IBES English grammar notes

There are 26 letters in ABC, and when we talk about A to Z, we must say Alphabet. Two or more letters
make a word when it gives some meaning like "Go", "Run", and "Back".
In the English language, there are 21 consonants and 5 vowels. The vowels are A, E, I, O, and U, while
the remaining letters are consonants. Consonants can produce 24 distinct sounds, whereas vowels can
produce 20 different sounds.

When we speak or write, we use words. We generally use these words in groups; for example, "Little
Jack Horner sat in a corner." A group of words like this, which makes complete sense, is called a
Sentence.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

When we make a sentence:

1. We name some person or thing (the Subject).

2. We say something about that person or thing (the Predicate).

Every sentence has two main parts:

1. The part that names the person or thing we're speaking about is called the Subject.

2. The part that tells something about the subject is called the Predicate.

Usually, the Subject comes first, but occasionally it appears after the Predicate. For example:

• "Here comes the bus."

• "Sweet are the uses of adversity."

In Imperative sentences, the Subject is often omitted, but understood. For instance:

• "Sit down." (The understood subject is "You")

• "Thank him." (Again, "You" is understood.)

Identify Subject and Predicate:

1. The earth revolves round the sun.

2. Nature is the best physician.

3. Edison invented the phonograph.

4. The sea hath many thousand sands.

THE PHRASE AND THE CLAUSE

Examine the group of words “in a corner”. It makes sense, but not complete sense. Such a group of
words is called a Phrase.

Examples of sentences containing phrases:

 • "The sun rises in the east."

• "Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall."

• "There came a giant to my door."

• "It was a sunset of great beauty."

• "The tops of the mountains were covered with snow."

• "Show me how to do it."

• "He has a chain of gold."

When a group of words forms part of a sentence and contains both a Subject and a Predicate, it's called
a Clause.

Examples of sentences containing clauses:

• "People who pay their debts are trusted."

• "We cannot start while it is raining."

• "I think that you have made a mistake."

Noun Phrase: A 'Noun Phrase' is the group of words which does the work of a noun. It may act as a
subject or object of a verb. Examples are:

• We hope to win the first prize.

• Do you enjoy reading this book?
• Faraz was visited by all kith and kin.
• I wish to go into business.
• The sound of the birds is soothing.

She is known for her kindness and generosity.

Adjective Phrase: An 'Adjective Phrase' is the group of words which does the work of an adjective.
Examples include:

• A shirt of pink colour.

• I like to see a face with a smile on it.
• A market without any buyer.
• Life is not a bed of roses.
• The car in pristine condition attracted many buyers.
• The book full of suspenseful events was hard to put down.

Adverb Phrase: An 'Adverb Phrase' is a group of words which does the work of an adverb. Examples
are:

• Ali ran at great speed.

• You do your work without any care.
• She answered in a very rude manner.
 • Nothing can live on the moon.
• He completed the task with incredible efficiency.
• The cat sat on the warm windowsill.

Prepositional Phrase: A 'Prepositional Phrase' is that group of words which consists of a preposition
and a noun phrase. Examples include:

• There is a garden in front of my house.

• I shall act according to my plan.
• Call me immediately in case of any emergency.
• Shahid is at home in Mathematics.
• The painting on the wall is priceless.
• The letter from my grandmother was heartwarming.

Independent Clauses (also known as main clauses/Principle Clause) express a complete thought and
can stand alone as a sentence.

Examples:

• John eats an apple.

• The cat is sleeping.

• I am going to the market.

• She can speak three languages.

• The sun sets in the west.

• Birds are flying in the sky.

• I have completed my homework.

• They are playing football.

• She likes to read novels.

• We are planning a trip.

2. Dependent Clauses (also known as subordinate clauses) do not express a complete thought and
cannot stand alone as a sentence. They are usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction
like because, since, if, when, although, etc.

