way that only X₁ , 2 differs from zero .

It is assumed that ( 6 ).

PA (yvxu ) + B Cofu cosv , Φι = Au [ 52 ]

and thus Equation [ 46 ] has been satisfied , as can be shown readily . Then

F = Ayv + BCofu cos v [ 53 ]

or due to Equation [ 47 ]

F = Coju (Av sinv + B cosv) [ 54 ]

Next , corresponding to Equation [ 50 ] , the derivative Fox is developed and

the result is

OF Ein u Cosu
дх h² (B — A sin²v) [ 55 ]

Along the no - load boundary v = vo; the OF/or must be constant . From the

foregoing , an equation between the constants A and B results which is

B = A sin² vo [ 56 ]

According to Equation [ 51 ] , the derivative expression OF/ay becomes

OF 1
= [Sin² u sin v (Av sin v + B cosv ) + Cof² u cos v ( Av cosv + A sinv – B sinv) ] [ 57 ]
ду
or because of Equation [ 49 ]

OF
- Av + Bcotv + Cofu cos² v - Btgv B cotv)
ay h2 (4 tgv [ 58 ]

If B is substituted from Equation [ 56 ] , this becomes

OF - Cof² u ---
A [v + sin³v。 cotv + [ 59 ]
dy h2 cot v ( cos²v。 — cos² v)]

From this it is evident that the OF/ay is already constant when vv ..

Hence , the boundary is free of load .

 40

Next follows an investigation of the flow of force through the bar ;

Equations ( 27 ) , ( 28 ) , and ( 29 ) on page 35 , are used .
In so doing , the value
+ .vo must be substituted for v at Point 2 and in contrast the value vo must
be substituted at Point 1 . M ' 1,, 2 vanish .
It is then manifest that Y,1 ,
2
and M.

The remaining stress resultant X,1, 2 must be multiplied by the thickness of the
plate d to get the total tensile load including the sign . This value will be
indicated by P. This gives
Р
- X 1,2 d = 2 A ( v. + sin v , cos vo) [ 60 ]
In this manner the stress function for this case is finally deter
mined and the problem of deriving the stresses with the help of Equations ( 36 )
and ( 37 ) on page 36 can be taken up . The resulting expressions can be further
simplified by using Equation ( 49 ) . Omitting the intermediate calculations
gives

A cos?v. cosa 2
"

น h2 Cofu cosv ( 2 +
(2 ha
А
Oo A Coſu cosv ( cos’y — cosẽvo) ( 61 )
А
Тур Sinu sin v (cosévo – cosav)

As a comparative value , the nominal stress is introduced ; this is the mean

stress over the narrowest cross section under tensile loading
Р
On 2 ad = P [ 62 ]

In the foregoing expression a is one - half the width of the narrowest cross
section ; see Figure 14 on page 38 . In this system of coordinates having the
linear unit

bohemian
(y)" = 0 = 1
[ 63 ]

it is found that

a = Yu = 0 sinvo ( 64 )
DV

so that

P = 2d sin v . P [ 65 ]
can be stated . If this is substituted into Equation ( 60 ) , the following ex
pression , having the dimension of a stress , results for the constant A.
sin vo
A = P
Vo + sin vo cos vo [ 66 ]
 41

(OW)v-vo
Omax
3p
265p
2p

W
(OV)x=0

2p 3p
P
P 2ad
Q
‫ما‬

Figure 15 - A Deep Notch on Each Side

of a Bar under Tensile Loading

The stress distribution for tan v 0 = 2 is shown in Figure 15. From

the base of the notch along both boundaries , the stresses fade very rapidly .

This confirms the law of the stress gradient , treated in Chapter II , Section
2, page 3. * Over the narrowest cross section , the stress ou first runs below

the broken line which corresponds to the nominal stress , then rises sharply
toward the outside of the bar . It reaches a considerable peak at 2.65 times

the value of the nominal stress at the base of the notch .

From Equations [ 61 ] and [ 66 ] , the maximum stress occurring at the

base of the notch is

2tg vo
u= 0 - p
σmax = (ou)u [ 67 ]
v = vo vo + sin vo cos vo
心
A very definite notch contour corresponds to every value of v 。. The ratio of

half the width a of the narrowest cross section to the radius of curvature p
at the base of the notch is defined as the " notch curvature " ( Kerbkrümmung ) .

Based on the hyperbolic Equation [ 43 ] , these values result as

a
a 1
= tg²vo , COS VO sinvo = [ 68 ]
a
+1 +1

With the aid of these relationships v p and

can be expressed in terms of a/

Equation [ 67 ] is converted to

2
Omax ²( +1
)√
P [ 69 ]
( +1) arete V + √
V

*
Translator's Note : The " stress gradient " appears to be a fading out of the stress along the notch.
 42

8P
Figure 16 shows the maximum stress as an exact
7p function of the notch curvature .
6p At weak notch curvature , 1.e. , small
5p Tomar
4p values of ale , it can be proved that the lines of
3p ! principal stress possess the property of stream
2p
lines in this case , In this respect , reference
р

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
is made to the literature ( 7 ) .

B. PURE BENDING
Figure 16 The Maximum
Stress in Deep External Under pure bending , only M, 2 differs
Notches on Both Sides
from zero . This condition is satisfied by the
of a Bar under Tension
statement ( 8 )
= A Co2uu sin 2v + Bv , Φ, -4 A Sinu sin v 170 )
!
which satisfies Equation [ 46 ] on page 37. Thus the stress function becomes
F = A sin 2v + Bv ( 71 )
Corresponding to Equations ( 50 ) and ( 51 ) on page 38 ,
OF Sinu sinu OF Coju cos v
δα h2
( 2 A cos 2v + B ) , h2
( 2 A cos 2v + B) ( 72 )
ду

Accordingly the boundary is free of load , if

B = -2 A cos 2 v . 173 ]

is postulated. Hence , the two derivatives for v = + "y and v = - vo

V. vanish .
It then follows directly from Equations ( 27 ) and [ 28 ] on page 35 that X
and Y , 2 vanish . The value M 1,, 2mult
.
2 2 iplied by d gives the total bendıng mo
ment M by Equation ( 29 ) ,

M1,2 = Md = - ( FF ) ++ ro + (F) -` = -2 (A sin 2 v . + Bvo)

- [ 74 ]

If B 1s substituted from Equation ( 73 ) , the result is

M
d = -2 A (sin 2 v . – 2v , cos 2 v.) ( 75 )

The stresses are found with the help of Equations [ 36 ] and [ 37 ] on page 36 as
А cos 2 v – cos 2 vo
ou
- sin 2v
v( 4+
cos205)
h2
А
Oq

sin 2v (cos 2 vo cos 2v) 176 )

А
Tuo = ht Sin 2 u (cos 2v - cos 2v.)

Here the elementary bending stress serves as the nominal stress

3M
Om 2a?d р ( 77 )
 43

In this way , an expression can be obtained for the constant A in Equation

[ 75 ] which has the dimension of a stress . Considering Equation [ 64 ]

sin2 vo
A=-P3(sin 2-2 vo cos 2 vo) [ 78 ]

Į
Figure 17 shows the stress distribution for tan = 2. The broken

line corresponds to the linear stress dis-

tribution according to elementary strength M

theory . Starting at the middle of the bar ,
the stress ou first runs below the broken (Oulu- vo Omax-2p
2p
line and then rises rapidly near the base (On)To
p
of the notch , where it reaches twice the
Q
value of the nominal stress .
0
With the aid of Equation [ 68 ] 2-2 (άv)
x-0
-2p

༩
the maximum stress is found to be
VX 3M
P2da
a
4 a
Omax ୧ M
p [ 79 ] ୧
a a
3 ୧ +( - 1) are tg
Figure 17 - Deep External Notch
on Each Side of a Bar under
Figure 18 shows the maximum Bending Load
stress as an exact function of a/p .

C. PURE SHEAR

The expression for pure shear is (9)

Φι = Bv , F = Sinu (A sinv + Bv cosv)

Po = A Sinu sinv , [ 80 ]

The OF/ay is formulated corresponding to Equation

6p
[ 51 ] on page 38 and the result is
Omax
4p
OF Sinu Cosu
= (A + B cos2v) [ 81 ]
მყ h2
133

2p

The boundary condition accordingly requires

10 20 30 40
AB
-B cos2 vo [ 82 ]
Figure 18 · The Maximum
The derivative OF/Ox according to Equation [ 50 ] on
Stress in Deep External
page 38 becomes Notches on Both Sides of a
Bar under Bending Load

OF
= — Sin² u sinv ( A cos v + B cos v -
[Cos²u cosv (A sinv + Bv cosv ) - Bv sinv)] [ 83 ]

or owing to Equation [ 49 ] and using the value found for A,

OF - Sin²u --
ax = B
B│v – cos²vo tgv + h2 -tgv (cos²v。 — cos²v) ] [ 84 ]
 44

As is evident, OF/Ox is constant when v = + v Hence , the boundary is free

of load .

Using Equations [ 27 ] to [ 29 ] on page 35 shows in this case that

X₁1 , 2 and M₁ , 2 vanish .

The stress resultant Y₁ , 2 , which alone differs from
1,
zero , when multiplied by d corresponds to the shearing force , which will be
designated by -V. This is expressed by

V
Y₁₁₂ ====
d 2B
2 (vo - sìn v。 cos v。)
B(v [ 85 ]

Omitting intermediate calculation , the stresses are found to be stated by :

B co82v cos 00
συ = h2 Sinu sinv ( -
−2 + h2
B
συ = h4 Sinu sinv (cos2 vo ― cos2v) [ 86 ]
B
Tuv = h4 Cofu cos v (cos²vo cos2v)

The mean shear stress over the narrowest cross section here suitably serves
as a comparative value

V
Tn = 2 ad = p [ 87 ]

Considering Equation [ 64 ] on page 40 , Equation [ 85 ] then gives

sin vo
B = --P [ 88 ]
vosin vo cos vo

Figure 19 shows the stress distribution for tan v。 = 7. In this

case , the maximum stress does not occur at the base of the notch but in its
immediate vicinity . Pure shear prevails across the narrowest section . The

shear stress in the middle is still smaller than the comparative value . It

M-V.L

Sp Omax 5.38p 2 Tmax-2.08p

4P 12p
2R 3p
P
(Tuv)I-l y
V-2

-2P 3P 4P 5P
-
(Ou)v-vo -5.38p
a P-z2aadd
a
49
୧

M-V.L

Figure 19- Deep External Notch on Both Sides of a Bar

under Shearing Load
 45

rises sharply toward the base of the notch and reaches its maximum value di
rectly in front of the edge . Beyond this maximum it drops abruptly to the
edge . The stress on along the edge shows a similar curve . At a great dis
tance from the base of the notch , it is still vanishingly small, but it
rises gradually toward the base of the notch and reaches its maximum direct
ly alongside the base . At the base of the notch itself it traverses zero ,
reaches the same maximum value on the other side as a compressive stress as
it previously did as a tensile stress , and then fades swiftly away from the
notch .

The broken line in Figure 19 corresponds to the parabolic distribu

tion of the shear stress that would occur in an un - notched bar according to
elementary strength theory . The true curve for the shear stress contradicts
sharply what has just been said . ,
Next the maximum value of the stress on will be calculated . Along
the boundary
Sinu sin vo Sinu
(owbo = 0 2B - 2 B sin ve ( 89 )
h2 Sin' u + cos² v .

The expression is still a function of u only and hence has a maximum where
the derivative a ou loul
Do vanishes . Formulating
a 2 B sin ve
ðu (ou )! = 0 [ (Sina u + cosvo) Coju - 2 Sinº u Coſu) = 0 ( 90 )

gives

Sina u S
cosa vo , Sinu + cos Vo 191 ]
The positive sign corresponds to the maximum value of the tension . It lies
at the point *

cos vo a
x = Sinu cos Vo = cosa vo = a sin vc ( 92 )
a a

V +1 )
and becomes

a
+1
O nas V
Q
=

193 )
р

( +1)aretxV--V
tg

*
Compare Equations [ 47 ] , [ 64 ) , and (68 ) on pages 38 , 40, and 41 respectively .
 46

For the calculation of the maximum shear the expression for the
shear stress Tน over the narrowest cross section is formulated . It is

cos² vo - Cosav
(Tuv)u =0 = B cos3 v [ 94 ]

The expression still depends on v only . Therefore , by formulating

a B -
=
dv (Tuv)x = 0 Cos®v [cos³ v . 2 sin v cos v + (cos²v。 — cos²v) 3 cos²v sinv] = 0 [ 95 ]

it follows that

cos2v = 3 cos²vo COSV = +1/3cosvo [ 96 ]

The value of the maximum shear , therefore , lies at the point *

a
- 3 cos2 vo
y = sin v = 1-3 cos² vo = a = a [ 97 ]
sinvo a

.
and becomes

a
Tmax 32 √³(2 +1)√
[ 98 ]
P

( +1) are te V -V

For a/p ≤ 2 it remains always at the point y = 0 , and is calculated from

Tmax V
[ 99 ] .
P a -
+
Vo [
( +1 ) arc tg √ √

Figure 20 shows this maximum stress value as a

Omar function of the notch curvature .
4p
The general case of composite bending
Tmax
23

represents a superposition of the two loading sit-

uations just treated . As was seen , the maximum
10 20 30 40 50
value of the boundary stress under pure bending
lies at the base of the notch , but under pure
Figure 20 - The Maximum shear it lies alongside the base . Taken rigor-
Stresses in a Deep Ex-
ternal Notch on Each ously , both maximum stresses cannot be simply add-
Side of a Bar
ed to get the maximum value for combined bending .
under Shear
This maximum value must be calculated individually
and anew according to size and position from the curve for the boundary

* Compare Equations [ 47 ] , [ 64 ] , and [ 68 ] on pages 38 , 40 , and 41 respectively .

 47

stress , obtained by superimposing .

An example of such a superposition Combined Bending

Omax
is given in Figure 21. For purpose Pure Beading
Base of Notch
of greater clearness , the stresses

are plotted over the projected

Pure Bending
boundary . It can be recognized that Base ofNotch Development of
the Edge
the exact maximum value is only very Pure Shear

little smaller than the sum of the

two individual maximum values de-
Figure 21 - The Maximum Stress
signated by max 1 + max 2 Therefore , under Combined Bending

in the majority of cases of combined

bending , it is sufficient to calculate the maximum stress by adding the two
values derived from bending and shear.

3. DEEP EXTERNAL NOTCH ON ONE SIDE

If the flat bar notched on both sides , which has been the object of

study up to the present , be conceived as cut

along the x - axis , a bar of the same type provid-
ed with a deep external notch on one side results ;
see Figure 22. As will be shown subsequently ,

application of this concept of a section to each

ง
of the three stress functions given for notches

on both sides affords a satisfactory basis for Figure 22 - Deep External

Notch on One Side
the determination of the stress distribution on

a flat bar notched on one side only . To be sure , this method is only an ap-
proximation , since there are still certain small stresses present along the x-
axis where now there really should be a no - load boundary . This in fact is

only a problem of the stress distribution in the immediate vicinity of the

base of the notch , determined primarily by the flow of force through the nar-
rowest section . The manner of introducing external forces , in contrast , is

only secondary , according to the law of decrement . Therefore it is recommend-

ed that a precise satisfaction of the boundary condition in this case be dis-
regarded in favor of simpler calculations .
Therefore , the three stress functions just treated are used as a
starting point , but in determining the flow of force with the aid of Equa-

tions [ 27 ] to [ 29 ] on page 35 care must be taken to substitute v = 0 at Point

2 corresponding to the new boundary . Moreover , as the problem deals with the

narrowest cross section , u must be set equal to zero .

 48

A. PURE TENSION

In the first place , the stress function for a flat bar notched on
both sides is used as a base . From Equations [ 54 ] through [ 56 ] , the flow of
force is found to be

-X1,2 = A ( vo + sinv。 cosv.) , Y1,2 = 0 , M1, = A sin²vo [ 100 ]

Again , the total tensile force is introduced as

P = -X₁ , d [ 101 ]

With the mean stress of the narrowest cross section as a nominal stress

P
on = ad = P [ 102 ]

the same value is found for the constant A as for the bar notched on both

sides ; compare Equation [ 66 ] . Thus , Equation [ 69 ] remains valid also for the

maximum stress for a bar notched on one side only . However , this is only
true if the effect in the line of the force P, which will be designated by e ,

is at a very definite distance from the x - axis ; compare Figure 23. The mo-
ment M₁ , 2 , multiplied by the thickness of the plate d , is obviously the mo-
ment of the force P with respect to the point y = 0. Hence , it must be iden-
tical to P. e. Therefore , considering Equations [ 64 ] and [ 68 ] , the distance

e is found to be

a a
1.2 M.2 sin² vo +1)
e = = [ 103 ]
P vosin vo cos vo a
+ 1) arc tg +√

Figure 24 shows the ratio e / a as

a function of a /p . Equation [ 69 ]
Figure 23 - A Deep is valid for this maximum stress
External Notch on
only if the effective line of the
One Side of a Bar
Omax under Tension tensile force is at a distance
Y Where the Bar is
from the unnotched edge of the bar
Prevented from
Bending which corresponds to this ratio .
If the position of the
P-- effective line of the force Pis

unknown , it is advantageous to
know some other condition for the

application of Equation [ 69 ] on page 47 , which is related to the deformation

of the bar . The present derivation , which originated by considering the bar

notched on both sides as split longitudinally , presupposes complete symmetry

with respect to the x - axis for the stresses and magnitudes of deformation .
 49

0.64
0.62
0.60
Figure 24 - The Distance of the Effective
1 ass
Line of the Tensile Force from the Straight
0.56
Edge in Proportion to the Width of the
0.54
Narrowest Section ; Compare Figure 23 0.52
0.50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Consequently , the displacement n must

vanish along the x-axis , and no curva-

ture may be permitted on the x -axis .

Therefore Equation [ 69 ] is always ap-

plicable , if curvature of the unnotched
Omax
straight edge of the member is prevented

by the external forces .

Accordingly , the solution just

treated corresponds only to a special

p-a
case . Therefore a more general case of

pure tensile loading will be examined .

Figure 25 - Deep External Notch on
One Side under Tension where the It will now be assumed , moreover , that
Effective Line of the Tensile
the effective line of the stress re-
Force Traverses the Middle
of the Narrowest Section sultant P lies at a distance of a/2 from
the unnotched edge ; see Figure 25. In

treating this case , the stress function for pure bending must be taken into

account , in addition to that for pure tension of the bar notched on both sides .
The constant A which appears in the former will be designated by A' for pur-
poses of differentiation .

From Equations [ 54 ] , [ 55 ] , [ 59 ] , [ 71 ] , and [ 72 ] , the flow of force

is found to be

-X1.2 = A(v + sinv, cosvo) - 4 A' sin³vo

Y1,2 = 0 [ 104 ]
M1, = Asin²vo + A' (2 v cos 2v₂ - sin 2 v )

Equations [ 101 ] and [ 102 ] remain valid for the total tensile force and the
nominal stress . The moment M₁ , 2 , multiplied by d , must be equal to P ∙ a / 2 ,

corresponding to the assumption made . Hence , considering Equation [ 64 ] on

page 40,

P P a sin² vo
-X1,2 = M1,2 = • [ 105 ]
d = p sin v。, d 2 =P 2
 50

If these expressions are substituted in Equation ( 104 ) , two equations result

for the constants A and A ' , from which it follows that

A' sin v . (vo + sin vo cos vo) — 2 sin ? v. sin Vo

4
A sind vo sin v , COB Vo + vo cos 2 v . A = P
4 A
( 106 ]
Vo + sin v , CON V sinº vo
A

From Equations ( 61 ) and ( 76 ) on pages 40 and 42 respectively ,

2A
Omax
COS Vo
- 8 A' tgvo ( 107 )

Substituting the constants from Equation ( 106 ) , the maximum stress is found
as a function of vo . Then , if vo is expressed in terms of a / p with the help
.

of Equation ( 68 ) , oO max is finally derived as a function of the notch curva

ture . By using the stress concentration factor of the bar notched on both
sides , the resultant expression which is very involved can be considerably
simplified . The term Q , is to be interpreted as the stress concentration
factor of the double externally notched bar under tensile loading ; see Equa
tion ( 69 ) . Likewise a, represents the same value for bending load ; see
Equation ( 79 ) on page 43 . This permits the statement that
-
Omas a, -20
р с
1 ( 108 )
+1

where

C =
an
V +1 ( 109 )
4 a
+1 1
30g

The maximum stress as a function of ale is shown in Figure 26. !

SPT
up !
spi Oner
Figure 26 - The Maximum Stress in a
2p Deep External Notch on One Side of
P a Bar under Tension , When the
Effective Line of the Tensile Force
0 5 10 15 20 25 X 35 W 1550
Traverses the Middle of the
Narrowest Cross Section

B. PURE BENDING
By superimposing the stress functions for tension and bending of the
bar notched on both sides , the case of pure bending of the bar with an exter
nal notch on one side only can be easily solved ; see Figure 27. The flow of
force has already been generally determined by Equation ( 104 ] ; therefore , the
problem merely requires the addition of the characteristic conditions for pure
 51

bending . The resultant X₁ , 2 vanishes in pure bending . The moment M₁

The moment M, , 2 multi-
plied by d gives the moment M of the external forces :

M
X1,2 = 0 , M1,9 = [ 110 ]
d

The elementary bending stress is used as the

nominal stress

6M
σ = a'd = Р [ 111 ]
Omax
Equation [ 104 ] then gives

A'
= vo + sin vo cos vo
A 4 sin² vo
P 1 [ 112 ]
A= P-OM
6 A' 2 vo cos 2 vo sin 2 vo
1+
A sin2 vo

Figure 27 - Deep External

If the expressions thus obtained are substituted Notch on One Side of a
in Equation [ 107 ] , the maximum stress is deter- Bar under Bending
mined . With the aid of Equation [ 68 ] on page

41 ), and using the stress concentration factors a , and a₂2 of the bar notched
on both sides , the final result is

Omax 2 ( +1) -a, √ + 1 [ 113 ] 5p

P 4 a
- 3α1 4p Omax
+ 1) −
3p
ap
Figure 28 shows the maximum stress as a
function of the notch curvature .
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

C. PURE SHEAR
Figure 28 The Maximum Stress in
In the case of pure shear Deep External Notches on One Side
of a Bar under Bending only
stress , as shown in Figure 29 , the

stress functions for pure shear for notches on both sides lead directly to the
objective . By referring to Equations [ 80 ] through [ 84 ] and Equation [ 86 ] on
pages 43 and 44 , the flow of force is now found to be

X1,2 = 0, Y1,2 = B(v - sinv。 cos v。) , M1,2 = 0 [ 114 ]

The value Y₁ 2 multiplied by d gives the shearing force V including the sign :

V
Y1,2 = < [ 115 ]
d

As a reference stress , the mean shear stress of the narrowest cross section
is again used .
V
Tn = ad = p
[ 116 ]
 52

From Equation ( 114 ) , the same value for the constant B is found as for the bar
notched on both sides ; compare Equation [ 88 ] on page 44. Thus Equations [ 93 ]
and ( 99 ) for the maximum value of the normal stress and shear stress also re
main valid for a bar notched on one side only .
V.
All problems treated to this point
served for the determination of the stress con
centration factors for deep external notches .
To determine the general stress concentration
Inard
factors , those pertaining to shallow external
Omax
notches are also necessary . However , before
turning to this field of endeavor , another branch
of plane notch effect should be studied , namely ,
V.Z
pok the effect of circular and elliptical holes on
plane stress distribution . The results will sub
Figure 29 - Deep External sequently serve to a certain extent for the
Notch on One Side of a
Bar under Shear treatment of shallow external notches .

4. A CIRCULAR AND AN ELLIPTICAL HOLE IN A VERY WIDE BAR

As shown in Figure 30 , the problem deals with a flat bar provided
with either a circular or a symmetrical longitudinal hole at its axis . The
longitudinal hole is considered to lie either in the direction of the axis of
the bar or transversely to the axis .
The three cases , with circular holes or with lengthened holes either
parallel or perpendicular to the axis of the bar , can be treated mutually if
the hole is assumed to be elliptical . The semi --axis of the elliptical hole
perpendicular to the axis of the bar , 1.e. , the x -axis , will be designated
by t . Let the radius of curvature at the end of this semi - axis be p . There
fore , when to the case deals with a lengthened hole transverse to the axis
of the bar , when t = p the case is a simple circular hole , and finally when
t < p , the hole is lengthened in the direction of the axis of the bar .
To develop the solutions , the origin of the x , y system of coordi
nates is placed at the center of the hole , so that the semi - axis t of the el
lipse lies on the y - axis ; with the help of Equations ( 47 ) through [ 49 ] on
page 38 conversion is made to elliptical coordinates . The quantity u , will
define the elliptical hole . The initial stress condition of the solid bar is
used as a starting point , to determine the stress functions in every case ,
Then an auxiliary function which produces a disturbance of the stress distri
bution corresponding to the type of the hole is superimposed on this stress
function . Since the problem is to deal with the stress distribution about
the free hole to which no external forces are applied , the stresses of the
solid bar and the auxiliary stresses must mutually cancel . As the distance
 53

from the hole increases , a rapid decrease of the auxiliary stresses occurs as
a result of the law of the stress gradient . This decrease is so marked that
the auxiliary stresses on the external edges of the bar , that is , when
y = + b6 ( b is half the width of the bar ; see Figure 31 ) remain scarcely no
ticeable compared to the elementary stresses of the solid bar . A ratio b /t
will be assumed which is sufficiently large to
permit the auxiliary stresses on the edges of the
bar to be regarded as practically zero . In this

way , the boundary condition on the external edge

no longer need be used . Since the auxiliary
stresses have disappeared , only the initial
stress distribution of the unnotched bar still
prevails there , for which the boundary condition
is originally satisfied .
It is now only a question of satisfy Figure 30 - Circular and
ing the boundary condition along the elliptical Lengthened Holes in
Very Wide Bars
hole uo The conditions for the edge under no
load

ar af
= constant - Ci , constant Cg ( 117 )
ar ду

must be satisfied for u = Uo Since the problem is reduced to this one edge
only , these conditions can be still simplified somewhat . That is , if the ex
pression - C X C2 y 18 added to F , the stresses obtained by differentia
tion twice ( compare Equation [ 22 ] on page 34 ) are not changed . However , the
boundary conditions now assume the simple form
aF aF
0, ду 0 ( 118 )
дх

Correspondingly , based on Equations ( 50 ) and ( 51 ) on page 38 , the expression

in curvilinear coordinates 18
af ӘР
- 0, 0 ( 119 )
du av

This simplification , always possible for one edge only , hence offers no ad
vantage for several edges . Therefore , this method was not applied in the
case of deep external notches on both sides , where the problem dealt with the
situation of the boundary condition along two edges .
By adaption of the constants appearing in the auxiliary function to
the boundary condition , these constants become a function of wo . Thus , the
increase in stress occurring along the edge of the hole results finally as a
function of u , also . However , a very definite elliptical form and hence a

1
 54

very definite ratio of t /p belongs to every value of u 。. From Equation [ 48 ]

on page 38 for the ellipses it is found that

= Cotsuo , Cosu。 = Sinu。 = [ 120 ]

V 1

On the basis of these equations , u , can be also expressed in terms of t /p .

Now , inasmuch as t/p is made greater than unity , equal to unity , or smaller
than unity , the solutions can be used directly for these three types of holes .
Again , the solutions for tension , bending , and shear will be given
individually .

A. PURE TENSION

The stress function of the solid bar for pure tensile loading is
used as a starting point . When P is the tensile force , since b is half the
width of the bar , the tensile stress is

P
p - 2bd [ 121 ]

This stress corresponds to the normal stress ox , whereas the stresses σ, and
Tzy
Tx vanish . Hence the appertaining stress function is

F = 2/2 y² , wherein Φο = P (y2 - x²) and Φι = P x [ 122 ]

2

From Equation [ 22 ] on page 34 , it then follows in fact that

= P, σ = 0, Την = 0 [ 123 ]

The values of 0 and 1 are now transferred to elliptical coordin-

ates , compare Equation [ 47 ] on page 38 , by applying familiar formulas

Φ - [ 124 ]
Þ。ο = ?
4 (1 −- Cos 2 u cos 2 v) , Þ₁ = 2 · Sinu cos v

Now , suitable auxiliary functions are introduced which swiftly fade

out in all directions for large values of u , i.e. , at a great distance from
the hole ; thus they no longer disturb the stress function of the solid bar .
This gives the final expression

P
Ø
。 = ? [ 1 + A u + ( −Cos2u + Be - 2 " ) cos 2 v] , Þ₁ = ½½
2 (Sinu + Ce¯ “) cos v [ 125 ]

Equation [ 46 ] on page 37 is obviously satisfied . The stress func-

tion is now expressed as

P
F = 8 {1 + Cos 2 u + 2Au + 2Ce- " Sinu +
[ 126 ]
+ [ - Cos2u - 1 + 2Be − 2 + 2Ce- " Sinu] cos 2 v}
 55

Satisfaction of the boundary condition , Equation [ 119 ] , when u = u 。 , leads to

the expressions

= 0
2 Gin2 up + 2A + 20e - 2
-
-Cos2u - 1 + 2B e - 2 + 2 Ce- " Sinu。 = 0 [ 127 ]
-2 Gin2u。 -
— 4 Be - 2 + 2Ce- 2u. =0

If the second of these equations is multiplied by 2 and added to the third ,

the constant C results . Then from the third , the constant B follows ; and
finally from the first , the constant A. These are

A - 1 - Cos 2 , B = { e²² + { - fet , C = 1 + e2u. [ 128 ]

C.E. Inglis ( 10 ) first stated the above solution which he found by another
method .

A knowledge of the stress behavior along the edge of the hole is

most important . There , the stresses σ and T. vanish corresponding to the
boundary condition . The tangential stress o ,, effective in the edge of the
hole , becomes

P
1 — e2u cos 2v)
(0%)u=U₂ = 2ha (Sin2u - 1- [ 129 ]

Figure 31 25..
shows the stress distribution for Cot u 。 = 5 or t/p = 25 At the

end of the semi - axis t , i.e. , in the base of the notch , the edge stress
reaches its maximum value of 11 p . It decreases rapidly along the edge of the

hole , and is converted to compression amounting to p in the middle of the bar .

Omax -11p
10p
8p
6pu- usP
10p 8p (Ov) 6p
(OV)1-0
2p 4p
2p

u=uo
p-Ba

I
23

-25

Figure 31 · Tensile Bar with a Lengthened Hole Transverse to the

Longitudinal Axis of the Bar

The stress variation along the y - axis is likewise characteristic

of the nature of notch stress . As the distance from the hole increases , the

stress o,, which is expressed by

(0%) = p + p Cos uo [e²º (e²¼º — 3 ) ( 1 + § Cotu) e − 2 " + Cos u Cotu] [ 130 ]

2 Sin² u
2
 56

drops rapidly from its sharply defined maximum value at the edge of the hole
until it reaches the value p ; see Figure 31 . . The stress on which occurs
simultaneously is still zero at the edge of the hole corresponding to the
boundary condition , then rises somewhat as the distance from the hole increas
es , to disappear entirely at some distance from the edge of the hole . As a
result of symmetry , the shear stress is equal to zero along the y - axis .
For the maximum stre88 occurring in the base of the notch the fol
lowing expression is found

( 0)u == llo = Omar p ( 1 + 2Cotu ) ( 130a ]

JT

1
With the aid of Equation (120 ) on page 54, the foregoing gives the stress
concentration factor for the lengthened hole transverse to the axis of the
bar as

Omas
221
= 1+ 는 ( 131 ] *
р e

When t = p the expression for the bore is

Omar
р
3 ( 132 )

Equation ( 131 ) 11kewise valid for the lengthened hole lying along the
longitudinal axis of the bar . In this case , p is very large ; it may even be
infinite for most lengthened holes occurring in practice , so that o max = p .
It is probable that when the
15 P1
140
major axis of the elliptical hole has the
13p same direction as the axis of the bar ,
12p !
see lowest view in Figure 30 , 1.e. , where
11P
10P Omar
t / e < 1 , the notch effect develops at the
9p
8P
end of the major axis , here designated as i
7p
t ' . However , from Equation ( 129 ) the
6PI stress there is found to be
5р
4P
зр ( 0.) = " -P ( 133 )
U = 0
2P
P
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Accordingly , for all shapes of holes , a
e compressive stress of the value p occurs ,
Figure 32 - The Maximum Stress in
a Tensile Bar Provided with a
regardless of the type of radius of cur
Lengthened ( Elliptical ) Hole vature at the vertex of the hole .

* Annotator's Note : This could be written in a more convenient manner mрax - 1+2 where , is the
semi -axis in the direction of the applied load .
 57

Therefore, the maximum stress for all shapes of holes considered

here occurs at those points on the edge where the tangent to the edge of the
hole is parallel to the direction of tension . The maximum stress as a func
tion of the notch curvature corresponding to Equation ( 131 ) is shown in Fig
ure 32 .