Examples:

• Because it's raining

• While you were sleeping

• If I win the lottery

• Although she was late

 • After the bell rang

• Since you are here

• When the movie is over

• Unless it stops raining

• Wherever you go

• Until the sun sets

A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence. It's used to
make sentences more complex or more interesting.
Coordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions are used to link words, phrases, or clauses of
equal importance. The most common coordinating conjunctions are "and," "but," "or," "nor,"
"for," "so," and "yet" (remembered by the acronym FANBOYS).
Examples:
• I like to play basketball and soccer.
• I wanted to go to the party, but I had to study for my test.
• You can have ice cream or cake.
• She neither dances nor sings.
• He was tired, yet he continued to work.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions are used to link a dependent clause to
an independent clause. Some common subordinating conjunctions are "because,"
"although," "while," "since," "after," "before," "unless," and "if."
Examples:
• I will go to the party because I finished my homework.
• Although it was raining, they decided to go for a walk.
• I usually read a book while I am eating breakfast.
• He hasn't seen her since they graduated.
• Before you go to bed, remember to turn off the lights.
3. Correlative Conjunctions: These conjunctions work in pairs to join words, phrases, or
clauses of equal importance. The common pairs are "either...or," "neither...nor," "not
only...but also," "both...and," "whether...or."
Examples:
 • You can have either ice cream or cake.
• She neither dances nor sings.
• She is not only an athlete but also a scholar.
• Both the cat and the dog are sleeping.
• I don't know whether I should stay or go.
Noun Clause: A 'Noun Clause' is a group of words that contains a subject and predicate of its
own and functions as a 'noun'. Examples include:
• I fear that I shall fail.
• You do not know what he wants.
• They often wonder how I am getting on.
• It is uncertain whether she will come.
• I understand that prices have increased.
• The problem is that prices have increased.
• That prices have increased makes us all unhappy.
• The fact that prices have increased makes us unhappy.
Adjective Clause: An 'Adjective Clause' is a group of words that contains a subject and a
predicate of its own and functions as an 'Adjective'. Examples include:
• I know the place where they live.
• You found the books that you had lost.
• Tahir is the man who is true to his words.
• She went away by the train which departed at 9:00.
Adverb Clause: An 'Adverb Clause' is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate
of its own and functions as an 'Adverb'. Examples include:
• If you eat too much, you will be ill.
• Alia finished first though she began late.
• Danish is not so clever as you are.
• Do as you please.

4. Simple Sentence: A simple sentence contains one independent clause.

 Examples:
The dog barks.
Rain falls.
The sun is shining.
She is singing.
I read a book.
He loves pizza.
They are playing in the park.
You look happy.
We went shopping.
The cake tastes delicious.
1. Compound Sentence: A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses.
These clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or a
semicolon (;).
Examples:
• I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.
• She didn't want to go to the museum; instead, she decided to stay home.
• The sky is clear, so we can go for a picnic.
• The food is cold, but it is delicious.
• I want to buy a new car, but I don't have enough money.
• We were tired, so we decided to go home.
• He didn't study for the test, yet he passed with flying colors.
• The project was challenging, and I learned a lot from it.
• I love reading books; I also enjoy writing stories.
• The concert was cancelled, so we watched a movie instead.
2. Complex Sentence: A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least
one dependent clause.
Examples:
• Because it was raining, we stayed indoors.
 • I'll make dinner when I get home.
• If you save your money, you can buy a car.
• Although she is young, she is very responsible.
• Before you go to bed, remember to set your alarm.
• While I was driving, I saw a beautiful rainbow.
• After the movie ends, we will go to dinner.
• She likes to read books that are inspiring.
• The project, which was due on Friday, was completed early.
• He understood the lesson because he had studied hard.
3. Compound-Complex Sentence: A compound-complex sentence contains at least two
independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Examples:
• I wanted to play outside, but it started to rain, so I decided to read a book instead.
• John, who is an excellent musician, loves to play guitar, and he also enjoys
teaching music to others.
• She didn't like the movie, but she thought the music was beautiful, even though it
was not her usual taste.
• When the cake is brown, take it out of the oven, and let it cool.
• Although I was scared at first, I decided to climb the tree, and I was able to get a
great view.
• I failed my first test, so I studied hard, and I passed the next one.
• He missed the bus, but he took a taxi, so he arrived on time.
• If it is sunny tomorrow, we can go to the park, or we can visit the museum.
• She loves reading mystery novels, and she often guesses the ending before she
finishes the book.
• Although she was tired, she decided to finish her work, and she was proud of her
effort.
Declarative or Assertive Sentences tell us that some action or incident has taken place or not. These
sentences can be positive or negative.