B. PURE BENDING
For pure bending of a solid bar , the elementary stress function is
valid , 1.e. ,

р
61 3 , wherein Do = р
61
р
0, = xixy.
(93.– 3x2y ),, , 21 ( 134 ]

From the foregoing , the stresses are

002, = p 분 0 , = 0, Try 0 ( 135 )

The stress o , corresponds in fact to the linear law of the elementary theory
T

of bending . The reference magnitude p is the bending stress at the distance

t from the axis of the bar . If M signifies the bending moment , it is ex
pressed by
3 Mt
p : 2b3d [ 136 ]

Equation ( 134 ) is then transferred to elliptical coordinates and suitable

boundary conditions , which vanish for large values of u compared to the com
ponents of elementary bending, are substituted to satisfy the boundary con
ditions . The use of familiar formulas for hyperbolic functions gives
P
Φ, = 96 t
[ ( -4 Coſ3u + Ae- 3u ) sin 30+
+ (12 Coju + Be" + Ce-“ ) sin v ] ( 137 )
,Φ , = 8tр ( Sin 2 u + De- ? u) sin 2 v
1

In stating the stress function it is well to use Equation ( 47 ) from page 38

in addition and to express the distance t in terms of Uo . Therefore ,
t = (yu -- Uo T
Coſu , ( 138 )

The stress function ( 11 ) is then expressed by

р
F = 96 Cojuo[( -Coſ3u - 3 Coju + Ae - 34 + 6 De-? Sinu ) sin 3 v ( 139 )
+ ( 3 Coj3u + 9 Coju + Be + Ce- " + 6 De- ?" Sinu) sin v ]
From the boundary conditions , Equation ( 119 ) , the constants are found to be
A = e34lo (Coſ3u, + 3Coju, - 12 Cojau , Sinu ) ( 140 )
B 12 Coluo , C = 0, D 2eº4. Coſa uo
1
 58

Figure 33 gives the stress distribution for Cot u , = 5 , or t / p = 25 . 3

A con
siderable peak stress , Omax = 6p , occurs at the base of the notch . Away
from , and also along the edge of , the hole the stress o, drops rapidly . The
broken line corresponds to the elementary bending stress with consideration
for the hole .

M
Omar6p
6p

5
(Oul.wo ( Oulso up
3p
(Out- o 2p
p

प
y

-D 3Mt
po
-бр adoj
-3P t
-5p -40 = 25
@

Figure 33 - Lengthened or Elliptical Hole under Bending

The maximum stress occurring at the base of the notch is found to be

8P
Omax ( 0 ) == u . = p ( l + Coto)
D = 90 °
( 141 )

6P -Oman or considering Equation ( 120 )

Omar
4P
р 1+ 12 ( 142 ]
2P
Figure 34 represents the maximum stress as a
V 20 30 function of t / e .
For the hole
Figure 34 - Maximum Stress
O

Omar
about a Lengthened (Ellip 2 ( 143 )
P
tical ) Hole under Bending
For the lengthened ( elliptical ) hole
in the direction of the axis of the bar , no notch effect results . When p = 0,
the maximum stress o max = p . At the vertex of the hole , on the x - axis , the
stress vanishes .

C. PURE SHEAR

Let the bar be loaded now in such a way that pure shear prevails
over the cross section x 0. Let the total transmitted shearing force be
V. As a reference value
V
pa
p = 2 bd ( 144 )
 59

The mean shear stress of the bar without a hole is introduced . The statement

again contains the elementary solution for the solid bar and auxiliary func-
tions , which vanish for large values of u . The solution for the solid bar is

Φ Р - p
Þ₁ο = 462
1½ (3xy³ — 3x³y — 6b²xy ) , Þ₁
Φι = 462
1 ½ ( −y³ + 3x²y)
[ 145 ]
F = P2 (xy³ — 3b²xy)
26

The corresponding stresses are

3p
= 3pxy = 0, โry -- 322 (y² - 62) [ 146 ]

In fact , when x = 0 , pure shear results , and when y = b the edges are free
of load .

By transferring to elliptical coordinates and substituting the suit-

able decremental functions , the following equation for a perforated bar is
obtained .

Φα 128 62·[( − 3 Sin4u + Ae- " ) sin4v +

+ (12 ( 1462) Sin2u + Be - 2.sin 2v]
[ 147 ]
p
Φι = 6462
P₁ [(4 Coj3u + Ce - 3 " ) sin3v
+ (- 12 Coju + De- ") sinv]

Considering Equation [ 138 ] , the stress function assumes the following form ( 12 )

F P - Sin4 u 2 Sin2u + Ae - 4u +
2
128 uo
+ Ce- 3 Sinu] sin4v +
2 [ 148 ]
- 2 Gin4u + 4 (1 - 12 ( ) Cof² uo
u。) Sin2u + Be - 2 " +

+ Ce - 3 " Sinu + De- " Sinu sin 2v}

For the constants , the boundary conditions give

A = – 24e4 uo Sin² u。 Cos² u。 › -

B = − 96e²u. ( 4 )* Sin² u。 Cojª u。
[ 149 ]
C = 8e2u (2e2u. - 1 ) Cos2 uo, D
= 24e² × (4 ( 7 ) ³ − 1) Coj³u。

The stress distribution for t/p = 25 and b /t = 3 is given in Figure

35. The edge stress reaches its maximum value in the immediate vicinity of
the base of the notch . Likewise the shear stress which is transmitted to the

section x = 0 reaches its maximum value close by the edge .

In the determination of both maximum values , the terms not contain-
ing 62 are purposely not considered . If the width of the bar is sufficiently
great , the resultant error is small enough to be neglected . This is especial-

ly admissible within the scope of the theory of the perforated bar , where a
 60

relatively large width was assumed a priori . This is true because the pres
ent problem is to deal primarily with the determination of the limiting val .
ues for the stress concentration factors which occur at relatively large
widths of the bar .

M - V.1

Omar- 7,70 -10 p Tmax - 4,1P

-8P up
-60
4P
3P
2D 2P
(6ulu- ho
U - LO
( tuule
2P
ур D
20d
6P t
8p = 25
10p .

M - V.L

Figure 35 - A Lengthened ( Elliptical ) Hole under Shear

After a few modifications , the stress function is expressed

3р
F
top (Coj2(u – Um) – 1] e2uo sin 2v ( 150 )

From the foregoing , the edge stress is found to be

1 02F Зре? но sin 2 v
(0 ) = 2 = ( du ) - 10 ( 151 )
Sin ? Un + cos² v

where the expression

a Зре? мо
( Oulu = u. 214 [(Sina u, + cos² v) 2 cos 2v + sin 2v) ( 152 ]

equals zero , i.e. , for

1 Sinuo
cos 2 v or COS v
( 153 )
Coſ2uo VCoſ2u ,

it reaches its maximum value . The maximum value of the edge stress there
fore lies at the distance

Sinu
x = t
Coju, VC012 un
76+1 +
( 154 )

from the y - axis and becomes

Omai 3
+ 2
- :(VI+2+ À
р 2 ( 155 )
 61

The shear stress effective in the section x = 0 becomes

1 22F OF
(Tu v)v = л Cotu อง =
Gin² u Ju dv V= 2
2 [ 156 ]
3pe
=
8 Sin² u [-4 Sin2 (u - u ) + 2Cot u (Cos 2 ( u - u ) — 1 ) ]

The point of maximum value is obtained by setting the expression differenti-

ated with respect to u equal to zero . Avoiding intermediate calculations ,

the distance of the maximum value of the shear stress from the y - axis is

+2
t
y =t [ 157 ]
Cosuo √1 + 3 Sin² uo t

The maximum value of the shear stress is

3/2
+2
Q
Tmax 3
=3 2 [ 158 ]
p
(V-

Figure 36 shows both maximum stress values as functions of t /p .

For the hole
Omax Tmax
= 6, =2
Р P [ 159 ]

For composite bending , the same is

valid as for the deep external notch : The
12p
maximum value of the edge stress is only very
Omax
little smaller than the sum of the two values 10p

produced by bending and shear alone ; compare

49

Figure 21 on page 47.

6p
For the elliptical hole in the di-
Tmax
rection of the axis of the bar , only the in- 4p
crease in stress produced by shear is essen-
2p
tial . Let t ' /p ' be the new notch curvature
at the end of the present large axis t . For 10 20 30 40

the ellipse , then, the familiar expression

Figure 36 - The Peak Stresses
12 - about an Elliptical Hole
= [ 160 ]
t/2 under Shear Stress

is valid . Therefore , the maximum stress values are obtained from Equations
[ 34 ] and [ 38 ] on page 36 with p ' /t ' instead of t /p . Equation [ 155 ] then
becomes
Omax = 3
+2+ [ 161 ]
p 2 '
t
 62

Hence , t'le ' could have been used just as well as t /p . In this way , Equation
( 158 ] would have given the maximum stress value over the section x = 0 in
either case . However , the true value for the maximum stress now lies in the
section y = 0 . For the section y = 0 , calculation gives ·
3,2
+ 2
é
MAX

р
3
3 VO ( 162 )
ve
This is the same expression as in Equation ( 158 ) , but with t'le ' instead of
t /p. For the maximum stress values of elliptical holes lying in the direction
of the axis of the bar under shear loading , the same equations are valid as
for elliptical holes perpendicular to the axis of the bar , if t ' / ' is set in
stead of t / p .
Attention will now be directed to the treatment of the group of
problems relative to shallow external notches . The stress concentration fac
tors derived , together with those for deep notches, will supply sufficient
principles of calculation for a notch of arbitrary depth .

5. THE SHALLOW EXTERNAL NOTCH

As Figure 37 shows , this problem will deal either with a bar whose
width is b , provided with a shallow external notch on one side , or with a bar
whose width is 26 and which has a shallow external notch on each side .
As a result of the law of dec
rement , the stress distribution in the
O bar at a certain distance from the notch
will no longer deviate from the stress
distribution of the unnotched bar , if a
sufficiently large ratio b /it is used as
a basis corresponding to the given shal
low notch . Consequently , the shallow
Figure 37 - Shallow External Notch notch on one side will exert no effect
on One Side and Two Sides of a Bar on the stress curve on the other side of
the bar , so that the boundary condition
for the other edge will then be satisfied also , if in the development of the
individual solutions the second edge is not considered . This is true insofar
as the case deals with the disturbing functions pertaining to the elementary
stress functions of the unnotched bar , which latter functions furnish the ac
tual notch stresses and rapidly fade in all directions . In the bar notched
on both sides , these disturbing functions must be superimposed along both
edges of the initial stress function . If this gives the solution for the bar
 63

notched on one side only , the resulting stress concentration factor is also
valid for the bar notched on both sides since the disturbing function is the
same . For the determination of the nominal stress , a different formula is

clearly definitive .

A. PURE TENSION

As a starting point the following curvilinear system is used

u บ
x= u + " y= v [ 163 ]
u² + v² + v²

At a great distance from the point where x = 1, У = 0 , the lines u = constant

still coincide with the lines for x = constant . However , near the point
where x = 2 and y = 0 , they deviate in the manner of a notch . The same is

valid for the orthogonal lines for v = constant . In Figure 38 , a few lines
are drawn in on the left .

y
-2
u- uo
11-1
(ov)2-40 P
2p
1

3p
Omax -3.33p
u = constant v = constant

Figure 38 - A Shallow External Notch under Tension

The stress function for pure tension amounting to p in the y-

direction is

F ਨੂੰ x2 with Φ 0, Φι 11 [ 164 ]

2x

Therefore , transfer is made to our system of coordinates and suitable addi-

tional or auxiliary functions are substituted to satisfy the boundary condi-
tions of the shallow notch . In seeking the harmonic functions , precautions
must be taken to note that this case again deals with an isometric net for

2 v2 2 u² + 1
h₂ = h = h² - 1+ [ 165 ]
(u² + v²)2

Hence , the harmonic functions satisfy the simple differential Equation [ 46 ] on

page 37 .
The solution is

u v2 u2 P u U
Þ₂ = 2 ( A + B u + C u² + v² + D (u² + v²)2) Φι = 2 u + u² + v² + E u² + 22)
v² [ 166 ]
 64

The stress function becomes

2u2 u2 น
F = P lu² + + A + Bu + C u2 + 2 +
2 u² + v² + (u² + v²)² v
1 2u2 u2 u2 [ 167 ]
+D ( u² +v²jz) + E (( u² + v² + (x² + v²)2
+E
u² + v² 2)=) ]

The value of u which is definitive for the edge will be designated by u ..

Now if the constants contained in the preliminary expression are defined in

such a way that the factor (u - u )² appears in the stress function , the
boundary conditions when u = u ,, expressed by Equation [ 119 ] , on page 53 are
obviously satisfied . Circumventing intermediate calculation , this concept
permits the following expressions
220 uz 1 4u
A = u , B = -2uo , с = D E= [ 168 ]
2u 1 2u - 1 2u

After substituting these values , the stress function assumes the following
simple form :

p 1
F -
½ (u — u。)² − (2 už -− 1 ) (u² + v²)
µ。)² (1 — [ 169 ]

From the foregoing , since the first derivatives of F vanish along the edge ,
the edge stress is found to be

102F (2 u; − 1 ) ( už + v²)
(oo)u = uo \h²2 du² / uuo = p [ 170 ]
2 v² - 2 u; + 1
1+
( uz + v²)2

The curve of the edge stress in the case where u 。 = √2 is shown in Figure 38 .
At some distance from the notch , the stress is still equal to p . In the di-

rection of the notch , it first drops slightly , then rises sharply directly in
front of the notch and becomes 3 1/3 times the nominal stress p in the base
of the notch .

From Equation [ 170 ] there is obtained the following expression for

the maximum stress

už (2 u; — 1 ) -
— 1• už
(Op)u= u. = σmax = P 1
v=0 u; - 2u; +1 2u
[ 171 ]
(2 už + 1 ) (uz 1) u = u¡ (2 u; + 1 )
= P =P
(2 u; — 1 ) ( u; — 1 )² (2 u; — 1 ) (u; -
— 1)

The parameter u , which appears here and which is closely related to the shape
of the notch is advantageously replaced by a relationship * of the depth t of
the notch to the radius of curvature p of the base of the notch . Both magni-

tudes result from the equation for the edge line which is obtained from para-
metric Equations [ 163 ] for u = u。.

* Translator's Note : This relationship is uo = f(t/p).

 65

The depth t results from the difference of the x -values for the
base of the notch ( v = 0 ) and at a great distance from the base of the notch
( v = 0) :
1 1
t = (x )==
u U . — (x )u =
4. uot Uo ( 172 )
v=0 V Uo Uo

To determine the radius of curvature , it is most suitable to use a

relationship which permits it to be determined from the factor of distortion .
When y is the angle of the curve tangent to a fixed direction , for example
the x - axis , the following expression is familiarly valid for the " curvature "
of the curve

1 де
e да ( 173 ]
In the foregoing expression , p is the radius of curvature and ds is the line
element of the curve . It can now be shown that the curvature can be de
termined from the factors of distortion . Using this relationship , which can
not be treated in greater detail at this point ( 13 ) , the curvature of a line
u = constant finally results as
1 1 ah ,
huh , du
( 174 )

From Equation [ 165 ] , the factor of distortion at the point v = 0 is found to

be 1
hu = h , = h = 1 1 u
( 175 )
Accordingly , the curvature of the base of the notch is
2

1-692 (1 ah
12 ди = 0
UU
um

ui
112
210
( u; - 1 ) ( 176 )

By multiplication with the depth of the notch , this gives the notch curvature
t 2
[ 177 ]
( u; - 1)

From this
1
uă = 1 + ( 178 )
t
V ze
Substituting the foregoing in Equation ( 171 ) , the following simple equation
is found for the maximum stress or stress concentration factor ,
Omar t 4

P 317
3 1+
2 +
t
( 179 )
1 20
The stress concentration factor as an exact function of the notch curvature
can be seen from the broken curve in Figure 39 .
 66

To be sure , the practical application of the result found in this

manner to the shallow notch , as in Figure 37 , is not quite directly possible ,
since the problem deals with definitely rounded notch contours in the coor
dinate system herein used ; compare Figure 38 . . The external corners are com
pletely absent . Therefore, it is to be expected that the calculated stress
concentration factor will be somewhat lower than for a notch with sharp ex
ternal corners , as occurs in many practical cases . However , there still is
a simple approximate solution available for a notch with external corners .
The lengthened hole in a relatively wide bar , treated in Chapter
IV , Section 4 , pages 52 through 62 , permits the use of a sectioned treatment
which gives an approximate solution for a shallow external notch with sharp
external corners . The solution for pure tensile loading is used as a point
of departure and the bar , as shown in Fig
15p ure 31 on page 55 , is conceived as severed
14pH
along the x -axis . Along the cut section
13pl
12pH Oman-P(1+212
/? no shear stresses operate , but only the
11PH
10p
normal stresses Oy , which quickly fade out .
9p Since they act perpendicular to the direc
8p
tion of tension , their effect on the maxi
7p Homer with rounding of
6p the outer corners mum stress occurring in the base of the
sph notch can be disregarded in a first approx
4P
3p1
imation . This follows , because the maximum
2p stress is primarily produced by the stress
Р
es Or , which produce tensile loading on the
0 3 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
bar at some distance from the notch . There

Figure 39 - The Maximum Stress fore , direct adoption of the stress concen
in Shallow External Notches tration factor for the longitudinal hole
under Tension
under tensile loading for the shallow ex
ternal notch with sharp corners seems obvi
ous ( 14 ) . The appertaining curve in Figure 39 is included . As expected , the
stress concentration factor of the shallow external notch with sharp corners
is somewhat higher than for the notch with rounded corners .
The reference value p , as initially mentioned , represents the uni
form tensile stress prevailing in the unnotched part of the bar and is calcu
lated from

P Р
P bd
or р 26d ( 180 )
according to whether the problem deals with a bar notched on one side or both .
 67

B. PURE BENDING
The basic stress function valid under bending loads has already be
come familiar from Equation ( 134 ) on page 57. To find the connection with
the coordinate system used here , Equation (( 163 ) , a rotation and translation
of the coordinates must be undertaken . The axis of the bar now proceeds in
b
the y -direction at the distance or interval x = uณ .0 + 2 ( bar notched on one
side , see Figure 40 ) instead of coinciding with the x- axis as in Chapter IV ,
Section 4. Therefore , uo + 26 must be substituted for y and y must be
substituted for X. In so doing , the constants and linear terms which yield
no stresses can be omitted . The initial bending stress in the edge of the
bar serves as a reference stress , 1.e. , for a bar notched on one side
( width 6 ) ; see Figure 40 . This stress is
6M
P = 03d ( 181 )
In this way the following basic stress function
р P zo
P = (20+
=
3( ++---
36을 – ** + * (20.28** ) ( 182) 3

results . Since the problem here deals with the

determination of the stress concentration fac
Figure 40 - Diagram for a
tor for the shallow notch , the extent of the Shallow Notch on One
region of stress disturbance is small compared Side of a Bar under
Bending Load
to the width of the bar b , or the width of the
bar b is large compared to the distances occurring in the calculation . There
fore , the terms containing the factor 1 /b are to be considered negligibly
small for the shallow notch . The effect of the width of the bar , which van
ishes for the shallow notch , will be again considered in the final establish
ment of the nomographs of the stress concentration factor for a notch of
arbitrary depth . Now , if the terms containing the factor 1/6 are disregard
ed in Equation ( 182 ) , the same basic stress function results as for tensile
loading ; compare Equation ( 164 ) (on page 63. Further calculation would be the
same as that already performed for tensile loading . Hence , the same stress
concentration factor is found for the shallow notch under bending load as for
tensile loading .
The same result is also found for a shallow notch on each side of
a bar . However , under such conditions the following expression
3M
P = 2bd ( 183 )

must be substituted as a reference stress corresponding to the width of the

bar 26 .
 68

C. PURE SHEAR
The basic stress function for the case of pure shear stress was al.
ready stated in Equation ( 145 ) on page 59. If 6/2 is substituted for bb , cor
responding to a bar notched on one side ,, and if the substitutions of uup
, +
+

for y and y for u are again made with consideration for the system of coordi
nates now being used , the stress function is converted to
b 3
P- 2 p' {|--
{ +3( + 92 ) ** - 3(0w + * + ( + )2 " y -
uo мо ba
+ -- 2 y}
-

( 184 )
or disregarding the linear terms

F = 3 ( * – 240 x) y + ( -28 +34. ZP – 3uža)y

-

( 185 )

The reference value p again represents the mean shear stress of the unnotched
bar , 1.e. V
р
od ( 186 )

where V is the shearing force . By transferring to the system of coordinates,

Equation ( 163 ) on page 63 , the problem can again be solved rigorously with
the help of suitable auxiliary functions which rapidly diminish for large
values of u . This results in a distribu
tion of the shearing stress over the cross
Timax section of the bar as shown in Figure 41 .
Omar
The disturbing stresses produced by the ad
ditional functions decrease in all direc
-15p
tions from the base of the notch . Therefore
pová the parabolic distribution of the shear
stress , which corresponds to an unnotched
bar , immediately arises again . In the vi
Figure 41 - A Shallow External cinity of the edge , the disturbing stresses
Notch on One Side under Shear produce a relative maximum shear stress
which , however , is considerably small
T' max )

er than the shear stress prevailing in the center of the bar

Tmal 1.5 p ( 187 )
when the curvature of the edge is not too great . This is evident from the
structure of the stress function , Just as the basic stress function , Equa
tion ( 185 ) , consists of two expressions , one of which contains the factor 1/0 ,
whereas the other contains the factor 1/62, the complete solution also con
tains two such components . For the shallow notch , b is large compared to the
dimensions of the notch , hence the term containing 1/62 can be considered so
 1
69

small as to be disregarded . The stress function for the shallow notch con-

tains the factor 1/b and consequently supplies an expression for the maximum
shear stress about the base of the notch which contains the factor 1/b .
Moreover , this expression is a function only of the depth of the notch t and
the radius of curvature p . Consequently ,

Tmax
= [ 188 ]
P 응 (음)

For the shallow notch whose curvature is not too sharp this expression is ,
however , always smaller than 1.5 p as a result of the factor 1 /b . The maxi-

mum stress which occurs along the edge is also determined in an analogous
manner , using t/b as a factor .

The same method may be applied to the bar notched on both sides .
As the maximum value of the shear stress , when the edge curvature is not too
sharp , the value 1.5 p again results . Therefore , corresponding to the width
of the bar 26

V
P = 2bd [ 189 ]

must be substituted for p .

6. ESTABLISHMENT OF STRESS -CONCENTRATION- FACTOR NOMOGRAPHS FOR EXTERNAL

NOTCHES AND FOR ELLIPTICAL HOLES OF ANY ARBITRARY DIMENSIONS

To establish the general stress concentration factors for external

notches and for lengthened holes , the considerations stated in Chapter II ,

Section 4 , pages 5 through 8 , are used as a starting point . Accordingly , the

stress concentration factor can be combined from the limiting values of the

shallow and deep notches which have been calculated .

A. EXTERNAL NOTCHES ON BOTH SIDES

Under tension and bending , Equations [ 69 ] and [ 79 ] with the nomi-

nal stresses given by Equation [ 62 ] or [ 77 ] , pages 40 and 42 , serve as the

limiting values for the deep notch . Equation [ 131 ] on page 56 supplies the
limiting value for the shallow notch under tension and bending . To establish
the stress concentration factors for any given notch depth , it is now essen-
tial that the same nominal stresses be used as a basis for the shallow notch
P
as for the deep one . Thus , for example , the value must now be substitut-
2ad
P P t
ed for the reference stress =
2bd 2ad ( 1 ) for the shallow notch under
tension . The reason for this is that the ratio t /b must be disregarded as van-

ishingly small compared to the remaining magnitudes for the case of the ideal
shallow notch in the complete calculation , i.e. , with respect to the refer-
ence stress also . In this way only does the curve of the " shallow stress
 70

concentration factor " fall above the curve for the true stress concentration
factor ( see Figure 2 on page 5 ) , corresponding to the condition that all < Ajka
The decrease which is related to the finite width of the cross section , as
t
would be produced by the factor ( 11 - 등-) , must be assigned entirely to the
effect of the " deep stress concentration factor " in a consistent application
of the logical processes developed in Chapter II , Section 4 , because the
foregoing coefficient was introduced into the calculation precisely for this
purpose . For the shallow notch , the nominal stress must therefore be related
to the narrowest cross section also .
The case of shear stress represents an exception to the theory es
tablished for a notch of any arbitrary depth insofar as the maximum stress
no longer occurs in the base of the notch . On the other hand , the exact cal
culation for the shallow notch also gives entirely different ratios than for
bending and tension, as was explained in Chapter IV, Section 5ě, (pages 68 and
69. Exact calculation of this exceptional case is consequently extraordina
rily complex and will be omitted here . In many cases it will suffice to cal .
culate with the previously developed theory for the deep notch .

B. EXTERNAL NOTCH ON ONE SIDE

For tension and bending , the limiting values for the deep notch are
given by Equations ( 108 ) and ( 113 ) with the nominal stresses expressed by
Equations [ 102 ] and [ 111 ] ; see pages 48 and 51. For the shallow notch , Equa
tion ( 131 ) on page 56 serves for tension and bending, and the nominal stress
es must remain the same for previously mentioned reasons . Here , too , an
exceptional case is represented by the shear loading , for which the theory of
the deep external notch on one side is definitive in first approximation .

C. CIRCULAR AND ELLIPTICAL HOLES

The limiting value of the stress concentration factor of the circu
lar and lengthened hole for very small values of a /6 , that is , for " deep
>

notches ," can be derived from the theory of

the external notch on one side by conceiv
ing the bar as consisting of two bars
notched on one side only .
a
These bars , disregarding the im
a

mediate vicinity of the hole , are essen

Figure 42 - The Lengthened Hole
Interpreted as a Deep Notch
tially not curved ; see Figure 42. The
solution for a deep external notch on one
side was given in Chapter IV , Section 3A ,
>

pages 48 through 50 , for the case when the

unnotched edge of the bar , which here corresponds to the external edge,
 71

undergoes no curvature . Disregarding the region about the hole , this condi
tion corresponds to the present case as a first approximation . For the " deep
stress concentration factor " of the lengthened hole under tension , Equation
169 ) on page 47 will therefore be considered first . On the other hand , the
region directly about the hole must be considered also , for it is precisely
there that the real notch effect occurs . From a pure geometric standpoint ,
an inward curve of the external edges which is connected with an additional
bending load should be expected when the area about the hole deforms . To ex- '

press this component , the stress concentration factor is stated as

det = a1 + Cxz [ 190 ]
where a , relates to Equation ( 69 ) and the bending component ag to Equation
( 113 ) . By comparison with photoelastic measurements made by A. Hennig , the
constant C is found to be 0.8 . This will be taken up again in Chapter IX .
Equation ( 131 ) is decisive for the " shallow stress concentration factor , " and
Equation ( 102 ) gives the nominal stress .
Under bending load , Equation ( 190 ) is again valid as a " deep stress
concentration factor , " since the problem deals with the limiting case of the
very small values of a/b , which are preponderantly tension on the one side of
the bar and predominantly compression on the other . The nominal stress is
now the initial bending stress at the base of the notch
3 Mt
On =
2 (63 – t ) d [ 191 ]

Moreover , for small values of a/b , the foregoing equation in fact becomes
м

On
2b ( 192 )
ad

where M / 26 gives the magnitude of the tensile force transmitted to the one
side of the bar , and hence corresponds to the nominal stress given by Equation
( 102 ) on page 48 . On the other hand , for small values of t / 6 , Equation ( 191 )
becomes
3 Mt
On
2bd ( 193 )

That is , it becomes the reference value , Equation ( 136 ) . Therefore , Equation

( 142 ) on page 58 is directly applicable for the shallow stress concentration
factor .
Shear loading of a bar of any given width containing a lengthened
hole presents another special case which cannot be solved with the simple
principles valid for tension and bending . However , in most cases either
 72
Chapter IV , Section 3C , page 51 , or Chapter IV, Section 40, pages 58 through
62 , will resolve the difficulty .
The nomographs for the stress concentration factor which are thus
obtained for external notches and lengthened holes are contained in Figure
104 on page 181. Correct manipulation is indicated with arrows . For addi .
tional information , see Chapter X where the determination of the stress con
centration factor is explained in greater detail .

7. PROJECTION ; REVERSE NOTCH EFFECT BY ACCUMULATION OR CONCENTRATION OF

MATERIAL
1
Up to this point problems of notch stresses have been treated ex
clusively from the subjective standpoint , where an increase in the stress was
to be expected as a result of the weakening of the cross section related to
the presence of the notch . In contrast , the case will now be taken up where
an increase in the loading occurs , produced not by the removal but by the ad
dition or accumulation of material . The flat bar under tension upon which a
small projection is present will serve as an illustration .
As a boundary line , the line v = constant of the system of coordi
nates , Equation ( 163 ) , 18 suitable ; this will be designated by vo . The lines

v = constant are still rectilinear for large values of u or x and coincide

with the lines y = constant ; compare Figures 38 and 43 (on pages 63 and 73 re
spectively). In the region of x = 2 , y = 0 , however , a bulge --like projection
appears . The bar extends in the x-direction and , disregarding the immediate
vicinity of the small projection , is uniformly under tensile load at a stress
P. For the bar without a projection , the stress function then becomes
p P р
F
= By22
with
D = ( y2
2. ( –- x2),
23
2 2
02 = 2 ( 194 )

At this point , conversion is made to the curvilinear coordinates supplied by

Equation ( 163 ) , and suitable auxiliary functions are substituted , to obtain a
no - load edge for v = vo . . These auxiliary functions fade out for large values
of u or v and satisfy the differential Equation [ 46 ] of harmonic functions ;
1
see page 37. This permits the following expressions , 1.e. ,
P v2-42 va - u
v2. – 2+
0. = 2 u
(u + 0 ) + A+ Bu ++ C wig + Dimit
( u ton]
+ บ + v)
( 195 )
u น
=

Qa
= ? (u + u * +02
u + E
u2 + v2

The stress function becomes 1

2 v2 +
FF == PcΦ ++ 20,, = ? [12 u ? + ( u + v ) + A + Bu + C น ขา
+

+ D ( u² tot+ v²
1 2 va
(u + v2)1)+E(1+
+
( u? + v) )
1
1 v²
u² + v² with ( 196 )
 73

The boundary conditions are satisfied most simply if the constants are deter-
mined in such a way that the factor ( vv ) 2 appears in the stress function .
This is the case , if these values be expressed

2v0 -3v - 1 -4v - 1

A + Evo, B = -2v。 , с = D= E= [ 197 ]
2v + 1' 2v + 1 2v + 1

Thus the stress function assumes its final form ( 15 ) as

= - − 1
F=
— —2 (v — v。) ª [( 1 − (2 v² + 1 ) ( u³ +tv³) ] [ 198 ]

The edge stress is found to be

- 1
1 F (2 v; + 1 ) (u² + v%)
= =P [ 199]
(0%)0=00 hav 2v2 u² + 1
1+
(u² + v8)2

Figure 43 shows the curve of the edge stress when vo = 1/3 .

V-V

Omax
1.64p
= constant
P P
u = constant
1

Figure 43 · Bar with Symmetric Projection under Tension

The edge stress is still equal to p at some distance from the projection , then
gradually increases toward the projection , and reaches its maximum value of
1.64 p quite exactly at the point of strongest curvature of the edge . Beyond
this maximum value it decreases swiftly and is converted to a vanishingly

small compressive stress along the projection .

To calculate the value of the maximum stress , Equation [ 199 ] must

be differentiated with respect to u and the resulting expression must be set

equal to zero . This gives the following relation

(1 + 4v ) u 1 — 11v -
— 2 ( 1 + 5v% + 4vf) u² + 1 + 2v - — 12v = 0 [ 200 ]

This equation is quadratic in u² and its solution is

u² = 1 + vi ± √4vi + 4vo [ 201 ]

 74

The positive sign corresponds to the maximum value of the edge stress . By

substitution in Equation [ 199 ] , the maximum stress is found to be

Omax (1 + 40% ) (V1 + a −- )

= + [ 202 ]
P 4v。 (1 + 2 v )

A very definite edge contour corresponds to every value of v 。. The character-

istic magnitude of the edge contour here is the ratio of half the width a of
the projection to the smallest radius of curvature p of the edge .
To get half the width of the projection , a point on the edge must
be used which lies near the maximum value of the stress . To get a unique car

definition immediately , that point on the edge where the edge tangent is par-
allel to the y - axis is used , that is , where

1 2u2
dx = 0 = 1 + u³ + vo -
du [ 203 ]
น (u² + v8)²

From this , the corresponding value of u is

− 8 v³)
u} = 1 (1 − ·2v + √1 — [ 204 ]

thereby giving

— u ; = 11 √2 [ 1 + 20 vi - - 8v — ( 1 -— 8v8)3/2]
@ == (x) u = [ 205 ]

Corresponding to Equation [ 174 ] , the general expression for the radius of

curvature of the edge line is then found to be
1
1
=
1 dh
= — v¡ -
2v。 (3u³ - — 1)
୧ h² dv /v = v. [ 206 ]
[(u² + v³) ² + 2v; - 2u² + 1 ]3/2

The point where the radius of curvature is smallest is again found by setting
the expression which was differentiated with respect to u equal to zero . The
value of u for this case becomes

už = 1 + vi [ 207 ]

By substituting this expression into Equation [ 206 ] the strongest edge curva-
ture is

1 1
[ 208 ]
2 vs 1 + vi

Multiplying by Equation [ 205 ] , the notch curvature finally becomes

a
=
1 1 + 20 v¦ − 8 v¡ —− ( 1 -
− 8 v‡)³/2
[ 209 ]
୧ 4v V 2 ( 1 + v; )

Therefore , a very definite value of a/p can be assigned to every value of v 。.