1. Affirmative Sentences: These are sentences that make positive statements.

Example: "We have won the match."

"Birds fly in the sky."

2. Negative Sentences: These sentences declare negation for some task, description, or fact. Example:
"The sun does not rise in the west."

"I haven't visited that city."

3. Emphatic Sentences: Sentences that express something forcibly.

Examples:

• "They shall come here."

• "She did go to school." "I do understand your point."

Interrogative Sentences: A sentence in which a question is asked. Examples:

• "Does the sun rise in the east?"

• "Do you respect your elders?" "Where have you been?"

Imperative Sentences: A sentence that expresses a command, a request, an entreaty, or a suggestion.

Examples:

• "Sit down!"

• "Go away!"

• "Walk slowly!" "Please close the door."

Exclamatory Sentences: Sentences that express strong and sudden feelings or sentiments (like sadness,
happiness, or surprise). Example: "How foolish you are!" "What a beautiful sunset!"

Optative Sentences: Sentences that express a wish, hope, or desire. Examples:

• "Would that I were rich!"

• "May God help you in this matter!" "May your journey be safe!"

Mood is the mode or manner in which the action denoted by the Verb is represented.

The indicative mood is the most common mood used in English. It's used to make statements or ask
questions about what is true or factual.

1. Making Statements of Fact: These sentences present a fact or an action that has occurred or
will occur.

Example: "She walks to school every day."

Example: "They will travel to Australia next summer."

2. Expressing Opinions: The indicative mood is used to state one's thoughts or beliefs.

Example: "I believe that everyone should have access to education."

 3. Asking Questions: We use the indicative mood to pose questions about reality, to gather
information, or to inquire about factual circumstances.

Example: "What is the time?"

4. Reporting What Someone Else Says: The indicative mood is also used to report or quote what
someone else has said, even if it's hypothetical or contrary to fact.

Example: "He said that if he were rich, he would buy a yacht."

The imperative mood is used to issue commands, give instructions, offer advice, or make requests.

1. Giving Commands: These are direct orders or prohibitions.

Example: "Stop talking."

2. Giving Instructions: The imperative mood is often used in guides or manuals to tell people what
to do.

Example: "Mix the flour and sugar in a bowl."

3. Making Requests: Although commands can sound harsh, the imperative can also be used to
make polite requests.

Example: "Please pass the salt."

4. Offering Advice: The imperative is often used when offering advice or suggestions.

Example: "Don't worry about it."

5. Making Invitations: The imperative can be used to invite someone to do something.

Example: "Come to the party."

The subjunctive mood is a verb form in English that is used to talk about situations that are
hypothetical, wishful, imagined, demanded, suggested, or otherwise contrary to fact at the time of the
statement. It's often found in "that" clauses following verbs of wishing, proposing, demanding, or
suggesting.

1. Hypothetical Situations: These sentences describe situations that aren't real, usually following
an “if” or “unless”.

Example: "If I were a millionaire, I would buy a yacht."

2. Expressing Wishes or Desires: The subjunctive mood is used to express a wish or something that
is not actual but is wished or imagined.

Example: "I wish I were in Hawaii right now."

3. Giving Advice or Making Suggestions: The subjunctive mood is often used when giving advice or
making suggestions.

Example: "I suggest that he study more for his exams."

 4. Demanding, Recommending, or Insisting: The subjunctive mood is used after certain
expressions that involve demanding, recommending, or insisting something.

Example: "The doctor insists that he be admitted to the hospital immediately."

5. After certain set phrases or expressions: Some set phrases or expressions require the use of the
subjunctive mood.

Example: "God save the Queen!" or "Long live the King!"

1. Zero Conditional (General Truths & Facts)

Structure: If + Present Simple, Present Simple

Example:

• If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.

• If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.

• If the sun sets, it gets dark.

• If you drop an object, it falls.

• If you don't water plants, they die.

• If you touch fire, it burns.

2. First Conditional (Real Possibility in the Present or Future)

Structure: If + Present Simple, Will + Base verb

Examples:

• If it rains, we will stay at home.