Figure 44 shows the resulting maximum stress as a function of the notch

curvature .
 75

This furnishes proof that a considerable

increase in the stress is produced by an accumula 3pl
2p ! Omar
tion of material . This increase does not occur in Pk
the region of the accumulation of material itself , 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
but directly alongside it . The maximum stress ,
which may have very high values under certain con
Figure 44 - The Maximum
ditions , is a function of the curvature of the Stress for a Bar with
a Symmetric Projection
edge as in true notch problems . under Tension
There are still a large number of two
dimensional problems which can be solved similarly either in a definite form
as given herein or with the help of infinite series ? Due to the complexity of
material , additional problems will not be taken up in this book . Attention
will now be directed to the principal field of notch effect , i.e. , to that of
three - dimensional effect .

|
 CHAPTER V
THEORY OF SPATIAL OR THREE - DIMENSIONAL NOTCH EFFECT

1 . BASIC EQUATIONS
In the theory of spatial or three -dimensional notch stresses , the
method developed in Chapter III, Section 7,( pages 26 through 30) is used to
its fullest extent . of the infinitely versatile range of problems of spatial
notch effects , only a small section can be treated here . Moreover , circum
ferential notches which occur in a variety of shapes in machine parts will be
the object of this investigation . Circumferential notches permit comparisons
to be made between plane and spatial stress conditions , 1.e. , two - dimensional
and three - dimensional, as will be shown here , and they further permit general
principles to be established between both groups of problems .
Again deep and shallow notches will be treated separately at first ,
and afterward according to the method given in Chapter II , Section 4 , ( pages 5
through the stress concentration factors for any given depth will be de
termined . It is noteworthy that the
shallow external circumferential notches
as well as all circumferential external
and internal notches having a large axial
y bore can still be treated as plane or two
dat dimensional stress problems . This will
be proved later in Chapter V , Section 5 .
DE

In contrast , clearly defined spatial

stress distributions are to be expected
for the two limiting cases , deep external
circumferential notches and shallow inter
nal circumferential notches without
Figure 45 - Deep Circumferential an axial hole ; see Figure 45. The exact
External Notches and Shallow Cir- calculation of the stresses for these two
cumferential Internal Notches
without an Axial Hole limiting cases under various types of
loading , therefore , is the principal prob
lem of this chapter .
Since according to the law of decrement the curvature of the base of
the notch exerts the maximum effect on the stress concentration factor , the
shape of the remaining surface of the notch can be selected in such a way that
the most simple method of calculation possible results . Here , the deep , cir
cumferential external notch will be idealized as an hyperboloid and the shal
low circumferential internal notch will be idealized as an ellipsoid . In this
way ellipsoidal coordinates can be used and these values expressed
[
]
1

Sinu cosv , y = Coſu sinv cosw , z = u sin v sin w

Coj u
 77

The surfaces u = constant are then ellipsoids , the surfaces v = constant are
hyperboloids , and the surfaces w = constant are planes which traverse the

x - axis . Next , using the Equations [ 20 ] of Chapter III , Section 3 , (page

(page 16
นว,
the three distortion factors hu h ,, hw are established and from Equation
[ 1 ] on page 76

hu = h₂ = h = √Sin²u + cos2v , hu = Cofu sin v [2]

For the new components of displacement , the Equations [ 80 ] of Chapter III ,

Section 7 , page 26 , are determinative . If Equations [ 1 ] and [ 2 ] are used ,
they become

OF
2GU =
1
}{| ди +2 a [ ظ Coj u cos v + Sinusin v ( P₂ cosw + P¸sin w) ]}
1
2GV = h { ου + 2x [ −4, Sinu sin v +Coj u cos v(P₂ cosw + ظsin w) ]} [3]
1 OF
2 GW =―
Cojusinv dw + 2x ( -₂ sinw + Ø, cosw)

The Equations [ 91 ] of Chapter III , Section 7 , page 28 , are valid for the nor-
mal stresses . Therefore

102F 1 OF
h² du² + h₁ Sinu Cofu ди + sinv cosv ου + (1-2) 4F +
2α მთ . მდ. მთვ
w ди)
+ h2 Cofu cos v Ju + Sinu sinu ( cos w ди + sint
102F 1 OF OF
- -
h2 v2 h Sinu Coju a น + sin v cos v 37]
მა + ( 1
− 2) 4 F +

მთ. a4₂ aps [4] |

cos w dv + sin w მა
h2 - Sinu sin v ου + Cofu cos v (cos
+ 2a

Ow = 1 1 1 22F OF
v
σ sinavaw2
h2 (Co u - sin² )
:) - Tgquo -cotu δυ +
sin v Cosul მთ. მთ.
+ 2α COS W -
Cos u sini v )(sin w δω ap.)]-+-(1 – 212) 4 F

For AF, it follows from Equation [ 99 ] on page 30 that

2 Φι მთ. Φ
AF =
h2 Cofu cosv du + cos w dv + sin w,000
მა )+
Ә Ф. [ 5]
+ Sinu sin v100
ου + cos w ди + sin w,80)+
v Cofu d P₂ მთ
+ ( sine Gefs) si w Iw COSW
Cosu sin v ( n Iw

The shear stresses are to be established according to Chapter III , Equation

[ 92 ] , page 28. From this it follows that

OF
Tuv =
1 22F ― - sin v cosv OF +
h² du dv + h₁ Sinu Cofu δυ du
α Ο Φι JP2 მთვ3
+ h2 Cofu cos v δυ + cos w Ju + sinu + [ 6]
Ο Φι მთ. მთვ
+ sin w
+ Sinu sinv ( du + cos w δυ dv
 78

1 a 1 F α ӘФ.
Tow = +
h Cosu dv sinv dw + h - Igu dw
аф, ap, ap₂ მოვ
+ cotv cos w dw + sin w ди sinw
ου + cos w dv
1 a 1 α [ 6]
oPi
Tuw = h sinv du Coju am
dw,) + h
cot v Iw +
JP₂ + cosw მდ .
D₂ + sin w θω - sin w du
+ Igu /cos w Odw ดิน

To solve the special case of spherical shapes for internal notches ,

the analogous equations on spherical polar coordinates are necessary . By es-
tablishing the system of coordinates as

x = u cosv , y = u sinv cosw , z = u sinv sinw [ 7]

where u = constant for spherical surfaces , v = constant for conical surfaces ,

and w constant for planes through the x-axis , there are obtained in the
same manner
hu = 1 , ho u, hw = u sinv [ 8]

OF
2GU =
du + 2x [P₁1 cosv + sinv ( P₂2 cosw + Ø3 sinw) ]
1 OF
2GV - -- [ 9]
น δυ + 2x [-₁1 sinv + cosv (P₂2 cosw + , sin w) ]
1 OF
2GW = - usinv w + 2x 2α ( -₂ sinw + ,3 cos w)

2F ― α
συ Ju2 + (1 22)AF +
მდ მოკ
Ο Φι
+ 2 x cos v du + sinv (cos w Ju . + sin w Ju
cosw
1 OF - 1 02F -
=
u du u2 dv² + (1 − 2) 4F +
2α JP2 a03
sin v მდ. + cos v cos w
+ น dv v (cos w ου + sinw dv
1 F - 1 02F cotv F
Ow u du u2 sin2v dw2 u2 δυ + (1 − 2) 4F + [ 10 ]
2α მდ . a03
+ u sin v -sin w dw + cos w
‫از‬ δω
AF = 2 cos v cos w d₂ sin w P3
ου + น +
(800 + น dv
101
cos w ди₂ + sinw 2дФ3
+ 2 sin v น dv + и
2 მთ . Ә Фз
sinw COS W
u sin v δω dw

a OF Ο Φι
των = u o v ) + a cos v u δυ + cos w i u +
d94u (108
д aPi cos w dp2 sinu & 3)
+ sin w duDa) + a sinv ди
+ u ου + u dv
1 a 1 OF ∞ 201
Tow = - +
u2 a v (sinv Ow + u cw
[ 11 ]
& P2 sin w ĈP2 + cos w aPal
+ cotv cos w δω + sin w I w
1 a 1 OF [cot v di
Tuw - sin v du u o w
+ x u cw +
сови дог sin w P3 sin w ΟΦ + cos w
+ น dw + น Iw du du
 79

For the external notch , let the surface be formed by the hyperboloid

v0 . Then all the components of the stress which act on the surface v v0
must disappear and the following boundary conditions must be satisfied ; hence ,

σ₁ = 0 , Tuv = 0 , Tow 0 for v = vo [ 12 ]

For the internal notch , the ellipsoid u 。 should form the surface so
that in this case the boundary conditions to be satisfied are

σμ = 0 , Των 0, Tuw = 0 for u = uo [ 13 ]

Moreover , characteristic integrals must be considered for the indi-

vidual problems given . These are derived from the equilibrium between the
external forces acting on the body and the internal stresses acting on the
surface of an arbitrarily chosen section . Let the resultants of the external

forces have the components P , Py , or P, in the x- , y- , and z - directions and

the moments of rotation M,, My , or M, about the x- , y- , and z - axes .

For external notches , the section is purposely taken along a sur-
face u = constant , where the area of the surface is F. The resultant stress

Tu μ acting on a unit of area whose edges are h , dv and hdw corresponds to a

force Thhdv dw ; see Figure 46. To getthe resultant P , the x - components
of these forces must be integrated . Instead of using the resultant stress ,

its u- , v- , and w- components can also be used ; i.e. , by substituting u , v ,

and w consecutively for μ. This gives

P₁ = Σ Tuμ cos (x , µ ) h, h, dvdw and so on . [ 14 ]

μ u , v, w

By cyclic substitution of x , y, z , the expres-

v
hu dw hd
sions for P, and P, can be found from the y
Th hd vdw
foregoing .
The torque or turning moment M,
about the x -axis is found by integration of Area
u = constant
the moments of the y- and z - components of the

resultant stresses with regard to the x-axis

Figure 46 - Diagram for the
(distances z and y ) . If , instead of the re- Determination of the Stress
or Force Flow in the Cir-
sultant stress , its u- , v- , and w- components
cumferential External
are again used , the result is Notch

-
M₁ = √ Σ
-u , v , wTu , [y cos ( z , µ) — z cos (y , µ)] h¸h, dvdw and so on . [ 15 ]

Cyclic substitution of x , y, and z gives the expressions for M, and M,.

For internal notches , it is best to take or run the section along
a surface x = constant . Then the stresses Tx x (= 0 ) , Try , Tri which act on an
 80

element of surface dydz must be integrated . From the conditions of equilib-

rium are found the integrals

= = [ 16 ]
P₂ - ftdydz , M.- [ (y - Ty )dydz and so on .

By cyclic substitution of the underscored symbols , all the relationships which

result and which must be considered can be derived .

It is now desired to determine the invariable rule that only one of

these six integrals should differ from zero . In this way the stress problem

is divided into six special solutions which give the stress conditions pro-
duced by the six space components of the internal system of forces . Since the

present problem is to deal with rotationally symmetrical bodies , where the x-

axis is the axis of rotation , as in Figure 45 on page 76 , the forces P, and P₂
produce the same stress condition . The same is valid for the moments M, and

M₁ . Hence , the number of solutions is reduced to four ; these are tension ,

bending , shear , and torsion . However , before considering the actual problem
of stresses , the harmonic functions which must be available for the calcula-
tion of stresses will be treated briefly .

2. SOLUTION OF THE POTENTIAL EQUATION IN ELLIPSOIDAL COORDINATES

For this purpose , Equation [ 98 ] of Chapter III , Section 7 , page 29 ,

is used . If the distortion factors of Equation [ 2 ] on page 77 are substitut-
ed , the potential equation in ellipsoidal coordinates is

1 1 a მო 1 მ 1 1 მო
ΔΦ น =0 [ 17 ]
³ (Coj u ³მ ) + sin
4º = h³ [Coſu du in v მა
30 (sinv sin2 v — Cofu)
) + (ein³ *

For its integration , & is next conceived as the product of the three functions

ƒ₁ ( u ) , ƒ₂ ( v ) , and ƒ, ( w ) , each of which is a function of one of the variables

only .

Φ = fi(u)f2 (v)fs (w) [ 18 ]

አለቃ
From = 0 , it then follows that

1 a 1 a 1 1 23 13
=0 [ 19 ]
f, sin v dv (sinv
†ɩ Coju du (Coju oh) + 1½ ) + fs sin Coss น

The first term is a function of u only , the second a function of v only . To

satisfy the equation , the third term must be composed of two added components ,
one of which is a function of u only while the other is a function of v alone .
1 02f3
This is only possible if is constant ; this constant is designated as
f3 aw²
- n². Thus the entire equation is divided into two constituent parts , one of
which becomes a function of u only and the other of v only . Since the sum

must become equal to zero , each of them must be equal or inversely equal to
 81

another constant which will be designated as v ( v + 1 ) . This leads to the

following three differential equations

1 a
= 0
=
Coju du(Coju ¾11) + [coj³u − v (v + 1)] †₂
1 a
[ 20 ]
(siinnvv 1) + - sin³ v + v (v + 1 ) ] †₂ =
sinv do (s
af,
dw² + n³fs = 0

The differential equation for f, has a familiar trigonometric solution

cn sin (nw) + d , cos (nw) . By substituting Coj u = λ or sin vλ , the differ-

ential equations for ƒ , and f₂ can be expressed in the common form

- =0 [ 21 ]
(2ª — 1) ³/(1) + (22 − 1) ° 1aλ
(4) + [~ − v (v + 1 ) ] f (2 ) =

since

a a a a a
Gin = COSV
อิน -Su - 1-1 an or მზ == √1 – 2 [ 22 ]

The integration is most suitably undertaken with the help of a power or ex-
ponential series . In general , the desired special solution for the v- th order

is expressed

N₂, (2) = 1 + а§2º− 2 + α¸λ» −4 + α¿λ³¬® + ...

··· [ 23 ]

By substituting in differential Equation [ 21 ] , the coefficients a₂, a ,, as ,

.. are found . Next we find that

(2³ — 1 ) [v (v— 1 ) 2º −² +a, ( v − 2 ) (v − 3) 2º− 4 + a¸ (v − 4) ( v − 5) 2˜− 6 + ··· ]

+ (2 λ — — ) [» λr −¹ + a¸ (v —2) 2º −8 + ag (v —4 ) 2º− 5 + …·· ] [24]

+
[~12 − v (v + 1)] [2² + a¸ 2º−² + a 2º´¯`• + ···] = 0

Now, because the coefficient of each power of A must vanish , the following
equations of condition for the constants are obtained

- -
{v (v − 1 ) + 2v − v (v + 1 ) } 2 ″ = 0
{ −v (v − 1 ) —v + n² + a₂ [ ( v − 2 ) ( v −3) +2 ( v − 2 ) —v (v + 1 )]} ¿ v —2—0
[ 25 ]
{a₂ [ — (v − 2) (v — 3) -— ( v — 2 ) + n²] + a¸ [ (v − 4) (v − 5) +
+2(v4) - v (v + 1 ) ] } 2-4 = 0 and so on .

The first equation is satisfied automatically ; the second gives the constant
a₂ , the third a₁ , and so on . If the expressions which are obtained for the

constants are substituted into Equation [ 23 ] , the particular integral of the

-th and v-th degree is next found in the basic function (a ) :

- n²
22 — (y² -
— n² ) [( v -
— 2 )² —n?] 2-4 -
— + ···
Nn, v(1 ) = λ 2 (2v ― 1)
2x-2 +
2.4(2v - 1 ) ( 2v - 3)
[ 26 ]
 82

If v + n = 0 , 2 , 4 , 6 ... ( positive even numbers ), the basic function

(a ) always gives a finite series .
For positive oddv + n the basic function (a ) would give an infinite
series . However , using the binominal theorem

1 1 1 1
No. 1 (2 ) =1 — 2 A - ... = 12-1 [ 27 ]
8 13 +

The finite form can be restored by dividing the basic function ( a ) by this
series . This leads to the basic function (B) , and thus

- (v — 1 )² - n²
Nn , v (2) = √22 -· 1 [20–1 — 2 (2v - 1 ) 2x-3+
[ 28 ]
[(v - -
− 1 )² — n²] [ (v — 3)² — n³] 2v − 5 -
— +
+ -
2.4 ( 2v — 1 ) ( 2 v — 3)

which in fact is finite for v + In | = 1 , 3 , 5, 7 ...

For negative v + In the function

1 1 1 3 1
No, -1 (2) = 1 + 6 23 + 40 2 + ... = arc cot√/22 - 1 =
[ 29 ]
2 π
= -iln
--
1 + √ 1 − 2² + 2

must be used as an auxiliary device . Identity with arc cot VX2 - 1 can be 1
proved easily by differentiating , for

3
= [ 30]
d (No, - 1 (2))
di 12 214 816

On the other hand ,

- 1
= • = [ 31 ]
(arc cot√/22 — 1) 1 +12 1 22 1 αγλε 1

Agreement of the right side of the equations follows directly from the bino-
minal theorem . For negative v + In , " this function permits the finite ex-
general function N,,, ( ^ ) . Moreover Thus
pression of the
-- [ 32 ]
Nn, v (2 ) = C { Nn, -v -1 ( 2 ) arc cot√2 — 1 + M(a) }

must be written . In the foregoing , C is a constant and Mλ ) is an exponen-

tial series which always becomes finite directly for even negative v + in and
always becomes finite for odd negative v + n , with the aid of Equation [ 27 ] .
In this way two further basic functions are obtained .
For v IN = -2 , -4 , -6 ... ( negative even numbers ) the basic

function ( Y ) is valid .

(v + 2) ² - n²
Nn, v (2) - - a 12 -- 1 1-v-2 + λ- +
2v 2 (2v + 3)

[(v + 2)² —n²] [ ( v + 4)² —n²] 2--6 [ 33 ]

+ + ...•Jarc cot√/ 12 - 1+
2.4 (2v + 3) ( 2x + 5)
--2 + + a_2v - 2 λv + 2}
...
 83

where
a2
- - (v + 2)² - n²
3 2 (2v + 3)
2

and so on . [ 34 ]
-
2 1 (v + 2)² n² - [(v + 2)² - n²] [ ( v + 4 ) ² -— n²]
15 + 3 2 (2 + 3) 2.4 (2 + 3) (2v +5)

For v + | n ] = -1 , -3 , -5 ... (negative odd numbers ) finally the

basic function ( 8 ) gives

1 (v + 1 )² -----
— n²
Nn, v (2) = a -2x + 1 + +
2 (2 + 3)
[(x + 1 )²- n²] [ ( v + 3 )²- n²] [ 35 ]
+
2.4 (2x + 3) (2v + 5) 1 2 → ~ + 5 + · · · ] arc cot √/ 2ª — 1+

+ [azλ --3 + az 2 → - 5 + ...

··· +
+ a- 2y - 1 + 1] √22 ---
a- 2,-12

wherein

=
a3
2 (v + 1 )² - n²
a5 = 3 2 (2 + 3) and so on . [ 36 ]
=
8 2 (v + 1)² - n² [(v + 1 )² -
— n²] [ (v + 3 ) ² — n²]
113

15 3 2 (2v + 3) 2.4 (2v + 3) (2v + 5)

Examples are :

No, -2 (2) =- -3 { √2-1arc cot √λ² -— 1 — 1 }

- [ 37 ]
No, -3 (2 ) = 4 {[ 22 12 -
] arc cot √2 — 1 — √ √² — 1 }

In setting up the general solution of the potential equation , it

must in addition be noted that the substitution of -v -1 for v , which does not
change anything in the constant v ( v + 1 ) , leads to a new combination . More-

over , it must be noted that the solution found in this manner is still in-
complete , especially for n = 0 ,, v
v =
= 0
0.. However , we get a solution if the
particular integral In ( y² + z2 ) is added . This gives the general solution

Φ =
ΣΣ Nn, v (Cosu) [an, v Nn, v (sinv) + bn, v Nn, -- v - 1 ( sin v) ] × [ 38 ]
× [cn sin (n w) + d₂ cos (n w) ] + ao, o (In Cosu + In sinv)

The function No , -1 ( Coj u ) = arc cot ( Sin u ) , which occurs very frequently , will
always be designated by T for brevity .

To treat the special case of the spherical internal notch finally ,

the harmonic functions must also be given in spherical polar coordinates .

With respect to Equations [ 7 ] and [ 8 ] on page 78 , and using the same reason-
ing as previously employed , the following expression is obtained

1 მ 2 1 a Ο Φ =
ΔΦ = 2 0 [ 39 ]
u2 ou Ju sin v dv ( sinv ) + sin2v w2
 84

77 and for its general solution

Φ = u” [an, v Nn, v (sin v) + bn , v Nn, -v -1 (sin v) ] [ c, sin ( n w) +

ΣΣ
88 [ 40 ]
+ dn cos (n w)] + ao, o (lnu + Insin v)

The following table gives the values for n and v which come into consideration
here . In treating the individual stress problems , the origin of these values

will be more searchingly examined .

Deep Circumferential Shallow Circumferential

External Notch Internal Notch
Φ $2 $3 ቀ.
III III III III I II | I II | I II III

n 0 0 0
0 -1 2 1
Tension
‫ע‬ -1 -2
O

-2 -3
n 1 1 0
IM 2 2
-1 -2 -2 3
Bending
V -1 -2 -3 -3
-3 -4
n
O

0 -1 -1 (4 ) |(3 ) 【( 3 )
Shear
0 -1 2 -2 -2
V
-2 -3 (-4 ) (-4 )

n
Torsion V -2 -2 12 2
-3 1-3

I denotes b₂ , v = 0 II denotes an, V = 0

3
3. THE DEEP EXTERNAL CIRCUMFERENTIAL NOTCH
A. PURE TENSION

In seeking suitable functions , it is first necessary to get a clear

idea of the characteristic properties of the desired stress condition . This

is suitably accomplished by starting with the integrals , Equations [ 14 ] and

[ 15 ] on page 79. In pure tension , all integrals vanish with the exception of

that for P. For simplicity , P will now be written instead of P ; after in-
tegrating and using Equation [ 18 ] of Chapter III , Section 3 , page 15, for the
direction cosines it is found that

dx Tuv dx Tμw
P= hh [ 41 ]
−ƒ hu
ƒ[ ~ du
8x + xh,; de dw ] Ah,
he de
dv + te du dw
F

or by considering Equations [ 1 ] and [ 2 ] of the system of coordinates used

here
to 2л
P= [ou Cofu cos v - Tuv Sinu sinv] Cofu sinv dv dw [ 42 ]
 85

The coordinate u, which designates the surface section u = constant , along

which the stresses must be integrated , can be chosen arbitrarily ; the value
of the integral must always be the same and not be a function of u. For

purposes of illustration , u can therefore be assumed as very large , i.e. ,

(= ∞ ) . Then Sin u = Coj u = = h and the integral becomes

vo 2я
P= 1e²u (Où cosv -- Tuv sinv) sin v dvdw [ 43 ]
!!

Therefore , the coordinate u continues to appear only in the form of the factor
e2u . Hence , the integral can be independent of u only if the stresses for
large values of u are proportional to 1 /e2 " . However , this is the case only
if the functions which are used to set up the stresses have the following
maximum v- values : v = 0 for ø and v = -1 for $ 1 . In addition , still smaller

values of are possible ; however , in this case v = -2 for 。0 suffices for

solution of the problem .

The independence of the coordinate w follows from the rotational

symmetry which is valid for the entire conditions of stress and deformation
in pure tension . From this it is evident that the functions 2 and , do not
come into consideration . At o and ₁ , furthermore , n must be set equal to 0 .

For the components which are a function of v either an ,,, or b₂ , v ,

must be set equal to zero . The decisive factor for this case is that no
points of infinity may appear in the interior , especially for v = 0. If a

point of infinity cannot be prevented in either the one case or the other ,

then a suitable superposition of both cases permits attainment of the

objective .
Here the result for n = 0 , v = 0 , considering Equation [ 26 ] , page

81 [Basic function ( a ) ] , and Equation [ 29 ] , page 82 , is.

sin v
-iln
bo,
[α0,0 + b 0 (− i ) 1 + cos v + 2)] d。 + α, o (In Coſu + In sinv)
。, 0(
[ 44 ]

= - 2 a = i
By a suitable choice of constants (bo0 , o0 o , o ; do0 ) the function

ao, o[In Cofu + ln (1 + cosv)] [ 45 ]

can be derived which no longer possesses any point of infinity for v = 0 .

For v = 2 and for v = -1 , the point of infinity is avoided by
setting a,,, equal to zero in each case . In this way , the following state-

ment which permits the rigorous solution of this problem is found

Ø = A [In Cosu + In (1 + cos v) ] + B ( SinuT - 1 ) cosv

[ 46 ]
P₁ = CT , P₁ = 0 , Ø₁3 = 0 , Tarc cot (Sinu) }
 86

Corresponding to Equation [ 58 ] of Chapter III , Section 6 , page 23 , the stress

function becomes

F= A [lnCofu + ln ( 1 + cos v) ] + B (SinuT — 1 ) cos v + C SinuT cosv [ 47]

To determine the stresses , the expression for AF which plays a part

in the normal stresses is next developed . With reference to Equation [ 5 ] on

page 77

2 C cos v
AF = - [ 48 ]

Furthermore , the expressions containing 1/h' which appear in Equations [ 4 ]

and [ 6 ] (on pages 77 and 78 ) must be treated in a particular manner . In so do-

ing , repeated abbreviation can be achieved by Gin²u + cos²v =

3 Cos²u - sin²v = h² . ì

This gives :

OF
(Sinu Cofur + sinv cos v მო =
COS V
-
} [4+ (B + C) (SinuT − 1 ) cosv ] +
=} [ −A + B + C
' cos³v]
1 OF
- sin v cos v = [ 49 ]
(Sinu Coſu მზ Ju
sin v
- A Tgu
h2 1 + cos v + B ( − CoſuT + £gu ) — CŒo[ uT] +
sin
+ Egu [ −A + B + C cos³v]

For the remaining , Equations [ 4 ] and [ 6 ] offer no difficulties . The follow-

ing normal stresses result

1 COS V 1
=}} {A £g³u + B Cos2 u + c [ −2 − a + Cof
h2 o³ucos v} +
COB V
+ h₁ { −A + B + C cos³v}
1 СОВ И COB V
σ = A - [ 50 ]
1 + cos v; + ( a − 1 ) Ccos v } + h {A - –B-
–СC cos³v}

-- COB V COS V
―― B
σ = 11 · {A — £g² u + 1+ cos
{4 (( — Cof³ u +
1
+ C [ a - 1 - Cocos v}

The shear stresses are

Tgu sinv A -
Two = -
ha 1( +008
cos ,v + ( a − 1 ) C +
[ 51 ]
+ h [ −A + B + C'cos²v]} , Tw = 0 , Tww = 0

Thus the stress condition is already determined except for the de-
termination of constants . The constants are calculated from the boundary con-
ditions , Equation [ 12 ] , page 79. Since the factor of every term which contains

u must vanish when v = v 。 in o, and T. four equations result . However , they

 87

may be reduced to two because they consist of two coinciding or agreeing pairs .
Because these equations consist of ' two pairs of identical equations , they may
be reduced to two , from which it follows that
A = ( a – 1 ) ( 1 + cosv .) C ,
=
B = A - C cos? v 152 ]
This introduces the problem of the determination of the flow of
force which traverses this circumferential notch . For this problem the inte
gral , Equation ( 42 ) on page 84 is the determining factor . By using the
relationships expressed in Equation ( 52 ) , by which the condition of the non
loaded surface is satisfied , it can in fact now be proved that the value of
the integral is constant at any arbitrarily chosen value of u and is not a
function of the latter . However , this general calculation will be omitted and
for simplification u = 0 will be written , 1.e. , integration will be performed
over the narrowest cross section . There , h cos v , and Equation [ 42 ] becomes

2л

P-Ifioromonin
Р sin v cos v dvdw =

B - a B- A

-LT
0 0
COO v
+
coso v
sin v cos v dv dw

1
[ 53 ]

= 2n | ( B
z ((B – a C) (1 – cosvo) + (B – A))(cose, 1) VO

or , because of Equation ( 52 ) ,
P = 27 C (11 - cosv .)) ( -1+ (a –
- 2) cosvo cosv.] 154 ]
As a consequence of the non-dimensional character of this system of
coordinates , a reference value which has the dimension of a stress must be
substituted instead of P. For this purpose , the nominal stress , i.e. , the
mean stress over the narrowest section , where the radius is a
Р
πα? р 155 )

will be used .

For the radius a of the narrowest cross section , it follows from

Equation ( 1 ) on page 76 that
a =
= (Vy2 + z2).-o
22 = sin v, ( 56 ]

Therefore ,

P = pa sinºv, = pa ( – cosv .) ( 1 + cosv.) 157 ]

 88

and thus from Equation [ 54 ]

1 + cos vo
с =- P [ 58 ]
2 1+ (2 − a) cos v。 + cos³v。

Thus , the total stress condition is clearly determined .

Figure 47 shows the stress distribution along the surface of the
notch and over the narrowest section for the case where cos v = 0.2 . At the

base of the notch , the stress σ acting in the direction of tension attains
5.1 times the value of the nominal stress . Simultaneously , the hoop stress
reaches its maximum at 1.7p . From the base of the notch as well as along the
surface of the notch and toward the inside , rapid fading occurs . Toward the

outside , the stresses decrease approximately inversely proportional to the

second power or square of the distance from the base of the notch , that is ,
even more rapidly than in the condition of plane or two - dimensional stresses .

The corresponding two - dimensional or plane problem showed only a fading which
was approximately inversely proportional to the first power of the distance
from the base of the notch ; see Chapter IV , Section 2A , pages 39 through 42 .

01-
5p 5.1p
4p
3p
(OW)x-o
(ONI-07

V-

88-24
2p
(odv-vo 3p (αwv-vo
4P 5p
p-

Figure 47 · Deep Circumferential External Notch under Tension

In stating the general formulas for the maximum stresses occurring

at the base of the notch , the parameter v。 appears . If the ratio between the

radius of curvature p and the radius a of the base of the notch is substitut-

ed as the characteristic magnitude for the shape of the notch , the same ex-

pressions result for the relationship to v , as were obtained in Equation [ 68 ] ,

 89

Chapter IV , Section 2 , page 41. The formula for the maximum stress is found
to be

01 1 a

(od : - - Love +1 + (0.5 + 5) ; + (11++ A)(1V +1 + 1)]

р N [ 59 ] *

and for the maximum value of the hoop stress

1 1 a 1 a

I (lou- o =
р
03
р Ne EVV +1 +0.5 ]
m e
[ 60 ]
where

a 2 d
N
୧ + V ++ 1 + 2
m e
( 61 )

Both maximum values as an exact function of the notch curvature are shown in
Figure 48 .
7P
10 ,
B. PURE BENDING op !
n - a2
m

For the treatment of the case of Spl

23
" PL 05
pure bending load , we return to the char
3p !
--25
acteristic integrals for the flow of force , грн az

Equations [ 14 ] and [ 15 ] on page 79. The P -02

bending moment is rotated about the z - axis ; 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 NO

at the same time it is required that of the

six integrals , all must vanish with the ex- Figure 48 - The "Maximum Stress
in Deep Circumferential External
ception of that for M,. If M is now writ Notches under Tension
ten instead of -M,, and if the relation
ships for the direction cosine which have already been used repeatedly are
again employed , the bending moment is expressed in the form

D. 2.17
дх ду ax ду дх
M = X
2%) + he (y X
+ in(y(v won thecou ) nohodvdw
-
[ 62 ]
ELSE
0 0
h,
y
ди Y δυ ου

or on account of Equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 )

V. 27
M =
Edit [ 0 , sin v cos v cos w Two Sinu Coſu cos w +
[ 63 ]
+ Tuwh Sinu cos v sin w ]Coju sinv dvdw

*
Translator's Note : An error in Equation ( 59 ) was discovered and corrected by J.S. Brock , the annota
tor , in July 1943. This equation was also corrected and recalculated by Julius Miklovitz ; it appeared on
page & of Research Report R - 94480-1 - B , 9 April 1945 issued by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufactur
ing Company , East Pittsburgh , Pa . In addition to the foregoing , a number of other errors in the text
were discovered and corrected .
 90

At a great distance from the narrowest cross section ,

Sinu = Cofu = e" = h = √x² + y² + z²

The integral then contains e as a factor . Since it should be independent

of u , the stresses for large values of u must be inversely proportional to

nga
From the foregoing , the highest v-values chosen for the components
which are not a function of u result ; these are , moreover , v = -1 for and

v = -2 for $1
1 and 2. Furthermore , functions with still smaller values of v
are usable . Moreover , from the vanishing of the remaining integrals , it may
be suspected that at a น and T.,
น บ the factor cos w will occur , 1.e. , that
C n = 0 and for ø 。 and ☀ 1, only n = 1 and for 2 only n = 0 will come into
consideration .