• If you study hard, you will pass the exam.

• If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.

• If I finish my work early, I will go for a walk.

• If she doesn't eat breakfast, she gets hungry by mid-morning.

• If you don't wear a coat, you'll get cold.

• If it's sunny tomorrow, we'll go to the beach.

• If you save your money, you can buy a new phone.

3. Second Conditional (Unreal Possibility in the Present or Future)

Structure: If + Past Simple, Would + Base verb

Examples:
 • If I had a million dollars, I would buy a new house.

• If she were here, she would know what to do.

• If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.

• If I could fly, I would travel the world.

• If you gave me a book, I would read it.

• If she spoke Spanish, she would work in Spain.

• If we owned a boat, we would sail every weekend.

• If he knew how to dance, he would join the dance club.

4. Third Conditional (Unreal Possibility in the Past)

Structure: If + Past Perfect, Would Have + Past Participle

Examples:

• If he had known the answer, he would have raised his hand.

• If they hadn't missed the bus, they would have arrived on time.

• If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.

• If I had known about the party, I would have attended.

• If she had studied harder, she would have passed her exams.
• If we had left earlier, we wouldn't have been late.
• If he had brought his umbrella, he wouldn't have gotten wet.
• If they had set an alarm, they would have woken up on time.

5. Mixed Conditionals (Mix of Second and Third Conditionals)

Structure: Can involve a present result of a past condition or a past result of a present condition.

Examples:

• If she had taken the medicine, she wouldn't be sick now. (Past condition, present result)

• If I were rich, I would have bought that car yesterday. (Present condition, past result)

• If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.

• If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't feel so sick now.

• If she were more disciplined, she would have finished her project weeks ago.

• If I weren't so afraid of heights, I would have tried bungee jumping when I was younger.

• If he weren't so busy, he would have joined us for the trip last month.

• If she were more sociable, she would have made more friends in college.
 Parts of Speech
Definition A noun is the name of a person, animal, place, or thing. It may also name a feeling, quality, or
an idea. Thus, a noun is a 'naming word'. Madni, Pakistan boy, Multan, girl, school, Mrs.
Seema, Taj Mahal, teacher,hospital, postman, Rose, Garden
Kinds of Noun:

Concrete nouns are tangible and can be experienced by at least one of the five senses, whereas abstract
nouns are intangible and cannot be perceived through the senses.

Type of Noun Definition Examples

Abstract Noun Refers to ideas, qualities, and feelings that cannot be
seen, touched, heard, smelled, or tasted.
Love, Wisdom, Freedom, Bravery, Childhood,
truth, honesty, bravery, stupidity, sympathy,
wisdom, hatred, theft, mischief, activity,
childhood, adolescence, freedom, puberty,
sickness, death, penury, politics, botany, music,
grammar, astrology (Uncountable)

Concrete Noun Refers to objects, people, and animals that can be Dog, Book, Apple, Music, Rose
perceived through one or more of the five senses.

Proper Noun It denotes a particular person, place, or thing. Hammad, Kainat, Lahore, Iran, Asia, Shalamar
Garden, Eid, Christmas
Common Noun It is the name common to every thing or person of the pen, doctor, boy, woman, computer, tiger, city,
same kind, class, or group. bird (Countable)
Collective Noun It is the name of the same type of persons or things class, army, crowd, jury, committee, herd, dozen
taken together and regarded as one entity. Collective noun can act as singular and plural
Material Noun A material noun is the name of a matter or substance of iron, wood, silver, gold, wheat, paper, mud
which things are made. (Uncountable)
Countable Those nouns which are names of things which can be chair, book, table, river, cup, pen, man, woman,
Nouns counted or divided into singular or plural. computer
Uncountable An uncountable noun is the name of a thing that cannot milk, butter, sugar, wheat, ice, oxygen, beauty,
Nouns be counted or divided into singular or plural. gold
Masculine Nouns which are names of males.Objects associated the sun, winter, death, time, man, dog, boy, lion,
Gender with superiority, strength, violence, etc. lord,
Feminine Nouns which are names of females.Objects associated woman, bitch, girl, lioness, lady, the moon, spring,
Gender with gentleness, beauty, gracefulness, etc. liberty, mercy, nature, hope, peace
A nation, a ship, and a train are considered to be
of Feminine gender.
Common Nouns which can be used for both males or females. student, doctor, friend, teacher
Gender
Neuter Gender Nouns which are the names neither of females nor of chair, book, pen, tree, computer
males, i.e., the names of lifeless things.
Singular Fish, series, sheep, species, deer, hair, fruit, means , A five-rupee note, A ten-year-old boy, A twelve-
pound weight, An eight-day clock, A five-mile walk