In order that no points of infinity at the inside appear , especial-

ly for v = 0 , a ,,, must be set equal to zero . The function v = -1 , n = 1 is

an exception to this ; it is expressed as

1 1
• cotvd,
sin v + b₁, -1 · icotv d₁ cosw
Coſu [91. - 1

whose two components become infinity for v = 0 . However , by setting a1 , -1 =

-i b1 , -1 , if the constant factor is disregarded , the result is

COS W 1 - COS V COS W sin v

sin v [ 64 ]
Cof u Cofu 1+ cos v

Hence we have a usable function . The rigorous solution of the problem is al-

ready possible , if that function containing v = -3, n = 1 for is included

in addition to those already mentioned . This gives the following expression
( 16 )
sinv cos w
P。 = A +
Cofu (1 + cosv)
1
- sinv cosv cosw
+ B Coſu (SinuT − 1 ) + 3 Coƒu] [ 65 ]

P₁ = C (CoſuT — Tgu) sinv cos w

Φι = D(SinuT - 1 ) cosv ,
P₂ Ø3 = 0

The stress function then becomes

A
F sinv cosv Cosw +
Cofu cosv ( 1 + cosv) [ 66 ]
B 1
+ (B + C + D ) Coſu ( SinuT − 1 ) + ( 3 + C) coju]

Omitting intermediate steps in calculation in which repeated abbreviation by

h² is possible , the following expressions for the stresses finally result in
 91

sin v cosv cos w

σu =
h2 { — 2 Toſ u ( Sinu T −− 1 ) [B + ( 1 - − a ) (C
' + D) ] +
1 2A
+ --- 2
Coju Cosv (1 + cosv) 3 B − 6C + (2 + x ) D +
1 2 A 2
+
Cof³u cosv (1 + cos v) + 3 B + 2C +
1 2
+
h² Cosu (4 + 3 B2C cos2v + D sin2u
1²v)}
sin v cos v cos w
σ =
h2 2 Coſu ( SinuT − 1 ) [ B + (1 ( 1 − a ) (C + D) ] +
1 A 2 [ 67 ]
1
+ Goju [ (1 + cosu)² + 3 B + ( 1 - − — h² Coju A + 2 B +
− ∞ ) D] ----
h2 3
+ 2C′ cos²v + D sin²v)}}
sin v cos v cos w 1
σ = A (2+ cos v)
h2
Cosu ( cosv ( 1 + cos v)² +
+ (−2 + 2x) C +
(1 − a) D] +
1 2 A
+
Cošu (- Cosv (1 + cosv) 3B - 20)}

Sin u cos w
Tuv
h2 ( Sinu T − 1 ) ( 1 -
— 2 cos² v ) --
t cos2 v
sin2 v
Gin u [B + ( 1 − x + D
(C +
x)) (C + Cof²u [ ( 1 + Ꭺcos v)² -- B
)] +
D)]
1 3 +
+ 1+
+ (−
( − 1 + α ) c] C ] + h21 ( 4 +3 B + 2C cos²v + D sin² v
sin v sin w
Tvw=
h { − ( Sinu T − 1) [B + ( 1 -– x) (C + D)] +
1 [ 68]
A B
+
Cofu v)²
[( 1 + cos D) + − 3 + ( − 1 + α ) C| }
cos v sin w
Tuw -
h {(CojſuT
u T — Tgu ) [[BB + (( 1 - x) (C + D) ] +
Sin u 2A
+ ---
Cof³ u (- cos v (1 + cos v) -
3B - 20)}

For the constants A, B, C, and D, eight equations first result from

the boundary condition , Equation [ 12 ] , page 79 , since for the three stresses

Ove Tuve Tvw, the factor of every member which is any chosen function of u
must disappear for v = v。⋅
vo . However , these equations are partially identical
and can be reduced to three , from which it follows that

D
A = ----
N₁ 2x ( 1 - x ) ( 1 + cosv。) ² , C= D
-3x +2 (1 - x) cos v。 +
B = -(1 - x) (C + D) ; Ni [
+ (4 - x) cos2 vol
where [ 69 ]
N₁ = 2 cos v。 [2 ( 1x ) + (4x ) cos vo ]

The constant C is found from the integral , Equation [ 63 ] , where it

is we ll to set u == 0 .
This gives

D
- 3M 5-2 cos²
N л ( 1 — cos v。)² 2 x [ 6 + 4 ( 4 − x ) cos v。 +2 ( x) v。 + (4 — a ) cos³ vo]
[ 70 ]
 92

In this stress condition , the nominal stress is the elementary bend

ing stress at the base of the notch
4M
р na3 - On 171 )

By using Equation ( 56 ) on page 87 and by substituting the curvature of the

base of the notch a / p = tg? v . the following expression finally results for
the maximum bending stress which occurs in the base of the notch
p 3 a a a
0 = ( 0 )u - 0 = N
w=0
:( + 1 + 13
1) 3 -(1-2)1 m
+1+4+
+47 m
( 72 )

where

1
1+
a a m

N = 3 + 1) +(1+ 1)/ +1+ +

a
173 ]
1 + + 1
V e

The maximum value of the hoop stress which likewise occurs at the base of the
notch is

P 3 U 3 1
0, = (Owlu =0
toto
N 4 e m V B
+ 1 + 1 + m
174 )
w=0
57
Figure 49 shows the stress distribution for alo = 8 and 1 /m = 0.3 . At the
lower left , the curve can be seen for the esses along the surface of the

ДУ

AY
2.4 .
02 -07p
O, 2.0
-2.40
1.5
a Oul 1.0
Ol} 4-0 05
Om
0.25

P 2p z

M M
0 Ou
-2 V
On

P Lines of Equal Bending Stress .

19
0 น : constant )
.

4M
P
πα
a 8 1

m
-0.3

Section w = 0 Section u = 0

Figure 49 - A Deep Circumferential External Notch under Bending

 93

notch where the characteristic fading is evident . The upper part of the fig-
ure shows the curve of the stresses over the narrowest section . The broken

line corresponds to the assumption of linearity (Geradliniengesetz ) . The bend-

ing stress culminates in a sharp point and reaches 2.4 times the value of that
given by elementary theory at the base of the notch . The lines of equal bend-

ing stress drawn on the right show how the zone of high loading stretches
belt - like along the base of the notch .

5p 2

a
4p
4M 0.5-
pe παζ m - 0.2 01
3p

2p

2
P

10 20 30

Figure 50 · The Peak Stresses in Deep Circumferential

External Notches under Bending

In Figure 50 the two peak stress values are plotted as a function

of the scale of curvature and for three different values of Poisson's ratio .

C. PURE SHEAR

If the circumferential external notch is subjected to a shear load

over its narrowest section , all the integrals of Equation [ 14 ] on page 79.
must become zero except that one which expresses the shearing force . The

shearing force will be applied parallel to the y- axis and be designated by V

instead of -P,. Omitting intermediate calculation

To 2л
- Tuwh sin w) Cofu sin v dv dw [ 75 ]
V = [ (o, Sinu sin v cosw + Tu , Cofu cos v cos w

For very large values of u , the factor e2 appears in this integral .

Thus , the stresses for large values of u must become inversely proportional
to e2u . From this , the highest v -values are found to be : v = 0 for and

v = -1 for ø , and 2. For the remainder , as in the previous problem, cn = 0

and n = 1 for 。 and ₁ , moreover n = 0 for 2. Again aŋ , v must be set equal

 94

to zero to avoid points of infinity . Here the case v = 0 , n = 1 18 an ex

ception where the function
1
la,, oi cotv + 61,0 sin v
Tgu( 21,01 d, cos w

18 first obtained , both terms of which become infinite at v = 0 . However , 11

02 = - 61,0 is set , the result including the constant factor is the usable
1,,oi
function

Tgu
1 COS v
COSw = Iguitsin v COS W
176 )
sin v

If , in addition to the other functions already mentioned , that containing

v = -2, n = 1 for ., is taken , the rigorous solution of the problem 18
1
achieved . Therefore , the following expression 18 chosen
sin v cos w
0. = A Tgu 1 + cos v + B (Coſu T – Tgu) sin v cos w
sin v cos w
( 77 )
0 , = 0 Coſu ( 1 + cos v ) ' 0, = DT ,
=
023 = 0

From the foregoing, the stress function is derived as

A Tgu C Tgu cos v
F = sin v cos w 1 + cos v + B (Coſu T – Tgu) + 1 + cos v + DCojut ( 78 )

Omitting intermediate steps in calculations , the following stresses are found

sin v cos W 2α
Tgu + D ( -2 - a ) +
Ou ha « [c(-2 -– « + 1 + cos v
1 | 2A 2C cos v
Cotul
+
2B + +
Cofau ( 1 + cos V 1+ cos V )

+ ha(A – 2B + Ccos? v – Dsin v)

sin u cos w A
0o = ha Tgu +
( 1+ cos v )2
20 + 1 ( 79 )
+
c(-1
아 + a 1 + cos v ( 1 + cossua v ) ) + D (-1 + a )-
–

( A – 2B + C cosev D sinºv:))
sin v Cos 10 А 1
Tgu22la( 1 + cosv ) ?+ c(-1 + a ( 1 + cos v )? ) +
1 2A 2 C cos v
+ D ( -1 + a ) - Cojzu- 2B +
Coja u \ 1 + cos v 1 + cos v)

COB W | А 1ta
Txo
h2 11+ cos v
+ C
cſ(1–a)cosv +2x 1+ cos v + D (1 –a) cosv+
+ 1 1 cOS v 2
А 1 & + [ 80 ]
Coſa นu [ -A 1 + cos v + C(a co COS V
1 + cos v :)
cOS v

h2 (A – 2B + C cosav – D sir – Dsin?v)}

 95

Tone h Sin
Tojąuu (1
sin v sin in
+ cos ujz (A + C( -1 + x + a cosv)]
sin v A C ( 1 + a ) cos v
Tume + D1-1 + a ) + ( 80 )
À 1
| 2A
1 + cos v 1 + cos v
CO8 v

Coſuli
+ 2 B + 2C 1 + cos v
( 1+ COB V

Using the boundary conditions , Equation ( 12 ) on page 79, 81x equations are
next obtained for the four constants contained in the solution. However ,
only three of the six equations are independent , from which it follows that

A = C0 [ 1 - & - a cosv. ), B
C
2 a
+1 + ‫ܝܗܘܪ܀‬
a? – 2

( 81 )
D = c (-1- (–
C
--- ***-** 37cm)
(11 –aa ))( 1 + cos v .)
The integral , Equation ( 75 ) , yields the constant C, where it is
again well to set u = 0 . Now If the mean shear stress over the narrowest
section

V
р πα2 = 1, ( 82 )

18 substituted as a reference value ,, and ir Equation ( 56 ) (on page 87) 18 used,

the result is

p ( l – a ) ( 1 + cosv. )?
C =
a ( l – cos vo) (2 + ( 2 — « ) cos vo] [ 83 ]
It is noteworthy that the greatest shear stress does not occur in

the section w = 0 , but in the section w = 7/2 . The maximum shear stress will
be designated by T , and with the aid of Equation [ 68 ] , Chapter IV , page 41 ,
1 a 1

Tu = ( Tutelu = 0 P
2 + * + )(VO
2
+

a
m
+1+
( 84 )
2 V +1+ m

In the section w = 0 , only a relative peak value Ty of the shear

stress Tro occurs, which is given by
ac 11 + ( 1 – a ) cos vo cos? v - a ) cos v, ( 1 + cosv.)
( Two )u = 0
100 ( 1 – a ) ( 1 + cos vo ) cOS v cos v cos v ( 1 + cos v )
[ 85 ]

To determine the exact position of this peak value, this expression will be
first somewhat simplified by substituting the value 1 ( corresponding to m = 2 )
for the material constant a . Then

1 + cos vo cos' v -- cos? vo

( Two ) - 0 = Pp ( 1 - cos vo ) (2 + cosvo)
w=0
conv ( 86 ]
 96

In the foregoing equation , the same functional relationship can be recognized

with respect to the coordinate v as was determined previously for the corre-

sponding two - dimensional problem ; compare Chapter IV , Equation [ 94 ] page 46 .

The peak value of the shear stress T2 is therefore at the same point as in
the condition of two- dimensional stresses :

2
COSV = ±√3 cosvo " = a ୧
a [ 87 ]
V

If the expression , Equation [ 85 ] , is also examined for other values of the

constant a , it becomes evident that the position of T2 lies at the same place
with sufficient accuracy . Hence , to calculate the magnitude of T½ , only
COS V = √3 cos vo is substituted into Equation [ 85 ] . The result is

a
3
T₂ = (Two)u = 0 = 2 √2
, ( + 1) (~ ++21 ୧ + 1 + 2) [ 1 - ³ (1 − 2) 63 – 1) [ 88 ]
a a
COSv = √3 cos ve +m 3
200 313+
୧ + √³ (2 +1) + 1 )
2 (2

T2 lies on the axis v = 0 and becomes

For a /p ≤ 2 , the value T₂

a 3
+ 2 +m)( +1+
୧ V
T₂ = (Tuv)u=0 = P [ 89 ]
v=0 a a
1+
w=0 ୧ + m g +

Furthermore , the stress o , reaches a considerable peak value in the

section w = 0 , and precisely on the surface in the direct vicinity of the
base of the notch . The expression for this stress is
la (x - 7) - [
aC sin vo Tgu -α
(ou)v= 1v₂ = [ 90 ]
10=0 (a 1 ) (1 + cos vo) h² [4

More precise investigation also shows that the same equation results for the

distance of the σ , -point from the narrowest section with sufficient accuracy
as in the condition of two - dimensional stresses ; compare Chapter IV , Equation
[ 92 ] page 45 ; that is

a
Sinu = + cosvo, x=
a a [ 91 ]
√ (₁₂ ++)

If this expression is substituted into Equation [ 90 ] , the result , after a

brief intermediate calculation , is

a a
+ 1) (a + 2 √2 + 1 + 2) (2
0 + 2 +m
2/2 )
σ₁ = (σµ)Sin u = cos v。 = p [ 92 ]
v = vo a 3/2
w =0 +1+ m +
2V
 97

The hoop stress ( Ringspannung ) also reaches its peak value at the same point .
This is expressed by

a
1 ୧ (음 + 210 + 1 + 22) (2 + 1)
σ₂ = ( %)Sinu = COB V = P [ 93 ]
0100 a
10=0 2 +1+ ( +2)
m (

Figure 51 shows the stress distribution for a/p = 8 , 1 /m = 0.3 , and

moreover shows it immediately in the axial section parallel to the direction
of shear . The lower left part of the figure shows the surface stresses which

reach their peak value directly beside the base of the notch . In the narrow-

est section only shear stress exists ; it reaches its peak or maximum value
directly beneath the surface .

Direction
of Shear
AY
T2-105p

P 2p

0,-2.6p
Ou}V-Vo
Q-06p
-0.6p
Lines of Shearing Stress
-26P p-
παί

0-0 0-03

Section ∞ = 0 Section u = 0

Figure 51 - A Deep Circumferential External Notch under Shear ,

Left, axial section in the direction of shear with the curve of the stress ;
right , normal or perpendicular section with the lines of shear stress .

The broken line corresponds to the case where a/p = 0. In the normal section

on the right , the shear stress lines are drawn which run basically parallel
to the direction of shear .

Figure 52 shows the axial section perpendicular to the direction of

shear for the same notch . The shear stress increases exceptionally . In the

base of the notch , where its direction is parallel to the edge , it attains a
very pronounced peak . Obviously , the maximum loading is at this point . Toward

the interior and also along the surface the shear stress fades very rapidly .
 98

In the normal section on the right of the figure, the lines of equal
shear stress are plotted . The zone of maximum loading extends in a belt - like
shape in the vicinity of the points on which the tangent to the edge lies
parallel to the direction of shear .

Direction AZ 2.18
7 , -2.18p 20
of Shear

( tuu- 0

98

P 27 3 10,76
105

2P
(Tumh -vo

Lines of Equal Shear Stress

6 :vtv + tüm -constant)

Section = Section 4 = 0

Figure 52 - A Deep Circumferential External Notch under Shear ;

This Is a Continuation of Figure 57 59 .
Left , axial section perpendicular to the direction of shear , including curve of
stress ; right , normal section , which shows lines of equal shear stress .

5p 10 , 02
Tg
O,
VL
up
S
as

Po z m
-
02
SP
T,

2P
Tz

O2
P

10 20 30
음
Figure 53 The Maximum Stresses in Deep Circumferential
External Notches under Shear
 99
The lines of equal shear stress as well as the lines previously
mentioned are found after determining the resultant shear stress . This will
be taken up again in the discussion of the shallow circumferential internal
notch and a simple method will be stated in Chapter V , Section 4C .
61
Figure 53 shows the value of the maximum stress as a function of
the scale or degree of curvature .

D. PURE TORSION
In torsional loading , all the integrals in Equations ( 14 ) and ( 15 )
on page 79 become zero except the one which expresses the torque or moment
of torsion . The moment of torsion will be designated by M instead of M , and

дz ду T дz ay дz ду
M ( 94 )
-JKT - comoua ++ (n - zone)+ The (love one
0
น h,
y au
δυ y @w Z
де miha dvdw
in the coordinates used here, this becomes
M
22a017Tuwh Coſa u sinºvdv ( 95 )

Since the factor e3 " appears for large values of u , stresses which are in
versely proportional to e3w are to be expected ; correspondingly, the follow
ing maximum values of v must be strictly maintained :
‫ע‬ 1 for $ . and v = -

2 for $ 1 , P2 , and og
The solution of the problem of torsion for bodies of revolution is
a familiar objective in the classic theory of elasticity, where the stresses 1

are found to be a function of those determined by Poisson's theorem ( 17 ) .

From the present system of general spatial equations , this special case can
be expressed easily by setting
0o = 0, P=0 196 )
and

0, = -f ( u , v) sin w , 02 = f (u , v) cos w ( 97 )
It then follows directly that
F = 0 198 ]

The conditions , Equation [ 3 ] on page 77), give

U = 0, V = 0, W = a (u , v) 199 )
 100

i.e. , the body of revolution twists about its axis . From Equations [ 4 ] and
[ 5 ] on page 77 it follows , furthermore , that

σu = 0 , Ov = 0 , Ow =0 [ 100 ]

From Equation [ 6 ] on pages 77 and 78 it finally results that

των = 0 ,
sinv a
του = α h dv sin v [ 101 ]
Cofu (u , '
Tuw = α h du Cosu

The function v = -2 is sufficient for the solution . Since cos w appears in

Equation [ 97 ] , n must be set equal to unity . To prevent the point of in-

finity , again aŋ , v == 0 . This then leads to the following statement :

f(u , v) = C (Coju T - Tgu) sin v [ 102 ]

This function has already been treated in the problem of bending . The stresses
are found to be ( 18 )

sin v
Tow == 0 , Tuw = -2x C [ 103 ]
h Cos² u

The integral , Equation [ 95 ] , becomes

— -4лα Сsin³v
M= =
sin dv -лα С ( cos³ vo - 3 cos vo + 2)
[ 104 ]
― - cos vo)2
= } лαС (2 + cos v。) (1

By substituting the nominal stress

2M
Tn = παι P [ 105 ]

and since a = sin vo the constant C is found to be :

3p sin v。 ( 1 + cos v。)

C= [ 106 ]
8a(2+ cos v。) (1 - cos vo)

After introducing the notch curvature , the maximum value of shear occurring
at the base of the notch is

2
a
3 (1 +√V +1 )*
Tmax = p [ 107 ]
a
4 (1 + 21
/ + 1)

For a /p = 8 , Figure 54 , right side , shows the stress variation over

the narrowest section (above the centerline of the notch ) and along the sur-
face of the notch ( below the centerline of the notch ) ; the lines of stress
which run in the u - direction are plotted on the left , because the stress Tuw
alone is present and therefore plays the part of a principal stress .
 101

CM

2
2P Tmax
1.710
(Twrce
P

y
V = VO
Vulvave
2p

HO
Lines of Stress ra

Figure 54 - A Deep Circumferential External

Notch under Torsion

Figure 55 shows the maximum stress as a function of the notch

curvature .

P
Figure 55 - The Maximum Stress 3p Inox
in Deep Circumferential 2pl
External Notches under P
Torsion 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Go.

4. THE SHALLOW CIRCUMFERENTIAL INTERNAL NOTCH WITHOUT AN AXIAL HOLE

The second group of stress problems , in which the application of
the three -dimensional method of solution in its most general sense becomes
necessary , will now be taken up . In addition to deep circumferential exter
nal notches , shallow circumferential internal notches without an axial hole
represent special cases of decided three - dimensional behavior , as already
mentioned at the beginning of this section .
To simplify calculation , the surface of the shallow circumferential
internal notch will be assumed ellipsoidal ; see Figure 45 on page 76 . The

depth of the notch , which will again be designated by t , is therefore small by

definition , compared to the radius b of the bar , i.e. ,
t
Ib < 1 1 ( 108 ]

By logical application of this inequality , the individual solutions can be

considerably simplified by adhering to the following process of calculation .
For each type of loading , the stress condition of the unnotched bar is first
 102

determined . Therefore, the following boundary conditions , which are read off
as conditions of equilibrium of the cross-hatched element in Figure 56 , must
be satisfied :

Trydz — Tzzdy = 0
y dz Turdy for y + z2 = 62 ( 109 )

dy Z
Tydz - 0 , dy = 0 =
:)
or because dz
y

yTuy + z Tuz =
= 0. with u = x , y , z > ( 110 )
The second part of the solution consists of determining the so- called " dis
turbing stresses " ( Störspannungen ) which behave according to the disturbance
1:11? of the stress distribution produced by the internal notch and which are to be
determined in such a way that in superposition with the stresses of the en
tire bar , the boundary conditions ,
Equation ( 13 ) , along the surface of
de try docet the notch ( u = uo ) are satisfied .
These disturbance stresses represent
Oz Isa dych /
the actual notch stresses and are
(osteche) dyde
subject to the theorem of fading .
Along the surface of the bar , which
Figure 56 - For the Boundary Condition
of the Cylinder is very distant from the zone of
disturbance according to Equation
[ 108 ] , these disturbing stresses have already faded out and do not influence
the boundary conditions represented by Equation ( 110 ) . With the foregoing,
however , all boundary conditions of the shallow internal notch are satisfied.
9

A. PURE TENSION
In the case of pure tensile loading , the stress condition prevail.
ing in the unnotched bar can be described in the following manner with the
aid of the three - dimensional method .

Фо (2 -- a ) p ( y2 + 22 - 2.rº), р
2 (4 - a) 0, 4
X 9 0, = 0 , Ф, = 0 ] ‫[ ווו‬

The stress function is found from the foregoing , using Equation ( 58 ) , Chapter
III , page 23 . .

P
F =
2 (4- a )
[( 2 - a ) (y2 + 2 ) + ( 2x - 2) x²] ( 112 )

Using Equations ( 68 ) and ( 69 ) , Chapter III , page 24 , the stresses are found to
be
01 = P , = 0 , = Tay Tyz Tzz = 0 [ 113 ]
 103

Therefore , the reference value p represents the tensile stress uniformly dis-
tributed over the bar . If P denotes the tensile force , then

P
p = πb2 . [ 114 ]

The problem will not be generalized immediately , but will be solved for a
relatively simple special case , i.e. , for the special case of spherical notch
.
surface or cavity . This case is very well suited to illustrate to the read-
er the method of calculation mentioned previously .

ρ
The Special Case t = P
Transposing the initial statement to spherical coordinates , by
making use of Equation [ 7 ] on page 78 , gives

(2 -
— α) p
Po - u² (3 sin³v - 2)
2 (4x)
[ 115 ]
P
Φ, = 4 α
u cosv , 2 = 0,
·Ø₂ P3 = 0

By applying the general potential function , Equation [ 40 ] on page 84 , it is

determined that the case deals with the functions v = 2 , n = 0 and v = 1,
=
n = 0 when bn , v 0. Now , auxiliary functions must be introduced which give
stresses suitable for satisfying the boundary conditions , Equation [ 13 ] , page
79. Those functions which depend on v and w in the same way but which , how-
ever , depend on u in a different way possess this property . They are found

if -v - 1 is substituted for v , that is , v = -3 instead of 2 for go and v = -2

instead of 1 for 1. Moreover , an ,,
v is to be set equal to zero instead of
bn , v. Moreover , it must be observed that the function v = -1 , n = 0 for o
also gives suitable stresses . With these functions , the solution of the prob-
lem can be terminated successfully . The initial statement is

[(2 a) p B A
Φρ = 2 (4 a)
u² + 3 ( 3 sin² v − 2 ) + 4
u
[ 116 ]
P C
Φι = - α u + u2 Cosv , Ø₂ = 0 , Ø3 = 0

The stress function becomes

3B (a - 1) p 2B A
F = (4 — 3x) p u² + -sin²v + .u2 - + + U [ 117 ]
2 (4x) u3 4 α

From the foregoing , the expression for AF is formulated according

to Equation [ 10 ] on page 78 ; in this connection also , the normal stresses are
set up and the result is

36 B 24 B 2A (−6 — 2x) C
σu
= |·
P изx)C] sin²v + p + u5
u5 + (8 + ዝ + u3 [ 118 ]
 104

21 B (1 - a ) 12 B A ( -1 + 2a ) C
og + us
+ ) 9 sin’v ++ - 1 + +
u3
( 118 )
115 B ( 3 — 3a )C1 12B A 1-1 + 2x )
Ow = us
+
из
sinv + - heb + + u3

The shear stresses follow from Equation [ 11 ] on page 78 as

24 B + a)
Tuo
El--p + 2 p + 1420 sinv cos V ,
u5 u3 Tow = 0 , Turo 0 ( 119 )

The boundary conditions, Equation [ 13 ] on page 79 , give exactly three equa

tions for the three constants which are still unknown , from which the follow
ing values result . For purposes of simplicity , U, is here set equal to 1.*

А ( -2-5a) p B = C
5p
2 ( 4 + 50 )
>
4 +
4 + 50
9
4 + 5a ( 120 )
The value obtained for the maximum stre88 cccurring at the base of the notch is
5
3 ( 8 + 5a ) 3(9 - m
0 = (0 ) = 1
2 (4 + 5 «) р
=
5 P (=- 2.04p for p = 0.3
S
m
=
[ 121 ]
D 2 m

The hoop stress also reaches its maximum value at the same point as

3 ( 8 – 5a ) 3(-1+ ) m
0 , = ( Owu = 1 = 2 (4 + 5a ) р Pl = 0.14p for = )
5 0.3 m ( 122 )
2(7- ) m

This result agrees with a calculation performed in 1908 by A. Leon

( 19 ) , using another method . At that time , Leon succeeded in finding the so
lution by satisfying the individual equations of elasticity by successive
stages for this loading situation which is still axially symmetrical .

The General Case

In the general case of any arbitrary curvature of the surface of the
notch , the solution can be set up directly in ellipsoidal coordinates with the
help of analogous functions, i.e. , the same ne and v -values are used , save for
the fact that Equation [ 38 ] on page 83 ) is now definitive for the individual
potential functions . The following basic equations are thus obtained :
(2 - a) P ( Soja u
- 2
. 2 (4 -- a ) – ) +X B(3 [(3Cof@u
3 — 2)7 – 3Sinu}}*
sinºv - 2) + AT
-
Х

( 123 )
P
0, ={ -a
Sinu+ C[SinuT – 1}}cosv,, Φ0 ,, == 00 ,, Φ0 ,,== 00 >

From the foregoing , the following stress function

* Annota tor's Note : This means that the spherical cavity or inside notch has unit radius .
 105

P
F=
2 (4 - α) [(4-3x ) Cof²u2 + 2x ] sin²v +
P 1. 2α
+ 4 - α (α 1 ) Cof²u + ¹ − 2ª] + AT +
3
[ 124 ]
+ B [(3 Cof³u - 2) T . 3 Sinu] (3 sin³v - 2 ) +
+ C [Sin³uT- Sinu] cos2v

is derived . Again , first the required term 4F, as well as the terms contain-
ing 1 /h which appear in o , O. , T. , is required to set up the normal stress-
es . In so doing , and considering Equations [ 4 ] , [5], and [ 6 ] on pages 77 and

78 , it is found that

sin2
ΔΕ =
12p - 2p
Sinu ]} -+ "in³
'—Ginu
}} { 2º Cof³u + 2C [Cof² uT— -α - 2CT}
h2 ³ { — 22.
OF OF
+ sinv cosv อิ =
[ Sinu Coſu สิน บ
172α 2
==
h24 - α p Sin²u + B [ — 12 Sin²u T + 12 Sinu] +

- [4 -3α 2α- 2
+ C [2 Sin³u T — Sinu] } + in² 4 - poſ² u + 20—2p
h2 ( 1—3a 4 +
- [ 125 ]
+ B [( 18Coſªu — 12 ) T — 18 Sin u ] + 2C [ — Sin³uT + Sinu]} +
+ Ginu{ -A - 4B - C Sin² u}

OF OF sinv cos v -3α

h [SinuCoju - sin v cos v ди = h2 4 - α p Sinu Cosu +
6
+ B [ 18 Coſu ( Sinu T − 1 ) + Cosu
Goju ] +
1 sin v cos v
+ hª Cos {A +4 B +C Sin²u}
+ C [ −2Coſu (SinuT− 1) — Coju ] } u

Applying these relations , the normal stresses are found to be

Sin u - Sinu
σu = }}
h2 { pCoſ³ u — A Cos² u + B 12 Coſ² u T — 12 Sinu — 4 Cofa u +

+ C [ a Coſ²uT + ( 1 − a ) Sinu + Ginu]}

Cosu +
sin2 v Sin u
-
+ h2 { −pCoſ²u + B [ ( −18Cof²u + 6 ) T + 18 Sinu + 6 Cos²u +
-
Cof2 น +
+ C [ (2 − 2x ) (Cof³uT — Sinu) + ( − 2 + x) T − Ginu]}.
Sin u
+ h4 {-A - 4B - C Sin²u}

σ = h2 {B [ − 6 Coſ² u T +6 Sinu] + [ 126 ]

+ C [ (2x) Cos² uT + ( −3 + x ) Sinu]} +
sin2v
+ h2 {p Sin²u + B [ ( 18 Cos²u - 12 ) T — 18 Sinu] +

+ C[(- 2 + 2x ) Cos²uTxT + (22x) Sinu]} +

Sin u
+ h {A + 4B + C Sin² u}
Sinu Sin u
σ = ha A Cosau + B [ −6Coſ³uT + 6 Sinu + 4 +
Cosu
- - Sinu
+ C |(2− a ) (Cof² u T — Sinu) +
Coju
v Sinu
h2 {B 67 - 6 Gu + C [( −2 + α) T + Ginu
+ sin² Cof° u ]
 106

With the help of Equation [ 6 ] on pages 77 and 78 , the shear stresses are cal-
culated as
sin v cos v
Tuv = -
h2 p Sinu Coju + B − 18 Sinu Coſ uT +
6
+ 18 Cof u -- Coju ) + C ( (2 --
− 2 a) Sinu Coſ u T +
1- [ 127 ]
+ (− 2 + 2α) Coju + Cosu +
sin v cos v
+ h' Cosu {A + 4B + C Sin² u}

του = 0 , Tuw = 0

Now the constants contained in the solution must be determined in such a way
that the boundary conditions , Equation [ 13 ] on page 79 , are satisfied . For

purposes of brevity let

- [ 128]
Costu。 Sinu (T)u - u. — Coſ³u, Sin² u。 = g

Moreover , the depth of the notch will be introduced , as

(y)u = uo = Cosu。 = t
π [ 129 ]
v=2
w =0

Using these notations , with ( ouน )uu , and by setting the factors of the three
components which are a function of v equal to zero , the following equations of
condition result :

1
pt2 + A -
S uo (4
i n 2 -4 +1 +
1 + 1 ) + B│12 /
g ―
+ ca 1/2 + 12 =0
1 12 [ 130 ]
- pt2 + Gin uo { B | -− 18 1/2 + 6 3/4 + 12 − 12 +
g g - 3-
+· C ( 2 -− 2 α ) 12
2 + ( − 2 + α) & − 3 + x a + 12
= 0

-A 4B + C [ −t² + 1 ] = 0

For the constants , the resolution of these equations gives the following
values :
A = p Sin ut [-6gt² + (4x2) g + 4t4 - 4x12]
N
p Sin ut
B- [ ( 2 – a ) g + 2t + ( - 3 + a) ]
N₁
p Sinu t [ 131 ]
с = [6g - 12t2]
N₁
wherein

N₁ = 6 [ ( − 4 + x ) g² — 6gtª + 8gt² + 4tº — 41ª]

If these values be substituted in Equation [ 127 ] , it can be recognized that

the shear stress also satisfies the boundary condition . Thus all conditions
are satisfied and attention can be turned to calculation of the maximum stress

values .
 107

As was to be expected , the absolute maximum stress occurs at the

base of the notch in the direction of tension . If the notch curvature

= Cot²uo, Cosuo = Sinuo = [ 132 ]

-1
୧

is substituted for the parameter u 。 , then the maximum stress can be calculated
as

0₂ = (0%)u - u.; = ~ {(2 (-/-) ² - ( 1.5 - m [ 133 ]

1 ) ÷୧ + m| ÷¶
m + ( -− ( 1.5 + m
4 ) // + 1 - 1

where

arctg
if >1
୧
√
or [ 134 ]
In 1 + - In
(1 V ) 2
if
응시
-

and

N = 1
/ + 1- m + ( - [ 135 ]
(음 m) /
2/1)
2+ 2 ( 1 + 1)) ( 1 )*c²
1 c − (1+
-

The effective hoop stress perpendicular to the direction of tension likewise

reaches its maximum at the base of the notch with

P 2 2
σ₂ = (σw)u = us = m e
+1.5
m + [- (0.5 + m
2/12)-/-
/
1+ 2/19
m [ 136 ]

a,-73p 7P
6p
5p
:
ម

4p
3P
02-15p0v- 2p
u- uo JoWx-0
y

(a)u- uo -P 2-26
-2p
6P 3P
3P 4P

P
p-1

Figure 57 - A Circumferential Internal Notch under Tension

 108

The special case . t / p = 1 can also be derived from the foregoing by traversing
or passing beyond the boundary by means of development in a series , with re
sults which agree with Equations ( 121 ) and
10P ( 122 ) on page 104 . .

9p! Figure 57 illustrates the stress

8p ! 1
M
05 variation for t /p = 26 , as well as over the
7pl
6p
0.3
02
narrowest cross section ( right ) and along
5p the boundary ( left ) . From the base of the
4pl notch the stresses diminish or fade very
m
= 0.5
3pt rapidly in all directions , i.e. , essentially
op
2p ! 03 inversely proportional to the third power or
P 02
cube of the distance from the base of the
0

15 20 25 30 35 notch . At a distance from the axis equal to

twice the depth of the notch , approximately
Figure 58 - The Maximum Stress the same stress condition prevails as in an
in a Shallow Circumferential
Internal Notch under Tension unnotched bar , so that the external boundary
can be assumed here for purposes of an exam
ple as shown in the figure . The two stress peaks are plotted on a basis of
notch curvature in Figure 58 .

B. PURE BENDING

The solution for pure bending first contains the elementary bending
of the solid cylinder which can be derived in the following form with the help
of the three - dimensional method .

Фо ( -1 + a ) ( 2 – a) p ( -4 + 4a ) p x
3 ( y2 + z2 – 43 % ), y
2a (4 – at 2a ( 4 – a) t
( 137 )
02 ( 2 – a) p Φ5 0
2x ( 4 - at( y2 + z2 – 2x2 ),

Corresponding to Chapter III , Equation ( 58 ) on page 23 , the foregoing, gives

a
р
[ 138 ]
F = 14 - ajill1- )(49 + yzº) + ( -3+ 2a)x®y]
( - 2

The stresses are found from Chapter III , Equations [ 68 ] and [ 69 ] on page 24 ,
as
Oz = = Pp y , Oy = 0 , = Tay = Tyz = Tzs == 0 ( 139 )

Therefore , the reference value p represents the elementary bending stress of

the solid cylinder for the distance y = t . It is

4 Mt
р n64 ( 140 ]
 109

In order to get points of orientation respecting the structure of the func

tions which the disturbing stresses give , the special case of the spherical
notch surface or cavity will be treated as a preliminary problem .