Plural act, boy, book, acts, boys, books, bus, box, dish, buses, mangoes, man' change to '-men, sister-in-law,
boxes, dishes, calf, thief, wife, calves, thieves, wives, city, looker-on, sisters-in-law, lookers-on, B.A, M.P., 7,
B.A.'s, M.P.'s, 7's, Irregular Plurals, child, goose,
 fairy, army, cities, fairies, armies, boys, days, toys, hero, man, children, geese, men, analysis, basis, crisis,
potato, mango, heroes, potatoes, analyses, bases, crises

Type of Noun Use in Sentence

Common Noun She read a book.
I live in a big city.
He bought a new laptop.
Proper Noun Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
We visited Paris last summer.
I use Microsoft software.
Abstract Noun Freedom is essential.
Their love is true.
She pursues knowledge avidly.
Concrete Noun The rose is red.
The table is made of wood.
She loves dark chocolate.
Material Noun The ring is made of gold.
Her dress is pure silk.
We need more wood for the fire.
Countable Noun She has a cat.
The river is wide.
Every child deserves love.
Uncountable Drink some water.
Noun We need more information.
Cooking rice is easy.
Collective Noun A flock of sheep grazed.
Our team won the match.
The audience applauded.
Compound Noun Get your toothbrush.
I bought vanilla ice cream.
Let's play basketball.
Possessive Noun The dog's tail wagged.
Lisa's book is interesting.
The city's infrastructure is improving.
Masculine Noun The king rules.
He is a great hero.
The boy played in the park.
Feminine Noun The queen waved.
She played the role of the heroine.
The little girl is singing.
Common Gender The teacher gave a lecture.
Every student must submit the assignment.
The doctor advised rest.
 Neuter Noun The book is heavy.
This car is fast.
Open the window for some air.
Singular Noun The child laughed.
The fox is clever.
The moon is bright tonight.
Plural Noun Children are playing.
There are several planets in the solar system.
She lost her glasses.

Collective Noun

Urdu Meaning Sentences for Understanding

flock ‫امجعت‬ A flock of birds soared in the evening sky.

The shepherd guided his flock through the valley.

team ‫میٹ‬ The team is working on the project until late tonight.
Our basketball team has won three championships.

audience ‫احرضنی‬ The audience was captivated by the performer's talent.

The comedian made the entire audience laugh.

bunch ‫رگوہت‬ She handed me a bunch of flowers.

There's a bunch of keys on the table.

herd ‫رویڑت‬ A herd of elephants roamed the savannah.

The cowboy rounded up the herd of cattle.

swarm ‫وجہمت‬ A swarm of bees was hovering around the hive.

Locals ran for cover as a swarm of locusts approached.

choir ‫وقایلرگوپت‬ The choir practiced for hours to perfect the song.
During Christmas, the church choir sang carols.

jury ‫اچنپیت‬ The jury is still deliberating on the verdict.

He was selected as a member of the jury for a major trial.

army ‫وفجت‬ The army marched with precision during the parade.
An army of ants invaded our picnic.

pod ‫رگوپت‬ A pod of dolphins played near the boat.

 We watched in awe as a pod of whales passed by.

fleet ‫ریبا‬ A fleet of ships was seen on the horizon.

The company has a large fleet of delivery trucks.

troupe ‫امنشئرگوہت‬ The dance troupe traveled the world.

The theater troupe performed classic plays.

squad ‫میٹ‬ The police squad was called for an emergency.

Each military unit is divided into smaller squads.