The Special Case t = p

For simplicity , let the depth of the notch be

(y ) - U = Up = 1
2
( 141 )
0

Compare Equation 17 ) on page 78. Now , the initial Equation ( 137 )] will be
transposed to spherical coordinates by Equation ( 7 ) . By comparison with the
general potential function , Equation ( 40 ) on page 84 , on spherical coordinates
it can be recognized that for the functions contained in the initial equation ,
the problem concerns the cases where v = 3 , n = 1 for os V = 2 , n = 1 for $ 11
and v = 2 , n
, 0 for $ 2 in all cases with 6 n , v 0. The supplementary func
tions must lead to stresses with the help of which the boundary conditions ,
Equation [ 13 ] on page 79 , can be satisfied . Those functions which depend on
v and w in the same way are capable of the foregoing , whereas for the compo
nents which depend upon u , - 1 is substituted for v . The solution is
successful if , moreover , the related function v = 2 , n = 1 for $ ,0 is in
cluded . In this way the initial statement becomes

( -1
B А
(
a (4 - a ) )P40+ ](5 sinºv — 4sinv) cosw +
-2+9)/2.0,50 —4 sin vcos w
D =121 5 u"

[ ( -4 + 4a) p up +
Φι us
sinv cos V CO8 W ( 142 )
D
(2.20)2 12 +
2a (4 - a ) us (3 sinev – 2) , Ф, = 0

From the foregoing , with the help of the relationships , Equations [ 7 ] to ( 11 )

on page 79 , the following are derived :
The stress function is

P 5 5B с 3D
sin3v cos w +
x +
= 102. (4- a)w 2 u
+
( 143 )
P А 4B с 201
+ ( 3 + 2 « ) u3 + + sinv cos w
u2

The normal stresses are

100 B
16 + ac a 48 + 3 a
Oy
1-2 pu u
+
DD sin'v cos w +
( 144 )
+ pu
6A + 80 B 14 + 2a
C +
36 D]
sinv cos w
1
 110

65 B 1 + a 3 + 3x
°C+ 3+ D sin³v cosw +

95
= [pu + u
13 A 50 B
+ + 1+ 2α C sin v cosw
u₁ u u
35 B 5 · 5α -15+ 15α [ 144 ]
Ow - + C + sinv cosw +
D] 8
[3 A 30B -3 + 4x 12-12α
+ + C + D sinv cos W
us u

The shear stresses are

75 B -9 + α 27 —3% D
των = pu + u +
· u4
C+ D sin v cosv cos w +

ЗА 20 B + αc + -6 + 6α
α
+ [34 + 3 u1 u₁
COS V COS W
D]
10 B −2 + α 6-6α
του + C + D sinv cos v sin w [ 145 ]
น u u¹
25 B 3+ a -9 + 9x
Tuw = u8 +
C+
us
Ꭰ
D❘ sin²v sinw +
3A 20 B - 3+ a 6-6x
+ C + D sinw
+ |- น u₁ D] si

The boundary conditions , Equation [ 13 ] on page 79 , next yield six equations

of condition for the yet unknown constants . Two of these equations are iden-
tical to each other and an additonal one can be considered as a result of the

others . Therefore , exactly four equations are available with four unknowns .
uo。 = 1 , the solution gives
With u

-4 9α - 7a2 P
A = p, B=
12x ( 12 + 7x) 12 + 7x
[ 146 ]
12 + 63 x 4-7x
с - D-
12a ( 12 + 7α) P , 12x ( 12 + 7x) P

As was to be expected , the greatest bending stress occurs at the base of the
notch . Its formula is found to be

5/17
m 1
01 = ( v)u - Uo - P ( = 1.71p for m
= 0.3 [ 147 ]
π -- 7
2 4 (13 m
w =0

At the same point , the hoop stress ( Ringspannung ) reaches its maximum value of

5(-1+ m
2) 1
02 = (Ow)u - [ 148 ]
7 p ( = 0.13p for m = 0.3)
v= 4/13
m
w= 0

The General Case

In the general case of a notch surface of any arbitrary curvature ,

calculation shows , as was true for tensile loading , that simple analogous
 111

functions on ellipsoidal coordinates must be used . Hence , the same n- and

v-values are used , but the general potential function , Equation [ 38 ] on page
83, must be used as a starting point . Since the ellipsoidal coordinates
which were determined by Equation [ 1 ] on page 76 are used , the depth of the
notch becomes

t = (y)u = = Cofuo.
л
v=
2 [ 149 ]
w =0

For brevity let

? = p' [ 150 ]

Then

(( -1 +x) (2 - a)p / - -
Φο =· {(− 1+a) (2 — a ) P (Cof³ u — { Coſu) + B [(5Coſ³u — 4Coſu) T —
2 - 4 sinv) cosu +
− 5 Sinu Coſu + — 3 Tgu ] } (5 sin³v
+ A (Cofu T - Tgu) sinv cos w
----
P₁ = [ ( − 4 + 4 α) p' Sinu Coju +
1 2α(4 - α) [ 151 ]
1
sinv cos v COSW
+ C (Sinu Coſ uT − Coju + 3 soju)]

Φ , = (2 — -α) p
p' (Coj² u -
2a (4 a)(Coj² u — 23 ) +
+ D[ (3 Cof²u - 2) T3 Ginu) ] · ( 3 sin²v - 2 ) , Φ, 0

Correspondingly the stress function is expressed

p -
-
F = ‚? { [ (4 – 5a) Cof³ u + ( −3 + 2x) Coſu] sin³v +
2 + 32 a 24x2
+ k -3 + 2x) Cof³ u + 15α Cofu] sinv } cos w +
-- --
+ A [CoſuT — Tgu] sinv cosw + B [ ( 5 Cos³u — 4 Coſu) T — [ 152 ]
- 5 Sinu Cosu + } Tgu] (5 sin³v - 4 sinv) cosw +
-
+ C[ (Cof³u - Cosu ) T — Sinu Cosu + Tgu] sinv cos2v cosw +
+ D[ (3Cof³u — 2Coſu) T — 3 Sinu Cos u] ( 3 sin³v - 2 sinv) cosw

From the foregoing , by means of the relationships expressed in Equations [ 4 ]

and [ 5 ]] (on
(on page 77 , the normal stresses are set up ; in so doing the calcula-
tion can be variously abbreviated by h² . It is found that :
 112

sinv cos w Sin u

σ = Cos³ u sin v cos²v cosw + 2A h2 Cof³ u Igu)+
10B
+
h2 sin³v cosw ( -15 Coſ³u + 11 Coſu) T +
2 Sin u
+15 Sinu Cos u - Igu + 3+ Cou
10B
+ h2 sin v cosw ( 12 Cof³ u - 8 Cosu) T-
[( 12
8 Sin u 8 Tgu
12 Sinu Cos u - 15h2 +
15 Cos³ u
C
+ sin³ v cos w
h2 {[ (6 - 4x)Cof³u + ( −6 + 3x ) Cosu]T +
- 2 Sinul +
+ ( − 6 + 4a) Sinu Coju + (2 − 3) Tgu 3 Cossu
с -
+ h2 sinv cosw [(-4 + 3x ) Cos³u + (4 — 2x ) Cofu] T +
2 2 Sin u 2 Sin³u l
- +
+ (4 − 3 a) Sinu Coſ u — 3 — £gu + 3Cos³u 3h² Cosul
6D -
+ hs sin³v cos w {[ ( -9 + 6x ) Coſ³u + ( 5 − 5x ) Coſu] T +
-
+ (9 − 6a) Sinu Coſu + ( 1 + a) £gu} +
6D
+ h2 sin v cos w { [ ( 8 -
− 5a ) Cof³u + ( −4 + 4a) Co[ u] T +

- - 2 Sinu Coful
+ ( −8 + 5x ) Sinu Coſu + ( − 2 3 − 2a) £gu 3h2
sin v cos w
σ - Sin³u Cos u sin³v cosw + 2A h₁ Igu +
10 B [ 153 ]
+ h2 sin³ v cos w [ ( 15 Cos³ u - 12 Cosu) T- 15 Sinu Cofu +2Tgu] +
10 B
+ sin v cosw -
ha [( − 11 Cof³u + 8 Coſu) T + 11 Sinu Coſu
8 Tgul с
- 2/2 gu + + sin³v cosw [ (·(-6 + 4α ) Cof³u +
15 h2 h2
-
+ (4 − 3 x ) Co[ u ] T + ( 6 − 4 x) Sinu Coſu + % Tgu} +
C
+ sin v cos w
h³ o {[ ( 6 − 3a ) Cof³u + ( −4 + 2a) Coju] T +
- 2 2 Sin³ ul
+ ( − 6 + 3x ) Sinu Coſu — — 3 Tgu + 3h2 Cofu +
6D
+ h2 sin³v cosw {[(9 -— 6x ) Cos³u + ( −8 + 5α ) Coſu] T +

+ ( - 9 + 6x) Sinu Coſu + ( 2 —'x ) Tgu} +

6D
+ sin v cos w ( −5 + 5α ) Cos³u + (4 - 4x ) Co[ u] T +
h2 {"
4 2 Sinu Cosul
- -
+ (5 − 5a ) Sinu Coſu + ( 3 + 2a)Egu + 3h2[
Co[u]
sin v cos w Sin u - CoſuT + Tgu +
σ = 2A + 10B sinv cosw ( −
h2 Cos³u
2 Sin u 8 Sin
+ + 15 h Cofu ) + C sinv cos w [ (2 — a ) (Coj u T — Tgu ) —
3 Cos³ u
- 2 Sinu + 2 2 x Zgu 2 Sin u
3 Cof³u (- 3/31 + 3 h2 3h2 Cof³ u +
2 Tgu
+ 6D sinv cos w | ( 1 ---- a) (CoſuT — Tgu ·- 3 h2
[(1
 113

The shear stresses are obtained on the basis of the relationships expressed in

Equation [ 6 ] on pages 77 and 78 wherein abbreviation by h² is used also , i.e. ,

p' COS V COS W

Tuv= h2 Sinu Cof²u sin²v cos v cosw + 2 A h4 +
10 B
+ h2 sin2v cos v cos w [( ― — 15 Cof² u + 4) Sinu T +
2
+15 Cos²u - 9 3 Cosa u +
]
[
10 B 4
-
+ h2 cos v cos w (4 Cos² u Sinu T − 4 Co²u +33 + 15h2 18²) +
с
6 .—4 x )
w {{[[ ((6
+ h2 sin2v cosv cos w Coſ² u − 2 + x ] SinuT +
Τα 2 81
+ ( − 6 + 4x) Cof²u + 4- 3 + 3 Cos2 +
-
+ osw||(( −2 + x ) Cof²u SinuT + ( 2− a ) Cof² u — 13+
cosvcosw
α 2 Sin²ul 6D
+ 3 + 3h2 + h2 sin2v cos vcos w { [ ( − 9 + 6x ) Coſ²u +

+ 2-2x] SinuT + (9-6x ) Cof²u - 5 + 4x} +

6D
+ h2 cos v cos w (2–2 a ) Cos² u SinuT +
2α 2 Cos² u [ 154]
+ (- 2 +2x) Cof² u- 3 + 3h2
10B 2 Sinu
Tow Sof² u - 4) T - 5 Sinu + 3 Cof u sinv cos v sin w +
h (5 Tos²u
C 2 Sin u
+ h sin v cos v sin w ( 2 — x ) ( — Sin² u T + Sinu
3 Cos² u:) +
6D
+ h sin v cos v sin w{[ (3-3x ) Cos²u -2 + 2x ] T +

+ ( - 3 +3x ) Sinu}
2 A sin w 10 B
Tuw + h sin w (Sin u Coſ u T — Cofu +
h Coj³ u
1 2
+
3 Cosu + 15 Cos³ u;) ( 5 sin² v −4) +
C
+ h sin w (2 — x ) ( Sinu Coj u T → Coju + 3 Coju) +
2 6D
+ cos2v + -
3 Cof³ u h sinw ( 1 − a ) (Sinu Coſu T — Coſu +
1
+ 3 Coju ) (3 sin² v –-2 )

By applying the boundary conditions , eight equations result . In σ น the coef-

sin v cos w sin v cos w sin v cos w
ficients of the terms containing h2 • and are to be
h2 > h4
set equal to zero . In T.
น บ this applies to the coefficients of the terms con-
sin2v cos v cos w COS V COS W COS V COS w
taining > and ; and in Tuw the same holds
h2 h2 h4
sin2v sin w sin w
true for the coefficients of the terms containing and However ,
h h
two of these equations are identical to each other ; moreover , three can be ex-
plained as results of the remaining ones in such a way that a total of four
equations only must be satisfied , to ascertain the boundary conditions . The

constants which are still unknown are , therefore , precisely and uniquely de-
fined . With the abbreviated expressions

3 Costu [Sinu ( T) u = u - 1] + Cos² u。g, Cosu。 = t [ 155 ]

 114

and

g{g [g (4x ) + 20 Coſ² u。 -16-4x ] -32 Cos² u。 + 16-4x) -16 Cos² uo = N [ 156 ]

we obtain

1
A= с - 2t2 D
3 B + 3

10 B = 3pt3 Sinuo {g [g ( 1 - x ) ( 2 - x ) + ( 10-8x ) t² - 4 + 4x ] +412}

aN
[ 157 ]
C -3pt³ Sinuo {g [g ( 2−2x) + 101² − 4 + 4 a ] +412}
αν
Sinuo
ᏮᎠ -3pt3 {g [g ( −2 + x ) -10t² + 4 + 2x ] −412}
αΝ

The greatest bending stress ( at the base of the notch ) becomes

01 == (ou)u = No = N {g [g ( 1012 - 2x ) -
— 36ť² + 16 —· 4x ] — 1612}
元 [ 158 ]
9=
2
w =0

The hoop stress , likewise at the base of the notch , reaches its
maximum value of

σ₂ = (σw)u = We = N g [g ( 101² + 88x ) + 4ť² ]

π [ 159 ]
v=
w =0

If the relationships expressed in Equation [ 132 ] on page 107 be considered ,

the foregoing equations also give the maximum stresses as functions of t /p .
With respect to this
t

9 2 [ 160 ]
-

wherein the value c is calculated from Equation [ 134 ] on page 107. If the

resulting expressions are developed according to rising powers of t - 1 , the

ρ
agreement with Equations [ 147 ] and [ 148 ] on page 110 can be verified by cross-
ing the boundary ( Grenzübertragung ) toward t → 1. In Chapter V, Section 4D ,

such a calculation is carried out .

t =
The stress distribution for an inside notch , with 10 and m
1 = 0.3,

is shown in Figure 59. This example is not only noteworthy because of the
strong development of the stress peak but principally because it clearly il-
lustrates how the stress in a bent bar can become greater inside than outside ,

as a result of internal notch effect .

From the lines of equal bending stress plotted on the right , fur-
thermore , it can be very clearly recognized how the rectilinear law

(Geradliniengesetz ) begins to function in the outward direction , i.e. , away

from the notch . At a distance from the x -axis equal to twice the depth of the
 115

р гр зр 2.0

Ou 16
Ov V.플
·Ow)
1.2

0, - 3.56p 3.56 0.8

O₂- 0.64p 3.0
2.0
1.0

Lines of Equal
Bending Stress
Oy -const
-2P 3P

1 } u -u₂

4Mt
P που
-10 = .3
2-0

KIN
Section w = 0 Section v = 플

Figure 59 - Circular Internal Notch under Bending

notch , the effect of the inside notch on the distribution of stresses can

scarcely still be noticed . There , the bar behaves practically as a solid cyl-
inder . The ratio t /b , which is determinative for the validity of the theory

of the shallow inside notch , and which , considered mathematically , would have
19

5p

4 Mt 1 0.5 0,
P πb m 03
0.2
12

3p
22

10 20 30 40

Figure 60 - The Maximum Stress in Shallow Circular

Internal Notches under Bending
 116

to be vanishingly small , therefore does not have to be so very small at all ,

practically , to permit the present solution to be considered sufficiently

exact .

Figure 60 shows the maximum stress as a function of the notch cur-

vature and of Poisson's ratio .

C. PURE SHEAR

In the treatment of the problem of shear for shallow circumferen-

tial inside notches , the same general viewpoints are definitive as for the
problem of bending . The solution for the solid cylinder under pure shear
load over the section x = 0 is used as a starting point . On the basis of the

three -dimensional method , this solution assumes the following form :

(α - 1 ) (5-2x ) p -
Φ . = -рxy + y² +
xy (y²
α(5 α) 62
Φι - (1 - -x) p
α) b² Y(y² + z² — 4x²) [ 161 ]
a(5 -
(4-2x) p 2
Ø2 = a (5 − a) bê x (y² + 2² ,
0
;-)

pxy
F = -рxy + - α) b² [( 4 − 2 x) (y² + z²) + 4 (2ª [ 162 ]
(5 — 3 – 1 ) 2º]

- α) p
- 4 (4 y = σ₂ = 0 [ 163 ]
(5 — α) b2 xy ,

- y2 ― (α- 1 ) 22) Tzx =

(-6 +2a)p
yz [ 164 ]
zy = p (1 − x²
b2 - α)b²) ›
(5 — Tyz = 0 , (5 — ∞) b²

It is easy to convince oneself that the condition expressed by Equation [ 110 ]

on page 102 is satisfied along the external boundary . From Equation [ 164 ] it

is evident that the reference value p is the shear stress along the axis of
the solid cylinder . If the shear or transverse force transmitted in the bar

is designated by V, it can be determined on the basis of the integral , Equa-

tion [ 16 ] on page 80 , that

z²
V = Py = Tzy z P [ 165 ]
~ -[[ ,, dy d = = p [ —1 ) b=
3 —
[[ 1 - b2 - (5 8" ) dydz

The integrals fy²dy dz and 22 dydz are familiarly equal to the polar moment
F F
of inertia , the integral dy dz is to be set equal to the surface area

of the cross section so that the result is

5- α V 3m + 2 V
P =4 από2 = 2m + 2 ль² [ 166 ]

Continuing the process of calculation again consists in transferring this so-

lution to the coordinate system of the notch . Moreover , for the special case
 117

where t = p of a spherical notch surface , it is converted to spherical coor

dinates . In the general case , ellipsoidal coordinates are used .

The Special Case t = p

In transferring to the system of coordinates , Equation ( 7 ) on page
78 , functions result which , with definite n- and v -values , can be directly
interpreted as components of the general potential function , Equation ( 40 ) (on
- page 84 , as was to be expected . In determining the disturbing stresses , the

terms containing the factor 1/62 will be disregarded from the very outset .
These terms were those which had to be disregarded for the stress concentra
tion factor at the end of calculation within the scope of the theory of shal
low notches . Therefore , it is just a question of superimposing auxiliary
stresses with whose help the boundary conditions , Equation ( 13 ) on page 79 ,
can be satisfied , upon the stress condition Tzy = p . The terms containing
1/62 which are therefore disregarded in the following calculation must natu
rally again be considered in the description of the total condition .
The sole function remaining

0 , = -pxy = -pu2 sin v cos v cOS W ( 167 )

is identified as the case where n = 1 , v = 2. As an auxiliary or supplemen
tary function , n = 1 , v = - 3 for 4. next enters the problem . However , this
function does not yet suffice and n = 1 , v = - 2 for ø , and n = 00 , v == - 2 for
2 must be taken additionally , which at the stresses involved lead to similar
components in vand w . This gives the expression
А B
Φ0 sin v cos v cos w , Ф, sin v cos w
D = [ -pu?+
?
с
u3
( 168 )
Φ,= cosv , V

The stress function becomes

A +
F
-pu? + นง + Bu
= -pe sinv cos v cos w ( 169 )

Based on the conditions expressed in Equation ( 10 ) on page 78 , the normal

stresses are found to be :
12 A 8 + a
ou
2p
2
- ) sinv cosv cosw
(B + C)]
us

0 , =
1-2p +3a
7A
us
+
(B + C)
u
1
sinv cos v cos w ( 170 )
(5 A - 3
=
Two

+
B ++ C))
(B
u3 C) sin v cos v cosw

Corresponding to Equation ( 11 ) on page 78 , the following shear stresses are

finally derived :
 118

4A 4-α 3α
tuv = + + 2u3 ( B + C)] cos 2 v cosw + 2u3 (B - C) cosw
α 1
Tow = P - น48 + us =¹ (B + C)
c)] sinv sin w
[ 171 ]
A
Tuw = | -p - 4u5
4 - 2 + α B + 2αu3= 2 c]
cos v sin w

The constants are determined directly from the boundary conditions

and have the following values , wherein for simplicity we set u。 = t = 1

6 5р
A = -C , B = C, с= [ 172 ]
c, 4+ 5α

The maximum shear stress occurs at the point of the base of the notch where
the tangent to the boundary lies parallel to the direction of shear and is

15
T1 = (Tow)u = uo = [ 173 ]
π 101 ( 1.917 for 0.3 )
v=w= m

Along the y-axis , the shear stress attains a relative maximum value ;
there
P 24
— (Tuv) л = p+ us + 5(4,7 α)] [ 174 ]
4 + 5α
2
w =0
dTuv
By setting du = 0 , the point of the highest value is found to be given by

y = 2 2
u= =
[ 175 ]
2- % 1+
m

By substituting this value into Equation [ 174 ] , the following expression is

obtained for the relative maximum value :

(1 + m 1
=
: (Tue)max = p1 +
T₂ = 5 1.09p for m = 0.3) [ 176 ]
4(7 m

The normal stress o , which is effective on the surface reaches its

3 -
maximum value at v = ? w = 0 ( u = uo = 1 ) with

15 1
= 2.73p for = [ 177 ]
σ₁ = 5P m 0.3)
7
m

At the same point the hoop stress o,

w is simultaneously effective with its
maximum value

15
m
02 = = 0.82p for [ 178 ]
5 P for m -0.3)
7-
m
 119

The General Case

For the treatment of the arbitrarily curved notch , the related

functions on ellipsoidal coordinates are sought out and based on Equation [ 38 ]
on page 83 , while retaining the same n- and v - values , whereby the expressions

- 1
Þ。 = [-
[ − p Sinu Coſu + A (Sinu Coſu T −
− Coju + 3ofu ) ] sinv cosv cos w
[ 179 ]
Φι = B[CojuT- Egu] sinv cosw
P₂ SinuT1 ] cosv ,
C[[ SinuT
2 = C Ø3 = 0

are obtained . The terms containing the factor 1/62 are omitted from the very
start . The stress function becomes

F =
[−p
-P Sinu Coſu + (A + B + C ) Coſu ( SinuT − 1 ) +
1 [ 180 ]
sin v cos v cosw " +|
+ (1 + B) Coju)

Using Equations [ 4 ] and [ 5 ] (on page 77) the normal stresses are found from the
deflections . In so doing , abbreviation by h² is repeatedly possible .

σu -
„„ = h2
}
} {p Sin2u − [ 4 + ( 1 − a ) (B + C') ] ( Sin2uT − 2 Coſu) +
A
+ [ 24 - 4B + ( 1 + x ) C ] ( oju +
1 1
+ ( 24 + 2B) Cossu sinv cos v cosw + ( − 2 B + C) Coju +

sin v cos v cos w

3 + 2B) Coju ]
+ (24
[ 181 ]
- − -
‚ ³ { − p Sin2 u + [ A + (1 − x) (B + C) ] ( Sin 2 u T − 2 Coſu ) +
h2
A 1
++ |24 - +
3 − 2 B + (2
(2 −
— α) Co Coju
1 A 1
sinv cos v Cosw
1 [ (2B —· C)
+ h2 Coju —
C) Coju 3 + 2B) coju ]}
— (24
1- α A 1
sin v cos v cos w
= h2 (( −2B + C) Coju 3 + 2B) Cof³ u
(24

For the shear stresses also , which are found from Equation [ 6 ] on pages 77

and 78 , abbreviation by h2 is again possible and it is found that

COS W
Tuv =
h2 {p Coſ²u + [ A + ( 1 − x ) ( B + C) ] ( − Coſ² uT + Sinu ) +
cos w sin v
+ (2B - C) Sinu} + h2 -p Cos2u +
― A
+ [ A + (1 − x) (B + C) ] · ( Coſ 2u T − 2 Sinu ) + | - 3 +
COS W 2
+ (a -1) B + Sinu h4 (−2B + C) Coj²u + 33 A + 2B |
[ 182 ]
του = Sinu + [A + ( 1 − x ) (B + C ) ] ( — Sinu T + 1 ) +
{p Sinu
A - ‫ רי‬sin v sin w
3 + ( x − 1 ) B ] Cos2
+ [− 1 602² π }

Tuw - -
-¦
¦ { − pCoju + [ A + (1 − x ) ( B + C) ] (CoſuT — Tgu ) —
A Sinu
COS V COS W
− (21 + 2B) Cossu
 120

The boundary conditions next lead to six equations of condition for the con
stants occurring in the solution ; in on the coefficient of the term contain
ing sin v cos ze cos w and of the term containing sin v cosp
h
cos w must be set
equal to zero for u = Uo , while in Txo the coefficient of the term contain
COS W sin ? v cos w COS w
ing h2
with and of the term containing must be set equal to
h2 h'
zero . Finally , in Tuw the case is concerned with the coefficient cos v _cos W.
h
Two of these coefficients are equal to each other ; moreover , two equations of
condition can be explained as results of the remaining ones . Therefore, a
total of three equations only must be satisfied . From the solution , the fol
lowing values are found for the constants :
с
A = 3(1 - Copaw )C.
А
2
uo В.
2

( 183 ]
с p Copa uo
a
3 Coſa No – 2 + 2 1 - CoſaUg arc cot( Sin wo) + Sinu,] + 2 Sin to

In calculating the maximum stress values , it is advantageous to again intro

duce the scale of curvature , Equation [ 132 ] on page 107 , as a parameter .
Moreover , for brevity let
1 t
N = p Copa uo ( 184 )
с = -1) '{[(2- )€ +1 + AlleC - 1) -25 +2}
m

be introduced or substituted . Equation ( 134 ] on page 107 is again valid for c .

The greatest shear stress results as

1
Ti = ( Tow )w = 20 ग

2
$ 2(1 - V m ( 185 )

The value of the maximum shear stress occurring over the section
w = 0 , v = a / 2 lies at the point Sinu V3 Sinue with satisfactory exactness
or
2
cowo V1 + 3Sin?uo= 11/ 1 +
y = Coíno -= +
and becomes

: -1)
arctg) 3
te = p +
N
p l e- +++
( 1
)
|(2 。
2
1+ m
13
VA
+

( 186 )
+ 6-1) (- + --
( 3
+
)
m 3 m

62
V3 +
13
The stress on reaches its maximum value

9 = P221-1
01 N ( 187 )
 121

on the surface for

Gin20 Sin² 20
w = 0, COB V = or x=
Veos20 Cosu Cos24

The maximum value of the hoop stress at the same point becomes

Р −1
σ =N m [ 188 ]

For t/p = 1 , agreement with Equations [ 177 ] and [ 178 ] can be proved
by development in a series T₂ only agrees for m = 3; The deviation for
other values of m can be explained by the fact that the position of the maxi-
mum was only determined approximately ) .

АУ Direction
p2p of Shear

(Eur)v= π

-T₂- 160p
Lines of
Shear Stress!

-1.22p -122p
-406P 01-406p
Or} uo
Ow u- p-- 3m+2
2m+2 πb
2-10 11-0.3
Section w = 0 Section =

Figure 61 - A Circular Internal Notch under Shear

Left, axial section in the direction of shear with the stress

curve ; right , normal section with shear stress lines .

Figures 61 and 62 show the stress distribution for t /p = 10 ,

1 /m = 0.3 . The typical phenomena are essentially the same as for the exter-
nal notch . In Figure 61 , left , axial section in the direction of shear , it

can be recognized very clearly that the stresses o ,, ow , and P. , attain their
highest values very close to the base of the notch , whereas at the base of
the notch itself they become equal to zero . Figure 62 , left , shows the dis-
tribution of shear over the section perpendicular to the direction of shear .
This shear distribution , familiar from the problems of tension and bending ,
shows the variation of the stress which would be uniform if the notch were

not present , but which is , however , very strongly disturbed by the notch and
 122

12
2p Direction of Shear 989
0.8

0.6
(Tvw) - π
1,0
12 04

2.84 24 0.2

19
T,-2.84p

54
6
T - const)
Lines of Equal
Shear Stress.

(Tvwhu-10

2
Section w = Section v =
EN

Figure 62 · A Circular Internal Notch under Shear ; Continuation of Figure 61

Left, axial section perpendicular to the direction of shear with the stress curve ; 69
right, normal section with equal shear stres. lines .

attains a very strong peak toward the edge . Therefore , at such points where
the tangent to the boundary lies in the direction of shear , the highest load-
ing prevails .

On the right side of both figures , the flow of shear over the
entire section is plotted according to magnitude and direction . The result-

ant shear stress (T . )... which determines the flow of shear can be derived in
the following simple manner from the components T., and T. , which the present
calculation gives . As can be seen from Equation [ 182 ] on page 119 , the fol-

lowing values can be set :

Tuo = (Tue)w= 0 COBW , Tow = (Tow) 81 sin w [ 189 ]

2

The values of (T ) = 0 and (T )W = /2 are already expressed in the left

sides of both figures in the form of curves . Now , to derive the resultant

shear stress according to magnitude and direction at any point P of the cross
section , whose midpoint is at the same time the origin 0 of the system of co-
ordinates , the value of ( T. ) = o pertaining to y = OP is plotted in the y-
direction starting from P on the one hand ; on the other hand the value of
(T.vw )w = /2 belonging to z = OP; see the end points A and B in Figure 63. Then

a circle is drawn with the diameter AB; a parallel to OP traversing B cuts

this circle at C; PC is the resultant shear stress according to magnitude and
direction .
 123

As proof , the broken parallels inter-

‫می‬
secting at points D and E of Figure 63 are
drawn . The shear stresses T. , which on the one

)wvw
-T&
( -
hand must proceed in the w-direction and perpen-
dicular to the latter according to definition

Tulros
and which are the components of PA and PB ac-

cording to Equation [ 189 ] on the other hand , are

recognized as the distances PD and PE. In the
drawing the negative sign is given Tw,
vw? since
the coordinate w diminishes in the direction of
this stress . However , PD and PE are the compo-
nents of the resultant shear stress PC according

to construction .

Figure 64 represents all of the maxi- Figure 63 · Determination

mum values as a function of the scale of of the Resultant
Shear Stress
curvature .

8p

1p

α
+
Бр 3m 262 05-
P- 2m+2 -

5p

4P

зр

02

10 20 30 40

Figure 64 · The Maximum Stresses in a Shallow Circular

Internal Notch under Shear
 124

D. PURE TORSION
In the case of pure torsional loading , the special case character .
ized by Equations ( 96 ) and ( 97 ) on page 99 is again evident . For the stress
condition in the solid cylinder without a notch it is first found that
2M 2M
0. = 0 , 0 , = 0 , 0, > arbitz , Ф.
ºg алыху , F =0 ( 190 )

2M 2M
Og Oy 0, Tyz = 0 , Try * 642, Taz rbo y ( 191 ]

In the foregoing Mis the torque , for which also the integral, Equation ( 16 ) ,
on page 80 , must be satisfied with M, instead of M. However , this proof is
superfluous , because the case deals with elementary formulas of strength
theory .
In this relatively simple problem , we begin directly with the gen
eral case of the arbitrarily curved notch , without treating the special case
t = p separately . Therefore , conversion is now made to ellipsoidal coordi
nates and the result is

Φ , Φ, 2M
COS w sinw arba Sinu Coſu sin v cos V ( 192 )

The term Sinu Coju , which is a function of u , corresponds to the values n = 1 ,

v = 2 for the general potential function , Equation ( 38 ) on page 83 . The sup
plementary function is obtained by substituting vy = - 3 for v = 2 , so that
the result found is

Φ, 2M 1
CO8 W sin w arbe Sinu Coju + A (Sinu Coſul – Coſu + 3Cofu) sinv cosv
F = 0
( 193 )
0, = 0, Φ , = 0,

By means of Equations ( 4 ) , ( 5 ) , and [ 6 ] on pages 77 and 78 , the following

expressions
Ou og = 0x = 0
Tuo 0

p 1
nu TofuT – Coju + 3Coim))sin®v ( 194 )
Tow h ( Sinu Coju + 1 (Sinu 2 Sinu
p
Tura -

Cojeu + A (Coj?u T – Sinu -

17)
3 Coju
sin v cos v

are derived from the foregoing . In the preceding expressions

2M
164 =p ( 195 )

is set for brevity . As a reference stress , the torsional stress of the solid
cylinder at the distance t from its axis will be introduced as
2 Mt
p = Abe ( 196 )
 125

Then , because of Equation ( 129 ) on page 106

P P
p' = ☆ Coſto ( 197 )

For the constant AA, the boundary condition ,, Equation [(13 ] ( on page 79) gives b ) con
the value
79)
Sinto Sinuo
A - ( T ) = v. + Coju +2 [ 198 ]
3 Coj* uo

The maximum stress appears at the base of the notch and becomes
Ар 1
T mas - ( Towee
T

2
p + Sinu , Cojuo Sinu, Coju , ( T ) = 40 Cojvo + 3cobwe) 3 Coj ( 199 ]

After substituting the notch curvature, Equation ( 132 ) on page 107 , and the
abbreviation c from Equation ( 134 ] , the expression can be written in the fol
lowing form

2
Tax ( -1) ( 200 ]
р 3 + 2
3 * *.-5 +
M
x

imor- 29p Tro 3p

2p

u up

2P Y( Tulu -ino
ур

-o
2-26
2M४
po.२

Lines of Stress

Figure 65 Circular Internal Notch under Torsion

For t / e = 26, the stress distribution can be seen in Figure 65. For
-
the outside boundary , the radius b = 2t could be chosen , since at this dis
tance the stress curve of the solid cylinder was already evident . The stress
peak whose value is 2.9p, which begins at the inside boundary , considerably
exceeds the stress value 2p of the outside boundary . Along the surface , es
pecially toward the axis , the shear stress decreases very rapidly . An axial
 126

hole of small diameter would scarcely change the stress distribution notice
ably , since the material in the immediate vicinity of the axis practically
does not participate in the deformation . To the left , the lines of stress
are given which state the direction of the resultant shear stress at every
point . They can be found most simply by setting up their differential equa
tions and integrating . The u- and v - components of the linear element of a
line of stress are to each other as the u- and v - components of the shear
stress ; therefore ,
hdu du Tume
hdv du Tom ( 201 )

If the expressions from Equation ( 194 ) are substituted for both stress compo
nents , integration gives the following equation for the family of stress lines
( 20 ) :
[Cof* u + A (Cof*uT - Coja u Sinu - Sinu)] sin * v = constant . ( 202 )
Figure 66 shows the maximum stress values as a function of the scale
or unit of curvature . For the special case
51 t = P , whose separate treatment has been omitted
up
as superfluous here , the maximum stress will be
3p ! Imax
2pl determined from Equation ( 200 ) , 1.e. , from the
limiting case . Thus , for brevity let
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

e
: 9 ( 203 )
Figure 66 Maximum Stress
in Circular Internal then
Notches under Torsion
arctgla
ra 1- + q? - + ...
5 ( 204 )

and finally
Tmax 2q2
р 9 qa +
3(1 + 2q + 90)(1 - { + 3 --) -- 59-3 ( 205 )
292 1
8 8 4 4
-g² 35
93 + ...