Singular Plural Rule

cat cats Add -s

bus buses Add -es for words ending in -s

child children Irregular form

woman women Irregular form

mouse mice Irregular form

box boxes Add -es for words ending in -x

leaf leaves For words ending in -f, change -f to -v and add -es

toy toys Add -s

city cities For words ending in -y, change -y to -i and add -es

knife knives For words ending in -fe, change -fe to -v and add -es

cactus cacti Some words ending in -us change to -i (but not all)

appendix appendices Some words ending in -ix change to -ices (but not all)

radius radii Some words ending in -us change to -ii (but not all)

formula formulae/formulas Some words ending in -a can have -ae or -s

criterion criteria Some words ending in -on change to -a

thesis theses Words ending in -is change to -es

foot feet Irregular form

person people Irregular form

matrix matrices Words ending in -ix can change to -ices (from Latin origin)

octopus octopuses/octopi Both forms are accepted; "-uses" is more common in English

datum data Some Latin-derived words have irregular plurals

 fungus fungi Words of Latin origin ending in -us can change to -i

nucleus nuclei Words of Latin origin ending in -us can change to -i

syllabus syllabi Words of Latin origin ending in -us can change to -i

Masculine Urdu Meaning Feminine Transformation Rule/Note

man ‫ آدیم‬woman Irregular transformation

king ‫ بادشاہت‬queen Separate words with related meanings

actor ‫ ادااکر‬actress Add -ess to certain nouns

lion ‫ ریش‬lioness Add -ess to certain nouns

duke ‫ ڈویکت‬duchess Add -ess to certain nouns

prince ‫ زہشادہت‬princess Add -ess to certain nouns

steward ‫ المزم‬stewardess Add -ess to certain nouns

monk ‫ راہت‬nun Separate words with related meanings

hero ‫ ریہو‬heroine Use -ine suffix for certain nouns

bridegroom ‫ دوہلت‬bride Separate words with related meanings

waiter ‫ ورٹی‬waitress Add -ess to certain nouns

bachelor ‫ ونکارا‬spinster Separate words (note: "spinster" is outdated)

father ‫ والت‬mother Separate words with related meanings

sir ‫ انجبت‬madam/ma'am Separate words with related meanings

nephew ‫ اجیتھب‬niece Separate words with related meanings

uncle ‫اممت‬/‫ اچچ‬aunt Separate words with related meanings

wizard ‫ اجدورگت‬witch Separate words (note: different connotations)

executor ‫ وتیصباہمونیت‬executrix Latin-based words change -or to -rix for the feminine
form
testator ‫ وتیصدننکہت‬testatrix Latin-based words change -or to -rix for the feminine
form

sire ‫دیپارکےنوالت‬/‫ باپ‬dam Separate words (often used for animals)

baron ‫ بارونت‬baroness Add -ess to certain nouns

host ‫ زیمبان‬hostess Add -ess to certain nouns

prophet ‫ بنت‬prophetess Add -ess to certain nouns

patron ‫ احیم‬matron Separate words with related meanings

benefactor ‫ افلعیخت‬benefactress Add -ess to certain nouns

abbot ‫ ایت‬abbess Separate words with related meanings

lad ‫ ڑلاک‬lass Separate words with related meanings

friar ‫ بادری‬nun Separate words with related meanings

sorcerer ‫ اجدورگت‬sorceress Add -ess to certain nouns

earl ‫ ارلت‬countess Separate words with related meanings

drake ‫ رنطبت‬duck Separate words (used for animals)

gander ‫ رننہت‬goose Separate words with related meanings

signor ‫ وینیسرت‬signora/signorina Separate words (note: "signorina" is for unmarried

women)
 Case First Person Second Person Third Person

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural

Nominative I We Thou, You You He, She, It They

Thy, Thine, Your, Their,

Possessive My, Mine Our, Ours Your, Yours His, Her, Hers, Its
Yours Theirs

Objective Me Us Thee You Him, Her, It Them

1.

People and Their Possessions and Ownership Locations and Actions

Professions/Occupations
Mr. Nauman is a professor. This book is yours. I love my country.
He is a Pakistani. You are our best player. They gave him a prize.

Asim lives in Bahawalpur. Your books are in the bag. They are going to Gujranwala
today.

He teaches in a school. He is Shahnila's brother. She has two cars.

Give him the red pen. Give them some money.

Order of pronoun
1. Reflexive Emphasis: When emphasizing one's own actions or feelings in relation to others, the
standard order is: 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person.

• E.g., "I myself will go with you and him to the movies."

2. Courtesy or Politeness: Typically, the order is: 2nd, 3rd, and 1st person. This places the other
person(s) before oneself, showing deference or courtesy.

• E.g., "You, him, and I should form a team."

3. In Negative Contexts: In contexts where blame or a negative action is being discussed, the order
might be: 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person. This places oneself first, taking on the primary responsibility.

• E.g., "I didn't see it, and neither did you or him."

4. Listing Multiple Actions: When discussing what multiple people are doing, it's common to use
the order: 3rd, 2nd, and 1st person.

• E.g., "He will go to the store, you will pick up the dry cleaning, and I will handle dinner."

5. With "and": When "and" is used, the order is often: 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person.

• E.g., "You and I will decide on this."

6. With "between": When "between" is used, the typical order is: 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person.

• E.g., "The choice is between you and me."

Reciprocal Additional Information Examples (Sentences)

Pronoun
each other Used for two entities. The two friends looked at each other.
John and Mary hugged each other.

one another Traditionally used for more The team members helped one another.
than two entities. The birds were chirping at one another.
Relative Examples (Sentences) Rules/Usage with
Pronoun
who The girl who sings is my cousin. Refers to humans, often in the subject position.
People who exercise regularly are often healthier.
whom The man to whom I spoke is the principal. Refers to humans, often in the object position.
This is the author whom I admire greatly.
whose The lady whose car broke down seemed worried. Indicates possession. Example:
I met a boy whose father is a pilot.
which The book which is on the table is mine. Refers to animals and things. Example:
The song which she sang became a hit.
that The house that I bought is spacious. Used in restrictive clauses, which provide essential
The pen that writes smoothly is out of ink. information about the noun they modify.
The shoes that she wore to the party were red.
The movie that he recommended was excellent.
Pronoun Examples (Sentences) Specific Rules/Usage Pronoun Vs Adjective

each Each student received a certificate. - Refers to members Pronoun: Each is the best.
Each of these apples is fresh. individually. - Typically used for Adjective: Each student is intelligent.
2 or more items.

every Every child love candy. - Refers to all members of a Pronoun: (Only act as an adjective)
Every answer was correct. group without exception. - Used Adjective: Every book is interesting.
only when referring to more than
2 items.

either You can take either the red ball or the - Refers to one out of two Pronoun: I don’t like either.
blue one. items/choices. - Implies any one Adjective: Either choice is good.
Either door will lead to the garden. of the two but not both.

neither Neither answer is correct. - Denotes not one or the other Pronoun: Neither is acceptable.
Neither of the restaurants is open. out of two choices. - Often Adjective: Neither option is suitable.
contrasts with "either".

both Both are excellent. - Specifically refers to two items Pronoun: Both are excellent.
Both the movies were thrilling. or choices in tandem. - Adjective: Both movies were thrilling.
Emphasizes inclusivity of two
items.

any I don’t want any. - Refers to an indefinite quantity. Pronoun: I haven't seen any.
Any child can answer this question. - Often used in negative Adjective: Any book will do.
sentences and questions.

none None was left. - Used to indicate not a single Pronoun: None was left.
None of the answers was correct. one or zero quantity. - Can be Adjective: None of the books is useful.
 followed by singular or plural
verbs, depending on context.

Indefinite Specific Rules Additional Information Examples (Sentences)

someone Refers to an unspecified person,
usually in singular contexts.
everyone Refers to all individuals in a group.
somebody Similar to "someone" in meaning,
refers to an unspecified person.
Concrete; Countable; Positive
Concrete; Countable; Positive
Concrete; Countable; Positive
Someone is standing at the gate.
Someone should understand the
essence of true love.
Everyone in the town attends the
festival. Everyone desires respect.
Somebody left their bag here.
Somebody cherishes the idea of peace.