5 35 9 +

Now , let t = P , i.e. , q = 0 ; then the result for the spherical notch is
Tmax 5

р 4 ( 206 )

which can be easily proved in spherical coordinates .

In all loading situations of circular internal notches , it has been
seen that the stress of the solid cylinder enters the calculation as the ref
erence value p instead of the nominal stress related to the narrowest section .
The maximum stress in each case is found by multiplying the stress of the
 127

solid cylinder p by a coefficient which is a function of the curvature tle

only and which represents the stress concentration factor for a shallow notch .
As a result of the law of fading , the disturbance of the stress dis
tribution is already no longer noticeable at a relatively short distance from
the axis . Therefore , the theory of the shallow notch can be used within cer
tain limits also as an approximation for a notch of any arbitrary depth .
This principle has been used in Figures 57 , 59 , 61 , 62, and 65 , where the ex
ternal boundary was assumed at a distance of b = 2t or 3t . However , this
line of reasoning only leads to an approximation method wherein an error of
greater or lesser magnitude must always be accepted .
The diminishing effect of the external boundary must be considered ,
insofar as the nominal stress is replaced by the reference value p ; thus , for
, = )Tm.. This method, to be
example, under torsional loading Tn by p = (1 - 16 )Tr
=
n ,
sure , gives sufficiently accurate values in many cases , not , however , in
every arbitrary case . Consideration for the effect of the external radius 6
must rather be brought about by determining the stress concentration factor
for both the shallow and the deep notch and superimposing both upon each
other according to the method given in Chapter II , Section 4 , pages 5 through
8. Furthermore, it will be shown that the effect of an axial hole plays an
essential part for circumferential notches and must be considered in each
case by a third limiting value of the stress concentration factor .
In the following section , effort will be dedicated to the determin
ation of all those limiting values of the stress concentration factor which
are still required for a complete treatment of circumferential notches . The
appertaining stress distributions all merely lie more distant from the axis
and can consequently be treated as two - dimensional .

5. CIRCUMFERENTIAL NOTCHES WITH TWO -DIMENSIONAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION

The following four cases are differentiated .

1 . The shallow circumferential external notch ; see Figure 67 , where

t << a ;
2. The shallow circumferential internal notch with large axial hole ;
see Figure 68 , where t « a and t «< c ;
3..
The deep circumferential external notch with a large axial hole ;
see Figure 69 , where a «< t , a « c ;
4以 . The deep circumferential internal notch ; see Figure 70 , where a << t .
The two cases mentioned first can be treated mutually . The same
holds true for the two cases last mentioned . Therefore , with respect to this
problem , it is only necessary to differentiate between the shallow and deep
 128

notch . The range which must be considered in regard to

the occurrence of the notch stresses or disturbing

stresses in each case is far from the axis in all cases .

Cylindrical coordinates are used for the math-

75 ematical treatment and the following values are set

Figure 67 · Shallow
Circumferential x = x, y = rcosw , z = r sin w [ 207 ]
External Notch

76 77
Figure 68 - A Shallow Figure 69 - A Deep Figure 70 - A Deep
Circumferential Circumferential Circumferential
External Notch External Notch Internal
inside a Large with a Large Notch
Axial Hole Axial Hole

Consideration is taken for the general relationships , valid for curvilinear

coordinates , and from Equation [ 20 ] , Chapter III , Section 3 , page 16 . Sub

stituting x for u and r for v , the following factors of distortion are

· obtained :

h₂ = 1 , h = 1, hw = r [ 208 ]

With the foregoing and from Equation [ 98 ] , Chapter III , Section 7 , page 29
it follows that the A-operator is

22 1 2 1
A=
x2 + Əra + + +2 w2 [ 209 ]

Considering Equations [ 91 ] and [ 92 ] , Chapter III , Section 7 , page 28 , the

following expressions are derived for AF, as well as for the stresses :

sin w d₂ მთ . cos w 3
AF + sin w ar + T [ 210 ]
= 2 (80+ cosw dr T Iw

22 F მდ.
0+ -
მ 2 + (1 − 2) 4F + 2x 201
22 F მთ .
σ,
dr²2 + (1 2 AF + 2x (cos w or + sin w ar
[ 211 ]
1 OF - 1 02 F a 2α ap,
- sin w
σ = +122 2 + ( 1 - AF
AF + 20(T - Iw +
Фа
+ cos w dw
 129

дФ
+ a lot + coow , + sin w ಅ )
32 F ΟΦ,
Tar CO8
axor дх дх
a 1 OF (сов и дФ, Ф, sin w 29 ,
ta sinu +
Trw =
)
,
ar(гд w
е aw ow
+ ar
( 211 )
дФ .
+ COB
ar
1 2 °F 1 дФ, Ф, дФ.

97
lev
roxow ta to ow al sinw
дх
+ cos )
Prom the foregoing , the functions to be considered for the individual types
of loading can be derived easily .

A. PURE TENSION
In tensile loading , $, and , can be set equal to zero as a result
of the symmetry of rotation ( circular symmetry or rotational symmetry ;
Drehsymmetrie ) . For the remainder , the same substitutions will be used which
were utilized for the condition of plane deformation .
дФ.
Φ , = Φ + αΦ , Φ , = дФ.
Oxy Φ, = Φ , = 0 , Φ + α дх
F
( 212 )
= (x , r) , = $ (x , r) , ΔΦ = ΔΦ, = 0
Then

F = Φ . + αΦ, = F + αΦ, ( 213 )

As already mentioned , the stress interference condition , definitive for the
calculation of the desired limiting values of the stress concentration factor ,
always lies at a great distance from the axis , 1.e., within a range whose
dimensions in the t- and r-directions are to be considered small compared to
itself . Therefore, to go beyond the boundary in a correct and logical man
ner , it is necessary to set r = 0 , whereby the A -operator becomes
22
4 + [ 214 ]
дх ? д 2

that is , it goes over into the A- operator of the x-, r-plane . Considering that
ΔΦ,' 0 , it then follows from Equation [ 210 ] that
F' 22F ' o20 2;
AF = AF де? + dra
2
Tar? ( 215 )
дх?

Using the foregoing and substituting p = o into Equation ( 211 ) likewise , it

finally results that
2F' ap ' 1
do? 0 , = д ? ON ( 0 , + 0 ,))
0.
2F' [ 216 ]
Ter = -

дід, ? Trw = 0 , 0

We recognize that the stresses depend upon the stress functions in the same
way as for the condition of plane stress concentration . In this way , it is
 130

proved that the present case is essentially a two -dimensional problem . Cal-
culation is superfluous , since the solution in question was already derived
in Chapter IV . Therefore , Equation [ 131 ] of Chapter IV , Section 4 , page 56 ,
is valid for the stress concentration factor ofthe shallow notch , whereas
1
Equation [ 190 ] of Chapter IV , Section 6 , page 71 , is applied for the deep
notch . For the maximum value of the hoop stress , which will be designated by
1
₂ , the value m σ z would result from Equation [ 216 ] when σ , = 0 ( no - load
boundary ) . However , it must be considered that the relationships expressed
in Equation [ 216 ] , which could be derived with consideration for the great
distance from the axis r of the field of interference , are valid only for the
actual notch stresses which obey the law of the stress gradient ( Abklingungs-
gesetz ) and are not valid for the elementary condition of equilibrium σ =

which already occurs in the unnotched bar and in which the hoop stress van-
ishes . For the calculation of the maximum value of the hoop stress , there-

fore , it is merely necessary to substitute the increment o · on, which is

produced by the notch effect for o, instead of ; this gives

= - [ 217 ]
02 m

B. PURE BENDING

In the case of pure bending loads , it must be noted that the

stresses depend on the coordinate w in addition to x and r . As can be seen

from the problems treated in Chapter V , Section 3B, and Chapter V, Section
4B , the factor cos w appears in the functions , and 1, and we can write

P。0 = 。 (x , r) cosw , P₁1 = 91 (x , r) cos w [ 218 ]

Applying the A-operator in Equation [ 209 ] , then , leads to the following dif-
ferential equation for 。 or 1:

22 და
მ2 22Фо
q 1 00 Po = Фо = 0
dx2 + dr2 + ar Αφο -- [ 219 ]

If in the foregoing , we set r∞ , we again get the potential equation of the

x-, r-plane ; that is , the factor cos w which appears in bending produces no
change in the development of the correct differential equation , as compared
with tensile loading . Moreover , since nothing is changed with respect to the

derivation of the stresses , if 2 and ø, are again set equal to zero , the
same line of reasoning applies once more as in the tensile problem and the
same stress concentration factors result .

C. PURE SHEAR

It is evident from the shear problems , treated in Chapter V , Sec-

tion 30 , and Chapter V , Section 4C , that , and , contain the factor cos w,
 131

whereas the function 2, which can now no longer be set equal to zero , depends

only on x and r, i.e. , is a function of x and r only . To establish the nomi-

nal stress , the stress distribution is first required in the hollow cylinder
under shear load , inside radius c , outside radius b , which can be represented
as follows with the aid of the three - dimensional method .

(x - 1 ) (5-2x) 4 b2c2 x
2 a ) (x r³ - -
•。 = c |- (b² + c²) xr + α(5 - x) — 3 x³r) — b²c² 7 | COS
co W
1 b2c2
P₁ = C (†³ -
— 4x²r) + α r COS W [ 220 ]
(5 - x )
4
P₂2 = C - Ø3 = 0
a (5- 2α, (
-α) x². – 2323 x³) ,
(xr²

- COS W [221 ]
F = C { − (b² + c²) xr + 5_a [ (4
(4—2x) xr³ + ( − 4 + 3a) x³r}}

8C
ΔΕ - XT COSW [ 222 ]
-α

= C 4 (4x) xr cosw , σ, = 0 , 010 = 0

5 -x
b2c2
TI,,T = C | b² -+ c2 - - r² cosw Trw == 0
+2 [ 223 ]
b2c2 α-1
Txw = C c2 - α r2] sin w
+ 8==r²
01-02-

If the shear force is designated by V, it follows from comparison with ele-

mentary stress theory that

5 -α V
с = - c¹) [224]
π
4 - α л(b¹ —

The stress variation in the hollow cylinder thus obtained immediately gives
the starting point for the calculation of the notched cylinder , insofar as the
notch curvature still continues to be disregarded and thus the region about
the narrowest cross section can be regarded approximately as a piece of a

hollow cylinder . For the external notch , b then becomes identical to c + a ;

for the internal notch , c becomes identical to b - a . The distance from the

axis r still has nearly the same value in the base of the notch as everywhere

in the zone of interference . Within the range of the boundary traversal here
intended , the deviation is in any case negligibly small compared to r itself .
Furthermore , if x = 0 is assumed for the base of the notch , x must also be
disregarded with respect to b or c . Thus , there is obtained the following
elementary stress condition of the zone of interference :

σz = σ, = Ow = Tzr = 0 [ 225 ]

Trw = 0 , Tzw = Tn sinw [ 226 ]

 132

The nominal stress T, substituted in the foregoing (with c + a instead of b )

for the external notch is expressed

V [ (3 + 2 ) e² + ( 1 + 2 ) (c + a)²]
= — (Txw)r =
- [ 227 ]
2 x (1 + — ) [ (c + a)• − c• ]

For the internal notch (with b · a instead of c ) , we find

v (3 + 2) + (1+ ) (b 一
− a)³]
叫
In = - (Tzw) r = c = [ 228 ]
л л1 + [b₁ (b − a)"]
W= m
2 (1

By a special theorem , it can now be shown that a variation in this

simple stress distribution , with consideration for the notch curvature , is
only to be assumed insofar as the stress Tw changes and the stress T,Tw OC-
curs supplementarily as a pure interference stress . The latter satisfies the
boundary condition and no normal stresses occur . We set

a4。 240
Φο = x COS W
δε + r dr + (1 − 2 x) o c
[ 229 ]
Φι фо фо - Фо
dx
cos w , $2 = ar T P3
이

wherein should be a function of x and r only and cos w is postulated as

a harmonic function . Therefore , for the differential equation

Фо
ΔΦο - =0 [ 230 ]

is again valid , from which on the one hand it follows that

Фо 2 00 290
=0 [ 231 ]
+2
4 (90)+ 3 ar +3

and on the other , by differentiation

2 фо 290
Δ1 + =0 [ 232 ]
4(204)- 72 dr

It can be recognized easily from this that 0, 1, and 2 are in fact har-
monic functions .

The stress function becomes

F - 2x cosw = [ 233 ]
(AF = 0)

and the following stresses are obtained :

a
σ = 0, σ, = -2x cosw , Ow = 20 COS W
dr T dr T
οι δρο cosw Trw = ∞ 1 00 Фо sinw
TIT = r ox
,
dr² r dr + +2 [ 234 ]
d² po sinw
Txw = ∞ ax dr
 133

Now , if we set r = ∞ and substitute a new function

α dr = Ф [ 235 ]

for simplification , we get

= = σω = TIT - 0
aq [ 236 ]
Trw - dr
sinw , Txw = sinw
1

The potential equation for the x-, r -plane again follows for from Equation
[ 232 ] when r = ∞ . With the help of this presentation , the desired interfer-

ence stresses can now be determined in a surprisingly simple manner .

The shallow- notch problem may be treated by superimposing a suit-

イル si
able interference stress condition upon the elementary condition Tw = nw,

where the function = Tx

n corresponds so that the notch surface becomes load-

free . For this purpose , we convert to elliptical coordinates and set

ε=b r ( or --- c) = Cos u sin v,

r— x = Sinu cos v [ 237 ]

As is evident from Equation [ 236 ] , the x- component of the shear stress pre-

vailing in the axial section w = constant is obtained by differentiation of

the stress function sin w with respect to x , and the r- component is found by
differentiating with respect to r. Consequently , differentiation in the u- or

v -direction is definitive for the u- or v - component . Using our expression for

curvilinear coordinates , Chapter III , Section 3 , therefore we get

1 dy sinw , 1 dø
Tuw Tow sin w [ 238 ]
hu δυ ho dv

The elliptical coordinates here selected have repeatedly been of service in

the treatment of notch problems . The factors of distortion , which become

equal to each other as a result of isometry , are given in Equation [ 49 ] , Chap-

ter IV , Section 2 , page 38. For , the simple potential equation , Equation
[ 46 ] , Chapter IV , Section 1 , page 37 , is used .

For the shallow notch , the notched boundary consists both of the
straight lines € = 0 or v = 0 and of the actual notch for which an ellipse

designated by uo is used . Therefore , the two boundary conditions

(Tvw)v = 0 = 0 , (Tuw)u = uo 0 [ 239 ]

must be satisfied . The elementary function = T₁₁x

n = T n Sinu cosv already sat-

isfies the first condition . In order that this also be the case for the in-

terference function , it must depend in the same manner on v ; on the other

hand , it will obey the law of the stress gradient and vanish for large values
of u . From the foregoing , as well as with consideration for the potential
equation , we get e " cos v and we set
 134

Q = In (Sinu + Ae - u) cos v [ 240 ]

From the latter , the stresses follow as

Tuso = ( Coſu Ae - u ) cos v sin w

( 241 )
Tor = ( -Sinu Ae - ) sinv sin w
The second boundary condition finally requires
A = eeuo Cou ( 242 )
The parameter uo appearing in this way is calculated in terms of the depth of
the notch and the radius of curvature ; compare Chapter IV, Section 4 . It is .

found that Cotuo = Vt7e.

In Figure 71 , the stress distribution is shown for the case where
Cot uc = 5 .The maximum loading prevails in the base of the notch where the
shear stress is six times as great . In general , the maximum stress is

Tmax - (Towu == U

2
= to(1 + Cotuo)= n( 1 +1A)
in [ 243 ]

The same stress concentration factor

had already been found for an ellipti.
cal hole under bending ; see Figure 34
tole

-25 on page 58 .
2tr
Tmax = 677 In contrast to the shallow
4T
4 in
notch , it is not a question of super
)
(Two ) uous
2 tn imposing an interference function up
EI
on a prescribed elementary stress
function for the deep notch , but of
Figure 71 - Shallow Circumferential establishing an independent stress
Notch at a Great Distance from the
Axis under Shear or Torsion function which immediately makes the
Compare Figures 67 and 68 inner and outer boundaries load-free
and which is already uniquely deter
mined by this double boundary condition . One of the two boundaries is curved

in a notch- like way and should be considered as hyperbola v , in the calcula

tion , since the problem deals with the immediate vicinity of the base of the
notch only , where the other boundary is formed by the straight line e = 0 or
v = 0. Consequently , the two boundary conditions 1

(tr ) 0 = 0 , = =0
(Tow ) v ( 244 )
must be satisfied . The only solution considered is that where the shear
stress Tow does not only vanish along both boundaries, but vanishes entirely :
 135

q = Au , Tuw - sin w , Του - 0 [ 245 ]

h

To determine the constant A , the stress flow must be investigated . The shear

force V, including the sign , must be equal to the sum of the y- components of
the stresses which act on any given section from the boundary v = 0 to the
boundary v = vo • We select an area u = constant and get

V = --- [ 246 ]
Tuw cos ( y , w) dF = [] Tu w sin wd F
!!

The element of area dF is therefore a small rectangle with the edges hdv and
hdw. The factor of distortion h , however , is equal to the axial distance r
which , according to assumption , is large compared to the width a of the nar-
rowest section . It consequently is to be conceived as constant in the fore-

going integration and can be set equal to c for the external notch and equal
to b for the internal notch . Thus , for the outside notch it is found that

2π 10
V = Tuw sinwhdvcd w = Acπυρ [ 247 ]
‫سه‬

The nominal stress of the deep external notch can be derived from Equation
[ 227 ] on page 132 for the limiting case a 0, and it is found that

V
Tn = Пса [ 248 ]

Now , on our system of coordinates ,

a = (ε) u = 0 = sinvo [ 249 ]

v = vo

Therefore ,

V - лcτn sinvo [ 250 ]

and Equation [ 247 ] finally gives

sin vo
A = Τη [ 251 ]
v0

The same result would also have been attained for the inside notch .

Figure 72 shows the stress variation for tg vo = V8. A consider-

able stress peak of 2.3 T, develops at the base of the notch . In general ,
the maximum stress is found to be

to vo
Tmax - (Tuw) u = 0 = Tn Vo
V = Vo [ 252 ]
Τ
w= 2
 136

The parameter v 0。 is related in a familiar manner to the radius of the curva-

ture and the width of the narrowest section ; compare Equation [ 68 ] of Chapter
IV , Section 2 , page 41 . Finally we find that

Tinax
[ 253 ]
arc tg
81
Figure 73 illustrates this relationship .

In 2tn

(Tuwly -vo
w-3 a=8
4
21n (Tuw)u-o
w- Tmax2
Tmax -2.3Tn In
1

In 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

dla
Figure 72 - Deep Circumferential Figure 73 - The Maximum Stress in
Notch at a Great Distance from a Deep Circumferential Notch at a
the Axis under Shear or Torsion ; Great Distance from the Axis
Compare Figures 69 and 70- under Shear or Torsion

D. PURE TORSION

For the treatment of the torsion problem , the following expression

which greatly simplifies calculation is used as a basis :

Φο = 0 , Φι = 0
[ 254 ]
1
Φ , = - ∞ p (x , r) sin w , = p (x , r) cos w
Ø3 = =

From the foregoing ,

F= 0 [ 255 ]

and the relationships expressed in Equation [ 211 ] on page 128 become

σ = σ, = Ow = Txr == 0
dq [ 256 ]
Trw = dr - T " Trw - Ix

or when r = ∞ ,

04 ap
Trw =
dr " Txw - ax [ 257 ]

If the theorem expressed in Equation [ 236 ] on page 133 is compared with this ,
agreement is determined to the omission of the term sin w . Consequently , the

technique of calculation is the same as for the problem of shear and it can
 137

be stated from the outset that the same stress concentration factor results

as for the shallow notch , 1.e. , 1 + √ see (21 ) . For the deep notch, a spe-

cial proof is needed because of the integration which is necessary to deter-

mine the constant A , thus

A
❤ = Au , Tuw = h Tow = 0 [ 258 ]

The moment of the stresses about the x- axis is calculated from

M= [ 259 ]
= [
[tuwrdk
F

The element of area dF is rectangular as in Section C with the edges hdv and
hw =
hdw , where hur is constant and can be set equal to c for the external
notch and equal to b for the internal notch . For the external notch , we then
get 2л vo
M = Tuw c² hd vd w = 2 Α c2 πυρ [ 260 ]
!!

The nominal stress for torsional loading corresponds to elementary torsional

theory and consequently becomes :

2 M (c + a)
Τη [ 261 ]
л[(с + a) -c4]

for the external notch and

2 M (ba)
Tn = [ 262 ]
л[b¹ — (b − a)¹]

for the internal notch . From Equation [ 261 ] it is found that

M
Τη = 2πι2α [ 263 ]

results for the external notch in the limiting case where a 0. By applying

Equation [ 249 ]
M = 27c2 sin von [ 264 ]

is derived from the foregoing . By substituting into Equation [ 260 ] , we fi-

nally get
sin vo
A- In [ 265 ]
Vo

The same relationship would have resulted for the internal notch ; it is com-
pletely identical with Equation [ 251 ] , which was found in determining the shear
load . Consequently , the stress concentration factor also coincides .
 138

6. ESTABLISHMENT OF STRESS - CONCENTRATION -FACTOR NOMOGRAPHS

FOR CIRCUMFERENTIAL NOTCHES OF ARBITRARY DIMENSIONS

To determine the stress concentration factors for any arbitrary di-

mensions , the method stated in Chapter II , Section 4 , is used . In so doing ,
the stress concentration factors for shallow circumferential notches are used

on the one hand and those for deep circumferential notches on the other ; both
of these have been derived .

A. THE CIRCUMFERENTIAL EXTERNAL NOTCH

For the deep notch , Equation [ 59 ] on page 89 with the nominal stress
given by Equation [ 55 ] on page 87 is decisive for tension , whereas for bend-
ing , the same holds true for Equation [ 72 ] with the nominal stress given by
Equation [ 71 ] on page 92. Equation [ 84 ] on page 95 is valid for shear and

the boundary shear stress of the unnotched solid cylinder serves as the nom-

inal stress , for only in this way can the condition at 1 when a /p → 0 be
1 + 2/m V
satisfied . When a/p = 0 , it is found to be from Equations [ 84 ]
1 + 1 / m παζ
and [ 82 ] . As a result of this nominal stress which diverges from the refer-
1 +
ence value p , Equation [ 84 ] must still be multiplied by 1 + 2/m
1/m to get the

correct value for the nomograph . Finally , for torsion , Equation [ 107 ] on page
100 is to be used with the nominal stress expressed by Equation [ 105 ] .
For the shallow notch , the simple condition expressed by Equation
[ 131 ] , Chapter IV , Section 4 , page 56 , is again valid for bending and tension ;
the expression , Equation [ 243 ] , page 134 , was found for shear and torsion .
Since the maximum stress occurs at the base of the notch in shear loading ,

the problem does not here deal with an exceptional case in contrast to plane
notch effect .

B. THE CIRCUMFERENTIAL EXTERNAL NOTCH WITH AXIAL HOLE

When an axial hole is present , the foregoing limiting values are

augmented by an additional one , i.e. , the limiting value of the stress concen-
tration factor of the deep circumferential external notch with a large axial

hole which was treated in Chapter V , Section 5 , beginning on page 127. This
new additional limiting value will be designated by atb . Accordingly , the

general law for the stress concentration factor which was established in Chap-
ter II , Section 4 , must be amplified .
For a large hole it follows then that

1 1 1
= + [ 266 ]
(x - 1)² (α1x - 1)² (α16 -- 1)2

wherein a k depends on t/p and a depends on a/p . As the size of the hole

diminishes at must be separated from the limiting value for the deep circum-
ferential external notch without a hole , that is , separated from atk• This
 139

is achieved , if the following expanded expression is written for the stress

concentration factor :

1 1 1 1 1
= + +
(αk 1)2 (αyk - 1 )² (αrb - 1 )² (αtb - 1)2 (α- 1 )2 [ 267 ]
with a + c instead of a

In a vanishingly small hole a + c ≈ a and a drops out ; it is , in fact , re-

placed by atk • On the other hand , for a large hole , c becomes very large ,
a + c
therefore and the values of at and atk , with a + c instead of a , be-
ρ
come very great also . The two fractions where they appear in the denominator

become vanishingly small . Consequently the stress concentration factor for

large holes is again expressed in fact by Equation [ 266 ] from which we start-
ed . Since the two components which were introduced in Equation [ 267 ] , as
a + c !
compared to Equation [ 266 ] , are functions of the same variable the
ρ
obvious step is to use a new stress concentration factor as an auxiliary mag-
a + c
nitude in their place which depends on • For this purpose , we write :
P
1 1 1
=
- 1)2 - 1)2 (αn -- 1)2 [ 268 ]
with a + c instead of a

Thus , Equation [ 267 ] assumes the simpler form of

1 1 1 1 1
= + +
(αx 1 )2 (αrk - 1 )² (αrb - 1 )² (α- 1)² [ 269 ]

This equation states nothing more than that the stress concentration factor
valid for large holes according to Equation [ 266 ] , which is familiarly com-

bined from afk and at , must again be combined with the stress concentration
factor ap to get the final stress concentration factor .
For tension , the mean stress over the narrowest section
p
serves as
π( ( a + c) ²2 - c² ] serves as the
the nominal
nominal stress
stress .. For the limiting value of the
For afk ',
stress concentration at , Equation [ 59 ] on page 89 , is definitive .
Equation [ 131 ] of Chapter IV , page 56 , serves and finally for at , Equation
[ 190 ] , Chapter IV , page 71 .
For bending , the nominal stress is 4M( a + c )
The magnitude
π [ ( a + c ) 4 - c4 ] *
atk is calculated according to Equation [ 72 ] , page 92 , afk according to Equa-
tion [ 131 ] of Chapter IV , and a ,, according to Equation [ 190 ] , Chapter IV .
For shear , Equation [ 227 ] on page 132 serves as the nominal stress .

For atk , Equation [ 84 ] on page 95 is decisive but requires further multipli-

cation by 11 + 1/m
+ 2/m ・ For ak Equation [ 243 ] on page 134 is valid , and finally

for at Equation [ 253 ] .

Equation [ 261 ] is the nominal stress for torsion . Equation [ 107 ]

on page 100 is valid for at , Equation [ 243 ] for aƒk , and Equation [ 253 ] for
αtb .
 140

C. THE CIRCUMFERENTIAL INTERNAL NOTCH

For large axial holes , the stress concentration factor is composed

only of the two limiting values a , and a,,, of which the former is a func-
tion of a/p and the latter of t /p . For example , in tension , Equation [ 190 ]
of Chapter IV is valid for the former , and Equation [ 131 ] of Chapter IV for

the latter ; compare Chapter V , Section 5. For a vanishingly small hole , then ,

af, must be separated by the limiting value ark of the shallow circumferential
inside notch without axial hole . This condition is again satisfied by the ad-
dition of an auxiliary stress concentration factor a, by writing

1 1 1 1
= + + [ 270 ]
(αk - 1)2 (α, -
— 1 )² (α- 1)² (α- 1 )²

The value a depends only on t + C and is calculated from

ρ
1 1 1
-
(α- 1)2 (αpk - 1)s (α- 1 )8 [ 271 ]
with t + c instead of t

For c = 0 , as is actually separated in this way by a ... On the other hand ,

for large values of c , the term 1 /(a - 1 ) 2 becomes vanishingly small , thus

satisfying the required conditions . In tension , Equation [ 133 ] on page 107

is valid for aƒ • The term [ b ? al
f - a)a)?I serves as the mutual nomin
stress , wherein b = a + t + c ; see Figur es 68 and 70 .
For bending , the nominal stress must be calculated from
M (t + c )
- (ba) ¹J • For atk and afb, the same conditions are valid as for

bending load , whereas aƒ is now determined from Equation [ 158 ] , page 114 ,
Equation [ 228 ] is the nominal stress for shear . Equation [ 253 ] is
valid for a ; for a,,, Equation [ 243 ] was found . For ask, Equation [ 185 ] on
page 120 is valid , but it must be divided by .2 , since the reference value ,
Equation [ 166 ] on page 116 , is only equal to half of the nominal stress , 1.e. ,
ba 0 in Equation [ 228 ] .

For torsional loading , Equation [ 262 ] expresses the nominal stress ,

while at and af , are calculated as for shear and aƒk is determined by Equa-
tion [ 200 ] on page 125 .

The stress concentration nomographs for circumferential inside and

outside notches , thus obtained , are contained in Figures 104 and 105 on page

181. The interpretation is apparent from the arrows as well as from the ex-
amples included in Chapter X. For the distance from the base of the notch to

the axis , a + c or t + c , the same symbol r is purposefully used .

We now abandon the field of three - dimensional notch effect to di-

rect our efforts to another branch of notch effect , i.e. , prismatic notch ef-
fect . With respect to the particular type of stress distribution , the latter

also requires detailed treatment .

 CHAPTER VI

THEORY OF PRISMATIC NOTCH EFFECT

1. THE BASIC EQUATIONS

To establish the relationships for prismatic bars , we return to the

general basic equations of Chapter III , Section 6 , pages 21 through 25 , where

it was found that

02 F 2F მდ .
= + dz2 τα(80
aya dy az and so on ,
02)
[1 ]
22F | მდ მდ .
Txy = axay τα ( ay + dx ) and so on ,

wherein

NE
2
F = Po + x1 + yP½ + 2P, and α= 2 - m [2]

and furthermore it is assumed that

ΔΦ = 4º₁
ΔΦ, = 4º, = 4º¸
ΔΦ , = 0 [3]

In the following considerations , let the x-axis simultaneously be the axis of

the prismatic bar , whereas the y- axis should coincide with the direction of

shear ; see Figure 75. Let the z -axis be simultaneously the zero line of the
section of the bar . In pure tension or bending load of the prismatic bar ,

only the stresses σ, occur , as was already proved in Chapter V with Equations
[ 111 ] through [ 113 ] , page 102 , and moreover by Equations [ 137 ] through [ 139 ] ,
page 108. The elementary calculation of strength is therefore still rigor-
ously valid no matter what shape the section of the bar in the y-, z -plane may
have . This follows because no stress components having the subscripts y or

z appear for which a boundary condition would have to be satisfied . However ,

conditions differ for shear and torsion .

For pure shear loading , the general solution can be converted to a

simpler form in the following way . A similar method has already become famil-

iar from Equations [ 161 ] through [ 164 ] of Chapter V , page 116. We write

x V
Φο = - 2 p (y , z) + 4+
- a) Ja| (( − 4 + 230 α 2x2 ---
3 × − 2 x² ) ( x y³ — x³y) +
4 (4 —

+ (- 8 + 8x2x2)
x² ) (xy z² — y)]
[4 ]
V
Φι = 4(4 —a) Ja 2x
℗₁ Jo[(2 α (y z² — W) − a ) (yz² —
3 + 4 (1 − — x²y)] + — q ( y , z)
V -
Φι = 4 (4 −
— a) Ja(4 — 2x) (xy² + x²² – 23 x) , Ø3 = 0
 142

wherein is a harmonic function depending only on y and z . One can easily

be convinced that this assumption satisfies the condition , Equation [ 3 ] .

According to Equation [ 2 ] , the stress function becomes

V -- 8
F= - α) J√ ( 4 − 2 x) (xy³ + xyz²) + ( 3 x – 4)x³y] [5]
4(4 —

and from Equation [ 1 ]

- V
J xy, σ = 0, σ₂ = 0
მთ V
Txy = + 4 (4 − a) J [ ( −8 + 2 a ) y² + (4 − 2 x) z²] [ 6]
ду
Əq
Tyz = 0 , Txz = az

To be sure , the normal stress σ , still corresponds to the linear law of ele-

mentary strength theory , but the shear stresses Try and Tzz occur , which still
must satisfy boundary conditions .
For pure torsional loading , the following modifications

1 Go
Φ。ο = - Φ Φ, = XZ
Þ — —
α q (y , z) , Ø₁ι = —
α p (y , z ) ,
Go [ 7]
Ø3 xy

are undertaken most.simply . Herewith , Equation [ 2 ] gives

F = 0 [8]

and Equation [ 1 ] becomes

= σy = σ₂ = Tyz = 0
dq
Try - + Gdz
dy [ 9]
d&
Txz - az Goy

wherein is the angle of twist per unit length of the bar , for which the ex-

pression
= 1 /δη - [ 10]
2 dz

is read from Figure 74. The foregoing equation is in fact satisfied , for
here
1 - OF 1 OF
n = 2G - [ 11 ]
2 + ( − dy + 2 x 0,) = 9xz, 5 = 2G + 2x ) = - 9xy

Compare Equation [ 49 ] of Chapter III , Section 6 , page 22 . Next , the notch ef-

fect on solid bars will be investigated .

 143

zp IN
Jydy

dz

Figure 74 - The Deformation of an Elementary Prism

under Torsional Loading

2. SOLID SECTIONS ; BARS WITH A LONGITUDINAL SPLINE

Shallow notches will be treated first . For this purpose , it is
assumed that the boundary in the immediate vicin-

ity of the place where the notch is to be cut can

be regarded as linear in the first approximation ;
see Figure 75. For the shear stresses at this 15-1
point , at which y and z assume very definite val-
ues , the following expressions

მდ
Tzy = dy + C₁, Txz = az + C₂ [ 12 ]
y

are found from Equation [ 6 ] or [ 9 ] . In Equation

[ 12 ] the values C₁ and C₂ are constants . They

Figure 75 - Shaft with a
• y + C , · z is taken in
disappear if the term C₁ Shallow Longitudinal
Spline or Groove under
addition to y , for then
Shear or Torsion
dp dy
Try - " Tzz = ez [ 13 ]
dy

The boundary condition necessary for a consistent treatment of the shallow

notch requires that this simple relationship be valid not only at the point
where the notch is cut , but also within the zone of disturbance itself , as a
result of the limited extent of the zone of disturbance . Therefore , the re-

lationships expressed by Equation [ 13 ] may be used directly to calculate the

notch stresses . However , they have already been encountered repeatedly in
similar form ; compare Equations [ 236 ] and [ 257 ] of Chapter V, Section 5 ,
pages 133 and 136. Hence , the further course of calculation is already fa-
miliar . The appertaining stress distribution is illustrated by Figure 71 .

The stress concentration factor is

Tmax
[ 14 ]
Τη = 1 + √
 144

The shear stress of the unnotched bar at the given point serves as the nomi-
nal stress corresponding to our derivation .

The cylinder provided with the longitudinal groove shown in Figure

75 will serve as an example . If the notch lies on the zero line of the sec-

tion, the following expression

2
1+
m V
= [ 15 ]
1 πb2
+ m

is valid for the nominal stress for shear. However , for torsion ,

2 Mr
Tn = π [ 16 ]

gives the nominal stress .

With respect to the effect of the depth of the notch in ratio to

the dimensions of the section , there is no general theory at present .

ever , for torsional loading , a solution given by C. Weber ( 22 ) is informative ;

Figure 76 · The Special Case Treated by

C. Weber : The Edge Consists of Two Cir-
cles and the Midpoint of the Smaller
Lies on the Periphery of the Larger

this treats the case of the circular notch . The boundary consists of two

circles ; the center point of the smaller lies on the periphery of the larger ;
84
see Figure 76. For small values of c/b , the agreement of Weber's solution
with Equation [ 14 ] for t = p is notable . In both cases the value 2 results
for the stress concentration factor .

In general , for notches which can no longer be termed decidedly

shallow, the stress concentration factor , Equation [ 14 ] , can continue to be

used as a first approximation , if the boundary shear stress of the unnotched

bar is used as the nominal stress . This is due to the fact that in this way
the stress concentration factor which is somewhat too high is compensated
by a nominal stress which is too low .

3. HOLLOW SECTIONS WITH THIN WALLS

For hollow sections having thin walls , calculation becomes simpli-

fied to the extent that the shear stress in the portions of the wall can still
be regarded as uniformly distributed over the thickness of the wall without
 145

considering the notch. In each case , consequently , pure considerations of

equilibrium suffice to calculate the nominal
stress .
s
rd
Figure 77 represents a section sym- fo

metrical with respect to the y-axis which has

walls of constant thickness . To determine
rd dr
the shear stress resulting from shear loading

at a point A, a section is taken parallel to dx-

the axis , perpendicular to the wall at the

given point , and a segment whose length is dr भु

is considered . From the equilibrium of Figure 77 - The Equilibrium

of Stresses over the Sym-
forces , it then follows that metrical Hollow Section

x =
2τd dx Doz dx y d f
ax [ 17 ]

wherein ƒ is the cross - hatched area of the section shown in Figure 77. If ,
is substituted from Equation [ 6 ] , on page 142 , the familiar formula

VS
T= [ 18 ]
2dJ

results , where S is a static moment of the area ƒ with respect to the zero
line , and J is the moment of inertia of the entire section with respect to
the same line .

From the moment of the stresses with respect to a point arbitrarily

chosen, the following relationship

MT
T= [ 19 ]
2dF

is found for torsional loading . In the foregoing equation , F signifies the

area enclosed by the center line of the wall .

Now, if at the point considered , a notch is cut in the shape of a

longitudinal groove , either inside or outside as shown in Figure 78 , the shear
stress rises as a result of the diminution of the thickness of the wall from

d to a, for reasons of equilibrium under shear loading . This increase in

stress is expressed by

VS
Tn = 2aJ [ 20 ]

for shear loading and by

Mr
T₂ = 2aF [21 ]

for torsional loading .

 146
1

These values which presuppose uniform distribution of the stress

over the narrowest section represent the nominal stresses .
To calculate the irregular distribution which actually occurs , we
refer to the basic relationships , Equations [ 6 ] and [ 9 ) , page 142. In the
solid sections , the extent of the zone of disturbance , compared to the dimen
sions of the section , was regarded as so
small for the limiting case in the transi .
tion to the shallow notch that the simple
relationships expressed by Equation ( 13 )
became effective . This is similarly true
for thin-walled hollow sections . As a re
sult of the small thickness of the walls ,
the zone of disturbance here extends only 1
Figure 78 - Longitudinal Spline over a range which is to be regarded as
in the Hollow Section
very small compared to the remaining di
mensions of the section . Therefore , the solution of the problem is again to
be approached with the help of Equation ( 13 ) , page 143. Since agreement with 1
Equation ( 236 ) , Chapter V , page 133 , exists with the exception of the unes
sential factor sin w , the solutions there stated for shallow and deep notches
are directly applicable to the present case . Consequently 1 + V
is again
valid for the stress concentration factor of the shallow notch and

A
arctg Vio
as the stress concentration factor of the deep notch . Determination of the
stress concentration factor for notches of any arbitrary depth is evident
from the nomograph , Figures 103 and 104 on page 181 .

4. TRANSVERSELY BORED SHAFTS

Shafts and bars bored transversely or having elongated holes per
pendicular to the axis constitute exceptional cases . The problem no longer
is concerned with prismatic bodies , and the basic equations of the foregoing
section can hence no longer be applied . However , these cases can be treated
with the help of the relationships for the two - dimensional stress condition ,
as L. Föppl ( 23 ) showed .
For example , if the case is concerned with a thin -walled hollow
shaft , having a transverse hole whose diameter may be regarded as small com 1
pared to that of the shaft , a plane or two - dimensional stress condition is
present in the case of torsional loading . This is true because the

1
 147

disturbing zone can be regarded as a portion of a disk under these condi-

tions . Accordingly , the problem deals with a disk under shear loading ; this

has already been solved in Chapter IV, Section 4C , beginning on page 58. How-
ever , it must be noted that the torsional stress of the unbored bar at the
point where the hole is bored must be used as the nominal stress , that is

2 M,b
In = [ 22 ]
л(b4 --- a¹)

For the disk under shear loading ( compare Chapter IV , Equations [ 144 ] through
[ 146 ] , pages 58 and 59 ) , the corresponding stress is , however , not the refer-

ence value p there used , but 3p . For the lengthened hole , Figure 79 , hence
the following expression

Omax
=2+ +
Τη [ 23 ]
店

results for the maximum stress which occurs in the vicinity of the base of

the notch as a tensile stress ; compare Chapter IV, Equation [ 155 ] , page 60 ,
and Figure 35. For circular holes , i.e. , where t = p , the maximum stress is
consequently equal to four times the nominal stress .

Figure 79 - Hollow Shaft with an Elongated Transverse Hole

The same method of treatment can also be applied to solid shafts

with a good degree of approximation ; see Figure 80 , and compare the work by
L. Föppl ( 23 ) .

MT

Figure 80 - Shaft with Elongated Transverse Hole

 CHAPTER VII
THEORY OF LOAD - RELIEVING NOTCHES

1 . EXPLANATION OF THE CONCEPT

Up to this point , stress conditions have been treated as determin
ed by a prescribed notch shape . In this section , the opposite course of
reasoning will prevail . That is , the problem will no longer deal with stress
,

es at a given contour of the boundary , but according to the contour of the

boundary at a given stress distribution with minimum disturbance . Naturally ,
the treatment of this second basic problem is directly connected with mastery
of the first one .

To be sure , the shape of a structural part is predominantly deter

mined by structural requirements . However , its shape can to a certain extent
be determined arbitrarily by the designer . In most such cases , therefore in
provement of the stress distribution and simultaneously of the strength of
the structural part can be attained by structural changes which are apparently
not basic .
For example, consider the case of a shaft which must be provided
with a circumferential groove for purely structural reasons but which other
wise 1s completely smooth ; see Figure 67 on page 128. The stress distribu
tion over the shaft , which will be assumed to be under torsional loading , is
considerably disturbed by the groove , and a considerable increase in stress
occurs at the base of the notch . It will be assumed further that from the
structural standpoint it would make no difference if a second groove or notch
were cut in the vicinity of the first one . It would naturally be suspected
at first that this would produce an additional and altogether unnecessary in
crease of the stress . This is certainly the case , but this second deliberate
increase of the stress is related to a decrease of the first stress , and this
is the crux of the problem . There apparently occurs a distribution of the
notch effect at both points , with the final result that the stress rise at
both points is subsequently less than when the first notch , required for
structural reasons , alone is present . *
This phenomenon can be interpreted more clearly if the concept of
the flow of force is used as a basis . For this purpose , the term " rlow of
force " will merely be defined as the transmission of the forces externally
introduced through the structural member . Without examining the properties
of the elastic condition more closely , one by one , this concept quite super
ficially leads directly to a very plausible or intelligible explanation of
the phenomenon . The force flow , therefore , within the scope of this

* Translator's Note : The author is here describing the phenomenon commonly termed " stress -relieving"
notch effect .
 149

reasoning process , is deflected laterally , 1 , e . , toward the sides , and toward

the interior by this second notch . The notch effect can no longer develop
fully after the approaching force flow has already been weakened .
However , the phenomenon can be explained by rigorous theory , with
out the help of these two conceptual interpretations , by referring to the law
of the stress gradient , which has been mentioned repeatedly ; compare Chapter
II , Section 2 . According to the foregoing , it is a theoretically confirmed
property of all notches that they produce an increase of stress at the base
of the notch on the one hand , but produce a decrease in stress in the more
remote vicinity on the other . Compare Chapters IV and V in this respect . The
new notch produces an increase of stress at the point where it is cut , to be
However , in the vicinity of , and hence also at the base of , the first
notch a load-relieving effect results .
By a clever arrangement of these additional notches , designers are
in a position to modify notch effect extensively and favorably and to relieve
the loads on endangered regions of structural members . According to A. Thum
( 24 ) such additional notches as are provided primarily to effect the redis
tribution of stresses are termed load- relieving notches .

2. LOAD - RELIEVING NOTCHES UNDER TORSIONAL LOADING

This load - relieving effect by multiple notches will now be verified
with the aid of the mathematical theory of elasticity , to be able to establish
immediately the properties of the stress concentration factor for multiple
notches .
As an example , a shaft provided with one or more shallow notches
will serve . Moreover , these notches may be either longitudinal grooves , as in
Figure 75 , or circumferential grooves , as in Figure 67. In both cases , con
sideration of the limiting case for shallow notches leads to the conditions
де co
7, = Or Ty су (1 )
Compare Chapter V, Equation ( 257 ) , page 136 , or Chapter VI , Equation ( 13 ) ,
page 143 . In the foregoing , the s-axis has been assumed along the boundary
and the y - axis normal to the boundary , according to figure 81. The mutual sub
script for both shear stresses , to which the third
coordinate direction would correspond , has been omit
ted for simplicity . The harmonic function & depends
only on x and y and satisfies the condition that

02 + Figure 81 - Simple
0 12 ] Shallow Notch
да @ yº
 150

Moreover , an isometric network will be used as a basis by assuming

the relationships

dy dx dy
=
31-4
Ju dv. до Ju [ 3]

bet
between the Cartesian coordinates x and y and the curvilinear coordinates u
and v ; compare Chapter IV, Section 1. Then the differential equation , Equa-
tion [ 2 ] , in curvilinear coordinates becomes

62 ရာ ==
Ju² + Ive 0 [4]

According to familiar tenets of the theory of functions , u and v can in this

way be conceived as the real and imaginary components of a complex function
f( x + y ) , wherein i = V - 1 . Therefore , by setting

x + iy = z , u + iv :- w [5]

the relationship

z = x + iy = f (w) = f ( u + iv) [6]

exists between the complex functions z and w. The factors of distortion in

the u- and v -directions become equal to each other and

2 2 dz
hu = h₂ = h = [7]
dw

The radii of curvature p and p , of the curves u = constant and v = constant ,

when hu = по = h, correspond to Equation [ 174 ] , Chapter IV , page 65 , and are

1 1 dh 1 ah
-
h² Ju " h2 dv [8]

In the foregoing , the sign of the radius of curvature can be disregarded . The
shear stresses along the curves u or v = constant , are found from by

1 dy 1 do
Tu h Ju To - h dv [9 ]

Compare Equation [ 238 ] , Chapter V , page 133 . The solution for must pass
over into Ty at some distance from the notches . This expression corresponds
to the unnotched bar and here immediately gives the nominal stress .
First , let there be but one notch . If this notch is elliptical the
coordinate system

z = Ginw with x = Sinu cosv , y = Cosu sinv [ 10 ]

leads to the objective . The solution has already been given in Chapter V ,
Section 5C , beginning on page 130. The following stress concentration factor
results
Tmax
= 1+ [ 11 ]
√
 151

The coordinate system used has a certain disadvantage insofar as

the boundary consists of two coordinate lines , 1.e. , it consists of the ac
tual notch u = Uo and the rectilinear part v = 0 . Calculation is more simple
if a continuous boundary curve be present , especially in treating multiple
notches . Por a single notch , this can be achieved with the aid of the follow
ing system of coordinates :
Z
Vw — ( 12 )

Figure 82 shows several curves for v = constant . For large values of u orv,
x = u and y = v and the curves for
V = constant coincide with the straight
lines y = constant . At the point where
Ket
X = 0 , and y 1 , a deviation from the
25
above -mentioned condition occurs . If 0.25

such a line be used as a boundary , the 0 0125

problem deals with a notch with consid Pigure 82 - Coordinate System with
.

erably rounded external corners . Hence , Continuous Boundary Curves

the stress concentration factor will V = Constant for a Simple
Treatment of the
provisionally result somewhat lower than Shallow Notch
it would according to Equation ( 11 ]. .

The desired solution must satisfy the conditions expressed by Equa

tion ( 4 ) . Moreover, it must become tn 2 or tụu for large values of u or v , as
has been seen previously , then x = u . Furthermore, T must vanish along the
boundary curve v = VO
V0 . Since Tnu satisfies all three conditions , it repre
.

sents the correct solution . Consequently ,

P = nu , T, = 0 , τα == ( 13 )

The base of the notch lies upon the y -axis ; there u = 0 , and therefore
ду v 1 1 ah 1
y = \ v2? +1, h ( 14 )
ov hp av
ve + 1 va V1 + 22

At the base of the notch , moreover , we must set v = vo The depth of the
notch becomes
t (y)u = 0 – ( y )n = 0 +1
l'už + 1 - vo ( 15 )
DV V SV.

and therefore the notch curvature is

1 l'o
( 16 )
e -( - 1 + vi

The stress concentration factor is found from Equation ( 13 ) as

imas 1
h vo 11 + vz ( 17 )
 152

Elimination of the parameter vo from Equations ( 16 ) and ( 17 ) finally gives :

6é = (ai – 1 ) (1-2) ( 18 ]

For strongly curved notches , that is , for large values of t / e , the stress con
centration factor assumes large values , as was to be expected , and even becomes

0= ( 19 )

which agrees with Equation ( 11 ) for large values of t / p . Furthermore , Equa

tion [ 18 ] always furnishes somewhat smaller values than Equation ( 11 ) . This
is caused by the rounding of the outside corners mentioned previously .
As a result of these preliminary observations , we come to the actual
theory of the load - relieving effect . Now , a new coordinate system is used as
a basis , which corresponds to a multiple -notched edge ; see Figure 83. This
problem will deal with an infinite number of notches of equal depth , equidis
tant from each other . The distance
between them will be designated by b.
Rounding of the outside edges will
again be taken for granted , to permit
use of a continuous boundary curve .
Figure 83 Multiple - Notched Boundary We set

cos2 = cos w ( 20 )

yi

多
2-2

Figure 84 - Curves for v = Constant Simultaneously , Stress

Lines and Curves for a Multiple -Notched Boundary

Figure 84 gives the curves for v = constant for the case where I = 2. Por
large values of y , the latter still correspond to the straight lines
 153

y = constant , whereas in the vicinity of the x-axis , the periodic deflection

becomes more and more apparent . As the problem again deals with a continuous

boundary curve v = vo , the relationships expressed by Equation [ 13 ] are valid

here also . For x = u = 0 , it is found that

y = ArCos (λ Cosv)
1 Sinv
h = ay =
Iv [ 21 ]
Vλ² Cos²v - 1
1 1 dh (22 — 1 ) Cosv
= =
h2 Ov A Sin²v √12 Cos² v -
— 1

Furthermore , for the base of each notch, we must set v = v 。.

For further calculation, the relationship which results for the
stress concentration factor for strong notch curvature is of primary impor-

tance . From camparison with Equation [ 19 ] , derived for the simple notch at
strong curvature , the load - relieving effect can already be discerned in its
essentials . For small values of vo , it is found that

t = (y)u = 0 - (y) = ArCos2

v = vo 16mm л
[ 22 ]
1 1 1 Vλ2
= ∞k = = =
λ Sin² vo 1 Sin vo

From the foregoing , it follows that

Tgt
α = √ [ 23 ]
୧

or considering the unit distance of the coordinate system 1 b/π:

b πι t b πι
αx = Zg = [ 24 ]
b πι

Comparison with Equation [ 19 ] shows that the load - relieving effect is express-
b
ed in the factor Igt . This quantity , which is a function only of the
πτ

10
0.9
48
07
Q6
05
Y 04
0.3
02
Q가
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Figure 85 · The Load- Relieving Factor y as a Function

of the Notch Proximity b /t
 154

ratio b/t , that is , a function of the proximity of the notches only , will be
termed the coefficient of load relief and will be designated by Y. This co-

efficient is shown in Figure 85. It rises from zero for infinitely close

notches gradually to the value of 1 or unity for notches which are very far
apart from each other , where the stress concentration factor for the simple
notch again occurs . In fact , Equation [ 24 ] for b = ∞ agrees with Equation
[ 19 ] .

3. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR

FOR LOAD-RELIEVING NOTCHES

To achieve general viewpoints for the stress concentration factor

with respect to load- relieving notches , reference will once more be made to

Equations [ 24 ] and [ 19 ] . Conversion from the simple to multiple notches is

obviously manifested by a decrease of the depth effect . For multiple notches ,
the actual depth t is replaced by the effective depth

tw = t⋅ y [ 25 ]

which is multiplied by the coefficient of load relief Y. More exact mathe-

matical investigation shows that this line of reasoning generally leads to

very satisfying results . Accordingly , the effective depth t , is simply to be

substituted for the actual depth t in the previous equations .
For example , we therefore set

= 1+ √ [ 26 ]
+

for the stress concentration factor for multiple shallow notches without

rounded outside corners under torsion and shear . Correspondingly , for ten-
sion and bending ,

αfk
α = 1 + 2√ [ 27 ]
 CHAPTER VIII
THEORY OF POINTED NOTCHES

1 . THE FAILURE OF THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY

FOR POINTED NOTCHES AND ITS CAUSE
Investigations up to this point were based exclusively on the clas
sical theory of elasticity . Now , however , a group of problems arises whose
solution requires lines of reasoning which lead to the limits of the scope
and fundamentals of the traditional theory of elasticity and even beyond to a
new theory .
Whereas the classic theory of elasticity still suffices for notches
whose radius of curvature is not too small , it yields entirely incorrect re
sults for strongly curved notches or even for pointed notches . Thus , for ex
ample, the value 1 + Vt / e was found for the stress concentration factor of
shallow notches under shear or torsion . For instance , if the radius of cur
vature were only 1 / 10,000 of the depth , the stress concentration factor would
have the impossible value, of 101. Conditions are similar for all the remain
ing stress concentration factors derived . For a radius of curvature which is
vanishingly small , the stress concentration factor becomes proportional to
Vt7e in each case . Accordingly , it would assume the impossible value of -
for pointed notches . Obviously , the limit of the range of validity of tradi
tional theory has been reached . To get a rational basis for calculation , the
problem arises of constructing a new bridge of concepts to the actual behay
ior of materials .
However , before embarking upon this problem, which is not easy , the
reason for the failure of the previous basis for calculation must be made
clear . Therefore , we turn back to Chapter III , beginning on page 9. There
the relationships for the stress condition and the conditions of deformation
were derived . As a hypothetical model , an infinitely small element with the
edges dx , dy , and dz was used ; this is of fundamental importance . The tacit
assumptions of the arbitrary divisibility of the material , its lack of struc
ture , etc. , which the foregoing included , obviously represent the criterion
of applicability for the classic theory of elasticity . As long as the prob
lem deals with weakly curved edges , or more precisely , as long as the radius
of curvature of the surface is everywhere large enough , compared to the crys
talline structure of the material , no error becomes evident . This is true
because , for weakly curved surfaces, the stresses , which naturally are related
to the boundary conditions , only change materially within greater distances ,
not within distances which are of the same order of magnitude as the dimen
sions of the crystals . This is the reason why , at weak boundary curvature,
 156

the texture of the material continues to have no effect on the stress distri.
bution and therefore none on the stress concentration factor .
In contrast , conditions differ for strong surface curvature, where
stress variations occur over very small distances . The applicability of the
classic theory of elasticity would now require that the material continue to
be considered as non - structural * within zones having the order of magnitude .

of the crystals. However , the presence of the crystals themselves contra

dicts this .

This consideration , which has brought the reason for the failure of
traditional theory to our attention, will also show the way to a new theory.

2. THE NEW BASIC CONCEPT

It has been shown that using an infinitely small particle as a basis l
is no longer admissible . Therefore, we must obviously accept a particle of
finite dimensions as a basic concept .
Consequently , the material will henceforth be conceived as composed
1
of numerous small but finite particles . Consistent pursuit of this idea pro
duces new conditions of equilibrium on the one hand, and also new conditions !
for deformation on the other . Therefore , rigorously speaking , a definite
shape of the particles must be clearly established . Moreover , the nature of
its elastic deformation , the type of transmission of force to neighboring
particles , and so on , must be ascertained . In short , a number of assumptions
must be made which do justice to the behavior of the material.
The result of these basic considerations would then be new basic 1

equations of elasticity which would no longer be differential equations but

1

difference equations , corresponding to the finite nature of the particles ,

The solution of the individual problems would then consist in the application
of the calculus of finite differences . According to these statements , the
reader , who has perhaps at some time solved problems of potential theory by
means of the calculus of differences will surely regard the practical process
of calculation as open to question , for such problems are known to be ex
tremely tedious . In fact , it would be practically impossible to get anywhere
by this method . However , as will be shown , this approach is entirely
unnecessary .
Naturally , the failure of traditional theory is restricted only to
the zone of strong stress variation . The latter , however , is relatively lim
ited according to the law of fading . Therefore , it would be an exaggeration

*
Translator's Note : A non - structural material is an idealized homogeneous substance assuned for pur
poses of calculation in classical theory of elasticity . A material of this nature would be arbitrarily
divisible and would not show crystal structure to consist of finite particles as is the case for ordinary
structural materials .
 157

to discard the old theory completely , since it is directly applicable over

the remaining zone . On the contrary , it is used as a splendid guide through
the relatively extensive zones of the structural part where only slight
stress variations exist and where the calculus of differences would be too
tedious . In this way , the classical theory of elasticity can still be applied
for strong boundary curvatures and it only becomes necessary to use the new
basic concept as a basis in the zone of disturbance itself .
Now , mathematical consideration shows that even a part of the zone
of disturbance can be treated with good approximation by the old theory .
Furthermore it is possible to obtain good results even if the new theoretical
concept is not applied until the actual point of disturbance is reached . It
becomes evident therefore , that the stress concentration factor for pointed
notches has a definitive connection to the size of the particle in such a
way that this size assumes the role of a new constant of the material . How

ever , as this constant must be determined by comparison with experimental

results , the error possibly still remaining with respect to the stress con
centration factor which is produced by neglecting the basic concept in the
remaining zone of disturbance is in turn cancelled practically .

3. THEORY OF THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR FOR POINTED NOTCHES

From the foregoing developments , therefore , the following method
results for determining the stress concentration factor of pointed notches .
We start from the solution of the problem according to the classic theory of
elasticity , where the stress distribution must be present for a variable
radius of curvature of the notch , as was true in the examples already treated .
The new basic concept is applied at the base of the notch and there a parti
cle is conceived whose width is € . However , the particle is so small that
the stresses acting on its side - surfaces can be considered as constantly or
uniformly distributed . Hence , the new stresses are obtained by distributing
or arranging the mean values of old stresses over the surface of the particle .
As a first example , the shallow notch under shear or torsion will
be treated .

A. THE SHALLOW POINTED NOTCH UNDER SHEAR OR TORSION

Corresponding to the relationships , Equations ( 241 ) and ( 242 ) of

Chapter v , page 134 , the following stresses prevail over the narrowest section :

(
- (Tvw).-12 = * (Sin u + Coju evo – u) (1 )
(Tow)o= 7/2
n2 = 0 ,
1 - 72 W = 7/2
 158

Furthermore , h = Sinu over the narrowest section . Using e¯ " = Cos u · Sin u
additionally ,

= [2 ]
·Tow T₂ ( 1 - el。 Coju。 + e 。 Cosu Cotu)

Thus with

Cosu = 1 + μ [3]

a new coordinate is introduced which increases from the base of the pointed

notch in the u - direction ;
-t- 1-
Figure 86 · Basic Concept
for the Shallow Pointed
Notch under Shear
or Torsion
see Figure 86. In calculating the stress concentra-
tion factor for the pointed notch , our effort
will be restricted to determining the limiting
value for small values of e , so that the coor-
1
dinate μ , which naturally only assumes values
between zero and in the calculation , can be
considered as a small magnitude from the very
start . Therefore , in each case only the lowest
power of μ need be considered and the following
can be set

1
Cosu = 1 , Sinu = √2μ , Cot u = [4]
V2μ

The boundary value uo0 is set equal to zero from the very outset , correspond-
ing to a pointed notch ; then

-Tow = τη
[ 5]
γ2μ

The stress of the pointed notch represents the mean value of the stress over
the distance e , according to previous statements , and is consequently calcu-
lated as
E
- du -
Tvw dμ ( − ) ™n √ [ 6]
12 μ

Considering additionally the unit distance of the coordinate system

Coj u。 = 1 [7]

the following limiting value for the stress concentration factor of the

pointed notch finally results as

21
08 = [ 8]

If the limiting value Vt/p be compared to the stress concentration factor for

the round notch of strong curvature for which see Equation [ 243 ] of Chapter
 159

V, on page 134 , it can be seen that now half the width of the elementary

particle has been substituted for the radius of curvature .

As the next example , the corresponding deep notch will be treated .

DEEP CIRCUMFERENTIAL POINTED NOTCH WITH TWO - DIMENSIONAL

FLOW OF STRESS UNDER SHEAR OR TORSION

The deep notch treated in Chapter V , Section 5C , page 130 , will be

considered . The following stresses

(Tuw)w = - Tow 0 [9]

h

for the axial section perpendicular to the direction of shear resulted from
calculation . Over the narrowest section , h = cos v . Again , a new coordinate

emanating from the base of the pointed notch is introduced and we set

sin v = 1 μ [ 10 ]

See Figure 87. Small values of μ only are to be considered for the intended
limiting consideration , thus ,

A
COS V = γ2μ , and therefore Tvw - [ 11 ]
γ2 μ

can be set . The stress of the pointed notch then becomes

A
A [ 12 ]
du = 4√√²
V2 μ

The constant A results from Equation [ 251 ] of Chapter V , page 135 ,

when = π/2 , as

T
A - [ 13 ]
π/2

Finally , if the unit segment a = sin vo = 1 be considered , the stress concen-

tration factor obtained is
2 2a
∞8 = π V ε [ 14 ]

If the limiting value for the strongly curved round notch , which is found to
be
2V for a large value of a/p from Equation [ 253 ] of Chapter V , page 136 ,
it is also established for this problem that p has been replaced by e/2 .
Now , the same investigation will also be performed for a more com-
plex stress condition .
 160

a- 1

Figure 87 Basic Concept for the Deep Pointed

Notch under Shear or Torsion

C. TENSILE BAR WITH A DEEP POINTED NOTCH ON BOTH SIDES

As a result of the second principal stress , the calculation becomes
considerably more difficult for a tensile bar notched on both edges . As 18 !
evident from Chapter IV , Section 2A , page 39 , the following stresses are pre
9
1
sent over the narrowest section :
1 vo 1 cosé vo
Ou == 0 , = AA (COBv + count,
v cos3 v = 0, = A (COS
0o = A
v cos3 v ( 15 )

The system of coordinates is the same as in the foregoing problem ; hence , the
relationships
sinv = 1 -- M , COSV = V24 ( 16 )
are again applied . Since a term containing cos? v, appears , we are compelled
to introduce generally the symbol Mo , which represents the distance of the edge
from the point k = 0 . Only after integrating , may we set ho = 0 . If Vo
= 1/2
or Ho = 0 were to be set from the very outset , og ON would hold true at the
base of the notch and Oy would not vanish at the edge . For this reason , the

limiting case of the pointed notch cannot be taken until after integration .
Moreover , it must be noted that the boundary u = Ho may not here be
directly substituted as the lower limit , but a somewhat smaller value which
will be designated by Hi ; see Figure 88 . The lower limit of integration must
lie just exactly at such a point that the stress o , vanishes after integra
tion , corresponding to the boundary condition . Therefore , integration for
both stresses must be performed ,
for just as in stresses of the clas
Molly
sical theory of elasticity , we must
also have the assurance here that
the boundary conditions are satis
blu fied for the stresses of our basic
4

concept . However , this is only pos

sible here if a smaller value is used
Figure 88 - Basic Concept for the Deep
Pointed Notch under Tension as a lower limit of integration and
 -
161

not ko itself . Although to plays the part of the boundary coordinate con
ceptually , we are compelled to conceive the particle as moved out of the
boundary stratum by a small distance Ho - Hi , to be able to satisfy the
boundary condition for Oy . This small translation or displacement , which
again immediately vanishes in the limiting case of the pointed notch , is ex
plained by the fact that in our consideration we suddenly transferred from
differential calculus to calculus of finite differences . Certain small dis
tances , which are still infinitely small in differential calculus , suddenly
assume finite values in the calculus of finite differences .
Since ko is a small term of the same order as H , It is permissible
to set
cOS V. --- γαμο ( 17 )
in a manner similar to that used previously . Thus , the stresses become
MoV2
0x = A
COM + 2Moμ2/2V2
+ > Oy == A
w 232 ( 18 )

Next , the stress o, of the pointed notch is formulated and it is found that
E +
A Ho V2 Mo V2
Oys 1lad y - + (1216+m)–
/2 joudu €
+ -
12M, + VE + Hla VH
( 19 )

In the intended limiting case of the pointed notch , e retains its fixed value ,
whereas Ho and also un , which is in every case still smaller than mo , approach
zero . Therefore , Ho and My can still be neglected compared to e , in passing
to the limit . Thus , Equation ( 19 ) becomes
Ho Ho
Oys
1.2(ve - Vas + VE
E Υμι
( 20 )

This stress must , however , satisfy the boundary condition and vanish . From
the foregoing , a relationship results for the value H , which is still unknown .
The quadratic equation
μο
Hi
- (ve + Moth V + Ho = 0
VE v4 +
( 21 )

whose roots are

Mo
VM or VE ( 22 ]

results for V. However , since H , must be smaller than e , the first value
only is to be considered .
 162

The stress o E is now formulated and using the value for ₁ just ob-
tained , it is found that

ε + μα
AVE με με μο
σz& = στάμ = 8 + 140 - √148 + [ 23 ]
μα
ε +

Now , μo can finally be set equal to zero and consequently the maximum stress
of the pointed notch is found to be

Ozs = 2A √2/2
= 24 √ε [ 24 ]

When vo =
π/2 , the constant A is found to be

2
A= P [ 25 ]

from Equation [ 66 ] , Chapter IV , page 40. Consequently , the stress concentra-

tion factor of the pointed notch is

4 2 4 2a
= [ 26 ]
π ε л E

For comparison , the stress concentration factor of the strongly curved round
notch will be considered , which is

α == [ 27 ]
π

from Equation [ 69 ] , Chapter IV , page 41 , for large values of a/p . It is

again established that the distance €/2 has replaced the radius of curvature
for the pointed notch .

This principle can be proved likewise for all remaining conditions

of notch stress . However , the examples treated may suffice to permit recog-
nition of the development of the stress concentration factor for pointed
notches .

Now for simplicity , p' will be substituted for € /2 . Therefore , it

is evident that p ' is a decisive quantity in determining the stress concentra-
tion factor for pointed notches . Corresponding to our theory , which is re-

lated to the effect of the texture , p ' as half the width of the elementary
particle , introduced for calculation , is related to the texture of the mate-
rial . That is , p' will assume varying values in general for various materials .

Hence , the problem deals with a new material constant which , moreover , has
the dimension of a length . As will be shown in the following section , p'is
about half a millimeter for steel . Therefore in the transition to the

pointed notch the stress concentration factor becomes a function of the

material.
 163

TRANSITION FROM THE ROUNDED NOTCH TO THE POINTED NOTCH

The ideal material of the classical theory of elasticity, which as

sumed maximum elastic sensitivity , corresponds to the value p ' = 0. As p ' in
creases , the elastic sensitivity drops . Therefore , p'will be designated as
the elastic notch sensitivity .
For weakly curved notches , i.e. , where p is large , the stress con
centration factor for the ideal material is still valid . As p decreases , a
gradual decrease of the stress concentration factor appears for technical
materials , for the stress concentration factor of an engineering material
does not approach infinity for a continuously decreasing value of p , but ap
proaches the stress concentration factor of the pointed notch as a maximum
limiting value . Now , without having to calculate the stress concentration
factor of the round notch using our basic concept , it is sufficient to use a
law of transition which here assures the transition from the ideal value
ak lande zo to the value a , : of the pointed notch in a similar
lakle zo
manner for both shallow and deep notches . The transition curve must conform
or apply to both limiting curves, as Figure 89 shows . Since the ideal stress

10
9
of -laupiamy
8

6 as-lawe-e

Q
3

2
constant
1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Figure 89 - Connection of the Technical Stress

Concentration Factor with the limiting Value
=
for Perfect Elastic Behavior (p = 0 ) on the
One Hand , and with the Limiting Value for
the Pointed Notch le - 0 ) on the Other
=

concentration factor for small p becomes proportional to Vi/ o according to

theory , it is obvious to select the following theorem for the transition to
the pointed notch :
ak - 1
&k = 1 +
1+ ve ( 28 )
 164

In the next chapter 1t will be shown in addition that this theoren

agrees very well with experimental results .

5. EFFECT OF DEFORMATION AT THE BASE OF THE NOTCH

An additional disadvantage of the classic theory of elasticity must
be considered here also . In Chapter III , Section 2 , ( page 13, the consider
1

ations of deformation were used as a starting point for deriving the basic 1

equations of elasticity . These were based on the assumption of a small scale

of deformation only . In deriving the equations of equilibrium in Chapter
III , Section 1 , consequently the non-deformed body could be used as a basis ,
Recently , L. Föppl ( 25 ) pointed out that these assumptions are invalid for
notches , when the deformation at the base of the notch becomes very large ,
1.e. , for a large stress concentration factor or strong notch curvature . By
considerations of equilibrium on the deformed body and by introducing a cor
responding material constant , L. Föppl showed how a decrease of the stress
peaks can be explained by this line of reasoning . It is again evident that
for notches of strong curvature, traditional theory must be supplemented in
some way , to achieve practically usable results .
Since the effect of the great deformation affects the stress con
centration factor in the same sense as the effect of the texture of the basic
concept introduced previously , one of the two lines of reasoning is suffici.
ent , if the appertaining material constant is made to fit experimental re
sults . This is true , because both the lines of reasoning deal with a decrease
of the stress concentration factor for strong notch curvature . Retaining the
relationships established in Chapter VIII , Sections 1 to 4 , pages 155 to 164,
the effect of the large deformation is considered per se , if p ' is suited to
the actual behavior of the material .

6. THEORY OF THE FLANK ANGLE

A still further effect becomes evident in transition to the point
ed notch , namely, that of the flank angle . For notches of large radius of
curvature , the effect of the flank angle could still be neglected . This was
true because the rectilinear portion of the boundary lay far outside the
highly loaded zone , i.e. , in a region which has no influence upon the stress
concentration factor , as a result of the sharp fading of the notch stresses ,
Conditions differ , however , for strongly curved notches and pointed notches .
Here the flank angle w plays a fundamental part .
The stress concentration factors for pointed notches , developed up
to this point , were all related to a flank angle of 0 degree . Now , to de
termine the relationship between stress concentration factors occurring for
 165

equal dimensions but variable flank angle , it is most simple to use the
stress condition for a shaft having a shallow notch under torsional loading .

The treatment of the foregoing shaft was considerably simplified in the sec-
tions dealing with the problem of load - relieving notches . Therefore , the
relationships expressed by Equations [ 1 ] to [ 7 ] of Chapter VII , pages 149 and
150 , can be used .

Here , the system of coordinates must contain a suitable boundary

line for pointed notches with an arbitrary flank angle . This condition is
satisfied by setting

z" = 1 + w" [ 29 ]

Then the line u = 0 represents such a boundary line ; see Figure 90. When
n = 2 , the flank angle still is 0 degree , when n = 1.5 it becomes 90 degrees ,
finally for n = 1 it becomes 180 degrees and there is no longer any notch .

w
$8

HI

n- 2, w -0 n- 1.5, w- n- 1, w - x
(No longer any notch)

Figure 90 ❤ System of Coordinates for the Theory of the Flank Angle

In the base of the pointed notch , w = 0 , z = 1. For the immediate vicinity ,

we set z = 1 + %1 and get the relationship nz₁ = w " from Equation [ 29 ] by

neglecting higher powers of z1 . Closer examination of the foregoing gives

the relationship

∞ = (2 — n) л [ 30 ]

for the flank angle . For large values of z , z = w, i.e. , x = u and y = v .

The desired solution for must be a harmonic function , that is , it must sat-
isfy the differential Equation [ 4 ] of Chapter VII , page 150. Moreover , the
=
latter must become Ty for large values of u or v corresponding to Ty
and T = 0. Finally , T.26 must vanish along any given boundary line u = u 。.
 166

We will first consider the round notch . The solution is

Q = Timu , Tu = 0 , To == ( 31 )

At the base of the notch , y = v = 0 . Therefore , it follows that

дх dx du
" = l + u", h To = tnda ( 32 ]
ди du !

If the stress of the pointed notch is formulated familiarly from the forego
ing , the stress concentration factor is
1 + e 1 + 1
1 du 1

----[4dr={(W-1d x
) = +- -= |(1x+ 4)*-***
E dx
-dx
E
I = E 1
133 )

From the latter expression , the stress concentration factor of the flank angle
of 0 degree is 2
đo° = 1+ [ 34 ]

for n = 2. Solving for 1 /€ , we find ' that

ai. – 1
-

E 2 ( 35 )

If this expression be substituted for 1 /€ in Equation ( 33 ) , finally the de

sired relationship between the stress concentration factor at w = 0 degree
and that for any given flank angle results in
n
2 (ai
ag
- =[(**?"– 6 2
[ 36 ]

Herein , n is related to w corresponding to Equation [ 30 ] ; therefore

W
n = 2
N
( 37 ]
Figure 91 represents the nomographic plotting of the result . For

example , if the stress concentration for 0 degree is 7.0 and if the stress
concentration factor of an otherwise similar notch with a flank angle of 90
degrees is desired , we start downwards obliquely from a, = 7.0 toward the
right of the reference line corresponding to the direction of the arrow to the
section having the perpendicular belonging to w = 90 degrees . From this point
of intersection , we proceed horizontally to the left and read off a , == 3.8
At first glance , the almost rectilinear course of the reference
curves is striking . The stress concentration factor drops almost in direct
ratio to the flank . angle . If it be noted that the rounding of the outside
corners increases with the flank angle which was taken into account when
 167

as

15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180°

ω
Figure 91 - The Stress Concentration Factor for
Pointed Notches as a Function of the Flank
Angle ' Represented Nomographically

selecting the system of coordinates , Figure 90 , it is to be expected that , in

contrast , in engineering notches with marked external corners the stress con-

centration factor will not decrease so sharply as the flank angle decreases .
This strongly suggests a more rectilinear course of the reference curves for
technical notches . Therefore , rectilinear contour of such curves will be as-

sumed as a basis for practical application . To the foregoing , the relationship

π- ω
X8 = 1+ -
" π · [ ( αs) ∞ = 0 − 1 ] [ 38 ]

corresponds, which agrees very well with Equation [ 36 ] over a certain range .
Moreover , this equation also corresponds to experimental results to be dis-
cussed in the next chapter .

7. THE GENERAL TECHNICAL OR ENGINEERING STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR

The problem now arises of combining Equation [ 38 ] with Equation [ 28 ]

in such a way that a general technical stress concentration factor results

which corresponds to the requirements established initially . In particular ,

the desired equation for the stress concentration factor must satisfy the
condition that the effect of the flank angle decrease as the radius of curva-
ture increases .

Next , we turn once more to the stress concentration factors derived

in Chapters IV to VI which are valid for ideal materials where p' = 0 , 1.e. ,

those which are to be designated by a As p vanishes , they all become pro-

portional to V1p and we can set

(α )。 small = c이승 [ 39 ]
 168

Substitution into Equation [ 28 ] gives

√
(xx)。 small = 1+
1+ [ 40 ]
୧
In the numerator , 1 was immediately neglected , compared to cV1/p , from which
the stress concentration factor for pointed notches is derived for the limit-
ing case p0 , corresponding to our development for a flank angle of 0 de-
gree . This gives

(α )w= 0 = 1 + c [ 41 ]
√

Substituting this into Equation [ 38 ] gives

π- ω
= [ 42 ]
1+ π cV

Comparison of Equation [ 42 ] with [ 41 ] might immediately be conducive to simply

π ω
writing π c instead of c , to get the general stress concentration factor .
However , the result would be that the flank angle would still exert a decisive
effect on the stress concentration factor at large values of p . Hence , it
would contradict theory .

The second possibility for stating the stress_concentration_factor

π
in a simple manner therefore consists in taking - In
ཀ √ instead of
this way the condition relative to the flank angle can be satisfied . Equation

[ 28 ] thus becomes

1
αx = 1+
π [ 43 ]
1+
π -w

In fact , the effect of the flank angle at great radius of curvature now be-
comes vanishingly small , as required in the foregoing consideration . In the
π
denominator π - ω Ve then becomes small , compared to unity , and the magnitude
w no longer affects the stress concentration factor . In contrast , as the
radius of curvature decreases , the effect of the flank angle gradually makes
itself felt . Finally , for the pointed notch , where p = 0 , Equation [ 42 ] is
realized .

Furthermore , Equation [ 43 ] agrees immediately with experimental re-

sults and therefore represents the definitive condition for the technical
stress concentration factor .
For the stress concentration factor a ' of an ideal material , the
stress concentration nomographs shown in Figures 104 and 105 on page 181 ,
were used for rapid determination .. Equation [ 43 ] can likewise be solved by
 169

nomographic methods. The diagram given in Figure 106 on page 181 serves this
purpose . Its use and interpretation are shown by arrows . In this respect ,
consult the calculated examples given in Chapter X beginning on page 176 .
Next , results of experimental stress research will be examined , and
they will be compared to the relationships herein established .
 CHAPTER IX
COMPARISON OF THEORY WITH RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL STRESS RESEARCH

1 . STRAIN MEASUREMENTS
It is impossible to measure the large strains actually occurring at
the base of the notch and thus to determine the stress peak with ordinary
strain gages . An instrument developed by E. Preuss ( 26 ) in 1912 more closely
approached requirements , but was incapable , however, of entirely eradicating the
error . Not until 1932 was a measuring method developed by G. Fischer ( 27 )
which was subjected to numerous tests and with which the true stress peak at
the base of the notch could be determined with sufficient exactitude . It is

based on determination of displacement of individual points along a straight

line . Plotting the magnitude of the deflection of the ordinates against the
measuring lines in each case gives the so -called displacement curve . From the
contour of this curve , the strain can
also be determined at such points on the
measuring lines which cannot be deter.
mined by direct mounting of an extenson
eter . The measurements made by Fischer
on notches in flat bars under bending
load are recognized in the professional
world as very reliable and will there
fore be used for comparison with theory .
Figure 92 - Notches Investigated
by G. Fischer The foregoing dealt with point
ed notches of differing flank angle on
the one hand , and with round notches on the other ; see Figure 92. , For a bar
notched on one side under bending load , see Chapter IV , Section 6B , page 70 ,
)

theory gives

apk = 1+ 2
+27 9 (1 )

dek
22(a + 1) -1 +1 ai
01
26+ )
4 a a a

6,
+ 1 ) – 3&
+
+ 1) aretgV +
[2]

X2
V
Il

a a a

316(8 - 1)arctgV + VA
V
( arx – 1 ) ( and - 1 )
al = 1 + 13 ]
Vape - 1)2 + (aix - 1)
 171

[
4
]
ak - 1
ax = l +
1+
NO ve
To determine the value p' which is still unknown , the stress concentration
factor for pointed notches is next set up . For very small values of p , ark
4 – 2) 6
and therefore also ack - 1 become 1672 =
1 3( 8 ) = V0.663 . If this be substi
.

tuted into Equation ( 3 ) and finally if y4 be substituted for ask O

1,
then
t a
.
0.663
e ୧ 0.663 a

( dále small = 1+
V. + 0.663
a
1+
1 +0.166
a
e
( 5)

Substitution into Equation ( 4 ) finalaly gives

1 0.663 a
(ak), small 1+ 16 ]
a e
1+ 1 + 0.166
N @

from which the stress concentration factor for pointed notches

0.663 a
a. 1+ 17 ]
+7 1 + 0.166
a

arises for the limiting case where p +0.

The tests on pointed notches included bars where the values a = 95mm
( 3.740 inches ) , t = 15mm ( 0.596 inch ) were quite closely maintained . Plotted
as a function of the flank angle , the stress concentration values correspond
ing to the tests lie on a straight line which traverses a , = 1 for w = a and
ds = 5 for W = 1/2 with sufficient accuracy ; see Figure 93. Agreement with
Equation ( 7 ) gives 0.48mm ( 0.01890 inch ) for p . The material used was a
special steel whose tensile strength was 65kg /mm492,450 pounds per square
inch ) .
Using the value found in this way permits comparison of the results
of Fischer's measurements on round notches with theory . The flank angle was
always 0 degree . Figure 94 shows the curve for the stress concentration fac
tor for varying depth at constant radius of curvature , whereas Figure 95 shows
the curve for variable radius of curvature at constant depth , and finally Fig
ure 96 gives that for semi -circular notches of varying radius , all at constant
width of bar . The comparative theoretical curves for the stress concentration
factor were determined by nomographs . The experimental values for the stress
concentration factors are plotted in each case . Deviations from the theoret
ical curves still lie within experimental accuracy . Hence , the theory is to
be considered confirmed .
 172

87
t- constant.
7 a- constant
6
5 -9-25mm
a+t- 110mm
as 4 w -0
3 e - a48mm
αχ
2
1

10 20 30 40 44
a
Figure 93 - Stress Concentration Factors
for Pointed Notches of Constant Depth Figure 94 - Variable Depth
and Width of Bar , but Varying Flank Angle at Constant Radius of Cur-
Corresponding to Equation [ 38 ] , Chapter vature and Constant
VIII , and Equation [ 7 ] , Chapter IX , Width of Bar
as well as Fischer's Measurements

t- 15mm
a+t - 110mm °t- e-
@-0 a+t-110mm
ak ወ 0
Q'=0.48mm ax 1
-o'- 0.48mm

10 20 30 40 50
10 20 30 40

Figure 95 - Variable Radius Figure 96 · Semi -Circular

of Curvature at Constant Notches of Variable Radius
Depth and Width of Bar at Constant Width of Bar

Figures 94 to 96 - Comparison of the Theoretical Stress Concentration

Factor with Fischer's Measurements

2. PHOTOELASTIC MEASUREMENTS

The photoelastic method which has become increasingly important in

recent years indisputably represents the best and most capable aid for the
investigation of plane stress conditions . With respect to general fundamen-
tals see the literature ( 28 ) . In addition to the direction of the lines of

principal stress , the stresses themselves are obtained by this method and
along the edge by direct measurement ; in the interior , by graphic or mathemat-
ical methods .

The first problem of notch stresses which was solved by optical

means was the stress distribution in angular corners . Under the direction of
L. Föppl , H.C. von Widdern , H. Kurzhals , and L. Kettenacker extensively clar-

ified the problem , using the photoelastic equipment in Munich ( 29 ) . However ,

 173

comparison with theory cannot be undertaken with respect to this problem ,

since the rigorous theoretical solution has not yet appeared .
However , to compensate for this , a comparison with theory is possi-
ble from the investigations on notched bars made by E. Armbruster ( 30 ) in
These tests dealt with a bar notched on one side under bending load ,

as shown in Figure 97, and a tensile bar notched on both sides , as in Figure

98. At constant notch depth and constant flank angle , but with varying radi-

us of curvature , experimental results are compared with the theoretical

stress concentration factor in Figures 99 and 100. For the latter , the nomo-

graphs , Figures 103 and 106 , and the value p ' = 0.48mm(0.0189 inch ) were used .

-w-x

་ ·
wwp-

ww
wwgl
D--

Figure 97 - Bars Notched on One Side Figure 98 · Tensile Bars Notched

under Bending Load Investigated on Both Sides Investigated by
by E. Armbruster E. Armbruster

t- 4mm
O a= 16mm
ακ
Q'=0.48mm__

10 15 20 25 30

Figure 99 - Comparison of Armbruster's Measurements on

Bars under Bending with the Theoretical
Stress Concentration Factor

For the bar under bending , Figure 99 , agreement is satisfactory , if

it be considered that no very extensive experimental accuracy could be attain-

ed , as a result of the width of the bar which was still quite small at 20mm

( 0.7874 inch ) . The value p ' = 0.48 mm ( 0.0189 inch ) is also only valid approx-
imately for the flint glass used in the photoelastic tests .
 174

For the tensile bar , Figure 100 , the experimentally determined

stress concentration factors all lie above the theoretical curve . If it be

considered that the case of pure tensile loading can only be realized approx
imately and that a certain bending load must always be taken into account, as

3
O

7-4mm
Q - 8mm
w
ak '- 0.48mm

10 15 20 25 30

Figure 100 - Comparison of Armbruster's Measurements on Tensile

Bars with the Theoretical Concentration Factor

familiar to.all research men in photoelasticity , this discrepancy is not as

tonishing . For example , if asymmetric forces of friction which result in a
small displacement of the direction of tension from the axis of the bar , which
amounts to about 3 per cent of the width 2a over the narrowest section , hence
about 0.48 mm ( 0.0189 inch ) , occur in the bolts used in Armbruster's apparatus
for applying the tensile force to the bar , the elementary maximum stress in
creases by 18 per cent , due to the factor 6 resulting from bending . That is
to say , the actual nominal stress is equal to
1.18 times the theoretical value in this
case . For the narrow width of the bar of
20mm ( 0.7874 inch ) , these figures lie with
in the range of plausibility . If they be
used to correct Armbruster's results , values
a a
are obtained which agree very well with the
ITT theoretical curve , as Figure 100 shows .
Another series of tests , also made
Figure 101 - Bars Perforated
with a Central Opening as
by A. Hennig in the Munich laboratory , was
Investigated by A. Hennig devoted to a bar under tensile loading , pro
vided with a hole at its center , as shown in
Figure 101 ( 31 ) . For comparison of the experimental stress concentration
factors with theory , the consideration stated in Chapter IV, Section 60 , page
70 , is applied . According to the foregoing , the stress concentration factor
for deep notches in this case is composed of the value a , for the deep exter
nal notch on both sides under tension and a component of bending which is de
rived from the stress concentration factor a , for the deep external notch on
 175

one side under bending , multiplied by a factor C. According to the experiments

performed by Hennig , this factor is to be set equal to 0.8 . Confirmation for
this is furnished in Figure 102 , where the theoretically derived curve for the
stress concentration factor is shown with p' = 0.48 mm ( 0.0189 inch ) . As can

be recognized , it very closely ap

proaches the experimental stress
concentration factors .
A large number of addi
tional investigations are found in at

the literature on experimental

stress research ( 32 ) . However , we

Blo
will let the studies herein men
tioned suffice , for the problem
Figure 102 - Comparison of the Measure
was to deal only with a comparison ments Made by Hennig on Bars Pro
with the theory of notch stresses . vided with Holes at the Middle
under Tensile Loading with
In the following final the Theoretical Stress
chapter , duty requires deeper anal Concentration Factor
ysis of the nomographs for the stress
concentration factors repeatedly mentioned , which will permit easy and rapid
determination of the stress concentration factor to readers less advanced
mathematically .
 CHAPTER X
NOMOGRAPHS FOR THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR

1. EXPLANATORY MATERIAL RESPECTING NOMOGRAPHS FOR THE

STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR

Figure 103 gives a general survey of all cases which can already
be comprehended by theory . On the left in each case , a sketch explains the
basic characteristics of the given notch . Since the flank angle always oc-

curs in the same way ( for example , compare Figure 98 on page 173 ) it has not
been indicated in the drawing , for purposes of simplicity . In the next col-

umn , the type of loading is given , and the formula for the nominal stress in

each case appears in the following column . The following columns deal with
application of the nomographs for the stress concentration factor , Figures
104 and 105 , where the characteristic values Vt/p , Va/p, and Vr/p appear .

The roots were included to permit easier survey as a whole and also to per-
mit the values to be read more easily from the nomographs . The alphabetical
characters refer to the definitive numerical column for Vt/p, which is to the
left in Figure 104. The numbers denote the definitive curve in each case ;

to the right in Figure 104 for Va/p and to the right in Figure 105 for Vr/p .
From Figure 104 , or for circumferential notches from Figures 104 and 105 , the

stress concentration factor ak for an ideal material is obtained directly .

The effect of texture and flank angle is considered in addition by the nomo-

graph , Figure 106. The use of the nomographs will be shown by examples .

2. EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION
A. EXTERNAL NOTCH ON BOTH SIDES UNDER BENDING LOAD
Given : p = 2.5mm ( 0.0984 inch ) , t = 15mm ( 0.5906 inch ) , a = 95mm
(3.740 inches ) . From this it is found that

== 2.45 , = 6.16

As can be seen from the survey , Figure 103 , the numerical series b

is valid for Vt /p and Curve 2 for Va/p . Therefore , in Figure 104 , we proceed
from Va/p = 6.16 perpendicularly upward to an intersection with Curve 2 , then
horizontally to the left to an intersection with the axis of the diagram .

From this point , a connecting line is drawn to the point Vt/p = 2.45 on the
other axis , for which the numerical series b is definitive . This line
touches the circle which is definitive for the stress concentration factor ;

it is found that a'k = 4.28 .

 177

The correctness of this method is evident from the fact that the ra
dius of the contacting circle is simultaneously the height of the right angle
triangle whose legs are ask - 1 and Qik - 1 . Obviously , the case in fact
deals with the same relationship between the limits of the stress concentra
tion factor required in Chapter II , Section 4 , and illustrated in Figure 3
on page 7 .
If the case deals with the material where p = 0.48mm ( 0.0189 inch ) ,
then Volp = 0.44 . Let the flank angle w be 90 degrees . Then , in Figure 106 ,
3
.

we proceed from Volp = 0.44 horizontally to the left and from w = 0.51 per
pendicularly downward . A definite guide line coming from the lower right cor
ner goes through the point of intersection . Then , beginning from the bottom
at ak = 4.28 , we proceed upward to the right at an angle of 45 degrees , until
an intersection is made with the guide line . From here , we proceed vertical
ly downward and read off the final technical stress concentration factor as
ak = 2.73 .
The proof for the agreement of this nomographic method with Equation
[ 43 ] of Chapter VIII , page 168 , lies in the similarity of the triangles
produced .

CIRCUMFERENTIAL OUTSIDE NOTCH WITH AXIAL HOLE UNDER BENDING

Given :p = 4mm ( 0.1575 inch ) , a = 13mm ( 0.5118 inch ) , t = 36 mm
( 1.417 inch ) , r = 25mm ( 0.9843 inch ) , p = 0.48mm ( 0.0189 inch ) , w == 90 de
=

grees . It is found that

E = 3;
V = 1.80 ; V = 2.50
2 ; V = 0.35

In Figure 104 , a value of a'r 3.60 is found from Vile , numerical series 6 ,
and from vale, Curve 5 , in the manner already described . However , the case
.

first deals here with the value for a large hole , that is,with (ak ) , = .
In Figure 105 , we now proceed from Vile = 2.50 upward to an inter
section with Curve 2 , then left to the axis . From here , the straight connect
ing line is constructed to the point (a'k ) , 3.60 on the other axis . The
circle of contact gives ar =
2.08 .
In conclusion , Figure 106 furnishes the final value Q k = 1.63 in
the manner already illustrated when vele = 0.35 and when w = 1/2.
 178

REFERENCES

(1 ) Scientific Papers , J.C. Maxwell , Vol . 2 , Paris , 1927 , p. 198 ff .

As the foregoing edition was unavailable to the translator , the following has
been substituted : " On Reciprocal Figures , Frames , and Diagram of Forces , "

from the scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell , edited by W.D. Niven , Vol .
2 , Cambridge 1890 , pp . 161-207 ; see p . 198 where the author makes the assump-
tion of three functions A , B , and C in his treatment " On the Equilibrium of
Stress in a Solid Body , " p . 197 ff ; Translator .

(2 ) "Mathematische Elastizitätstheorie " ( Mathematical Theory of

Elasticity ) , E. Trefftz , Handbuch der Physik , Vol . 6 , p. 92 .

(3 ) " über die Lösung des Grundproblemes der Elastizitätstheorie "

( On the Solution of the Basic Problem of the Theory of Elasticity ) , A. Korn ,
Mathematische Annalen , Vol . 75 , No. 4 , 21 July 1914 , pp . 497-544 .

(4 ) " Ein neuer Ansatz zur Lösung räumlicher Probleme der

Elastizitätstheorie . Der Hohlkegel unter Einzellast als Beispiel " ( A New

Theorem for the Solution of Three - Dimensional Problems of the Theory of

Elasticity . The Hollow Cone under Point Load as an Example ) , H. Neuber , Zeit-

Schrift für angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik , Vol . 14 , No. 4 , August 1934 ,
pp . 203-212 .

(5 ) " Drang und Zwang " ( Stress and Strain ) , A. and L. Föppl , Vol . 1 ,
2nd ed . Munich and Berlin 1924 , pp . 29-30 ; see also : "Mathematische Elastizi-

tätstheorie " ( Mathematical Theory of Elasticity ) , E. Trefftz , Handbuch der

Physik , Vol . 6, pp . 64-65 .

(6 ) " Elastisch - strenge Lösungen zur Kerbwirkung bei Scheiben und

Umdrehungskörpern " ( Rigorous Solution with Respect to Elasticity for Notch

Effect on Plates and Bodies of Revolution ) , H. Neuber , Zeitschrift für ange-

wandte Mathematik und Mechanik , Vol . 13 , No. 6 , December 1933 , pp . 439-442 .

(7) " Der ebene Stromlinienspannungszustand mit lastfreiem Rand "

( The Condition of Two - Dimensional Flow- Line Stress with No - Load Edge ) ,

H. Neuber , Ingenieur - Archiv , Vol . 6, No. 5, 1935 , pp . 325-334 ; see p . 325 .

(8 ) " Zur Theorie der Kerbwirkung bei Biegung und Schub " ( On the

Theory of Notch Effect under Bending and Shear ) , H. Neuber , Ingenieur - Archiv ,
Vol . 5 , No. 3 , 1934 , pp . 238-244 ; see p . 239 .

(9 ) op . cit . , p. 240 , H. Neuber .

( 10 ) " Stresses in a Plate Due to the Presence of Cracks and Sharp

Corners , " C.E. Inglis , Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects ,

Vol . 55 , London 1913 , pp . 219-230 ; and ( discussion ) , pp . 231-242 .

 179

( 11 ) " Beiträge zur ebenen Elastizitätstheorie " ( Contributions to the

Theory of Plane Elasticity ) , K. Wolf , Zeitschrift fur technische Physik , Vol .
3 , No. 5 , 1922 , pp . 160-166 .
( 12 ) op . cit . , p . 243 , H. Neuber .
( 13 ) " Festigkeitslehre mittels Spannungsoptik " ( Strength Theory by
Means of Photoelasticity ) , L. Pöppl and H. Neuber , Munich and Berlin , 1935 ,
p . 91 .
( 14 ) " Stresses in a Notched Plate under Tension , " P.G. Maunsell ,
Philosophical Magazine , Series VII , Vol. 21 , 1936 , pp . 765-773 . The approxi
mation given by the author is confirmed by this study by Maunsell whose rigor
ous solution for the problem of the semi- circular notch , developed with the
aid of Fourier Series , gives the value of 3 for the stress -concentration fac
tor with great exactitude .

( 15 ) See Reference ( 6 ) , p . 440 , H. Neuber .

( 16 ) " Der räumliche Spannungszustand in Umdrehungskerben " ( The
Three -Dimensional Stress Condition about Circumferential Notches ) , H. Neuber ,
Ingenieur - Archiv , Vol. 6 , No. 2 , 1935 , pp . 133-156 ; see p . 138 .
( 17 ) "Drang und Zwang" ( Stress and Strain ), A. and L. Föppl , Vol . 2 ,
2nd ed . , Munich and Berlin , 1928 , p . 108 .
( 18 ) " Bisherige Lösungen des Torsionsproblems für Drehkörper"
( Previous Solutions of the Problem of Torsion for Bodies of Revolution ) ,
Th . Pöschl , Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik, Vol . 2 , No. 2 ,
April 1922 , pp . 137-147 . As is evident , Th . Pöschl was the first to attain
this result , but by a different method .
( 19 ) " Störungen der Spannungsverteilung " (Disturbances of the Stress
Distribution ) , A. Leon , Vienna 1908 .
( 20 ) See Reference ( 6 ) , p . 441 , H. Neuber .
.

( 21 ) " Die Torsion eines Rotationskörpers um seine Achse " ( The Tor
sion of a Body of Revolution about its Axis ) , F.A. Willers , Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik , Vol. 55 , 1907 , p . 227 ; and also : "Zur Torsion von
runden Wellen mit veränderlichem Durchmesser" ( On the Torsion of Round Shafts
of Variable Diameter ), R. Sonntag , Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und
Mechanik , Vol . 9 , No. 1 , February 1929 , pp . 1-22 . When t = p , 1.e. , for
semicircular notches , the stress concentration factor simply equals 2 . This
corresponds to calculations by Willers and Sonntag .
( 22 ) " Lehre der Verdrehungsfestigkeit" ( Theory of Torsional
Strength ) , C. Weber , Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Forschungs -Heft No. 249 ,
VDI - Verlag , Berlin 1921 .
 180

(23 ) " Einfluss von Löchern und Nuten auf die Beanspruchung von
Wellen " ( Effect of Holes and Grooves on the Loading of Shafts ) , L. Föppl ,
Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure , Vol . 65 , No. 19 , 7 May 1921 ,

pp . 497-498 .

(24 ) " Steigerung der Dauerfestigkeit bei Rundstäben mit Querboh-

rungen" ( Increase of the Endurance Strength in Round Bars with Transverse
Bores ) , A. Thum and H. Oschatz , Forschung auf dem Gebiete des Ingenieur-
wesens , Vol . 3 , 1932 , p . 87.

(25 ) " Eine neue elastische Materialkonstante " (A New Elastic Mate-
rial Constant ) , Ludwig Föppl , Ingenieur - Archiv , Vol . 7 , No. 4 , 1936 , pp .
229-236.

(26 ) "Versuche über die Spannungsverminderung durch die Ausrundung

scharfer Ecken " ( Tests on Stress Decrease by Rounding off Sharp Corners ) ,
E. Preuss , Mitteilungen über Forschungsarbeiten auf dem Gebiete des Ingenieur-
wesens , published by Verein Deutscher Ingenieure , No. 126 , Berlin 1912 , pp .
1-24 ; see also : Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure , Vol . 56 , No.
34 , 24 August 1912 , pp . 1349-1355 ; see also : "Versuche über die Spannungs-

verteilung in gelochten Zugstäben " ( Tests on the Stress Distribution in Per-

forate Tensile Bars ) , E. Preuss , Mitteilungen über Forschungsarbeiten auf dem
Gebiete des Ingenieurwesens , published by Verein Deutscher Ingenieure , No.
126 , Berlin 1912 , pp . 47-57 ; see also : Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher
Ingenieure , Vol . 56 , No. 44 , 2 November 1912 , pp . 1780-1783 .

( 27 ) " Kerbwirkung an Biegstäben " ( Notch Effect on Bars under Bend-

ing ) , G. Fischer , VDI - Verlag , Berlin 1932 .

(28 ) See Reference ( 13 ) , L. Föppl and H. Neuber .

( 29 ) op . cit . , L. Föppl and H. Neuber .

( 30 ) " Einfluss der Oberflächenbeschaffenheit auf den Spannungs-

verlauf und die Schwingungsfestigkeit " ( Effect of the Quality of Surface
Finish on the Stress Curve and Vibration Strength ) , E. Armbruster , Berlin
1931 .

( 31 ) . " Polarisationsoptische Spannungsuntersuchungen am gelochten

Zugstab und am Nietloch " ( Photoelastic Investigations of Stresses in Perfo-
rate Tensile Bars and about Rivet Holes ) , A. Hennig , Forschung auf dem
Gebiete des Ingenieurwesens , ed . B , Vol . 4 , No. 2 , March/April 1933 , pp .
53-63 .

( 32 ) See Reference ( 13 ) ; L. Foppl and H. Neuber ; see also :

"Spannungsverteilung in Konstruktionselementen " ( Stress Distribution in
Structural Elements ) , E. Lehr , Berlin 1934 .
TABLE TO NEUBER : Theory

Loading
of Notch Stresses ω

Type
0.5π
10

of
49

Q8
Type of Notch

07
Tensile

Bending $0.6

Tensile
05
Bending

Tensile

Bending 03
2d
Tensile

A
101

Bending
2

3012- 01
MTVMB Shear

-0.3 Torsional 2
-ak or ak
Tensile
igure 106 - Nomographs for the Determination of the
Technical Stress -Concentration Factor
)
- (10 Bending 지
(123
VMB Shear 피
1
m = 0.3 Torsional

Tensile

Bending
-
(2776
MTVMB Shear πι

m = 0.3 Torsional

Shear

Torsional 22

Shear
Given
Symmetrical Torsional
Hollow Section
S static moment of the
upper half section with
+F =
respect to the zero line .
cen
J = moment of inertia of ary
the entire section with
respect to the zero line.

Figure 103 · Graphic Presentation

Which Can Be Treated by the Stre
Factor Nomographs , Given by F
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