nobody Refers to the absence of any person. Concrete; Countable; Negative Nobody in our team was late.
Nobody understands the depth of
loneliness.
everything Refers to all things in a given context. Abstract/Concrete; Uncountable; Everything is a part of the grand
Positive design. Everything in the room is
placed perfectly.
something Refers to an unspecified thing or Abstract/Concrete; Uncountable; Something about freedom attracts us
matter. Positive all. Something on the table looks
delicious.
nothing Refers to the absence of anything. Abstract/Concrete; Uncountable; Nothing is more precious than time.
Negative There's nothing in the jar.

other Used to refer to those remaining or the Concrete; Countable; Other emotions might take over, like
alternative of a group. Positive/Negative joy or sadness.
Some people enjoy rain, others
sunshine.
many Refers to a large but unspecified Concrete; Countable; Positive Many dreams go unfulfilled.
number. Many apples were picked from the
tree.
many a Used to emphasize each individual Concrete; Countable; Positive Many a soldier fell in the battle.
case or item. Many a time I've thought about it.

few Refers to a small but unspecified Concrete; Countable; "few" Few truths remain unchallenged.
number. (negative), "a few" (positive), A few of these ideas are innovative.
"the few" (specific quantity) The few days she spent there were
enlightening.
little Refers to a small, often insufficient Abstract; Uncountable; "little" Little knowledge can be dangerous.
amount. (negative), "a little" (positive), A little kindness can make a
"the little" (specific quantity) difference.
The little water we had was used
sparingly.
some Refers to an unspecified quantity or a Abstract/Concrete; Some wisdom comes with age.
part of a whole. Countable/Uncountable; Positive Some bread would be nice. Some
people never change.
Sure, here's a reformatted and simplified version of the text about predicative and attributive adjectives,
with important points in bold:

Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns. They can provide answers to questions such as:

• "What kind?"

• "Which one?"

• "How many?" or

• "How much?"

Consider these examples:

1. Sita is a clever girl. (What kind of girl?)

2. I don't like that boy. (Which boy?)

3. He gave me five mangoes. (How many mangoes?)

4. There is little time for preparation. (How much time?)

From the examples:

• 'Clever' describes the kind of girl Sita is.

• 'That' points out which boy is referred to.

• 'Five' indicates the number of mangoes.

• 'Little' describes the amount of time available.

In simple terms, an Adjective is a word used with a noun to add to its meaning. The term "adjective"
literally means "added to".

Adjectives can be used in two main ways:

1. Attributively: When the adjective is used directly with the noun to describe it.

• Example: The lazy boy was punished.

2. Predicatively: When the adjective is used with a verb and forms part of the sentence's
predicate.

• Example: The boy is lazy.

There are some adjectives that can only be used predicatively, for instance:

• She is afraid of ghosts.

• I am quite well.
Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjectives) describe the characteristics or qualities of nouns. They
give more information about the noun, specifying its size, shape, age, color, origin, material, or any
other quality.

Examples:

Kolkata is a large city.

'Large' describes the size of the city Kolkata.

He is an honest man.

'Honest' describes the quality or character of the man.

The foolish old crow tried to sing.

'Foolish' and 'old' are two adjectives that describe the crow. 'Foolish' describes its intelligence (or lack
thereof) while 'old' describes its age.

This is a Grammar of the English language.

'English' describes the origin or type of the language the grammar book is about.

Adjectives of Quality answer the question : Of what kind ?

Adjectives of Quantity indicate the amount or degree of something. They don't give the exact number,
but they give a general idea about the quantity.

Examples:

1. I ate some rice.

• 'Some' tells us an unspecified amount of rice was eaten.

2. He showed much patience.

• 'Much' indicates a large amount of patience.

3. He has little intelligence.

• 'Little' indicates a small amount of intelligence.

4. We have had enough exercise.

• 'Enough' suggests a satisfactory amount of exercise.

5. He has lost all his wealth.

• 'All' means the entire or complete amount.

6. You have no sense.

• 'No' indicates the absence or zero amount.

7. He did not eat any rice.

 • 'Any' usually refers to zero or a small amount in negative statements.

8. Take great care of your health.

• 'Great' implies a high degree or extent.

9. He claimed his half share of the booty.

• 'Half' describes a 50% portion.

10. There has not been sufficient rain this year.

• 'Sufficient' indicates an adequate amount.

11. The whole sum was expended.

• 'Whole' means the entire amount.

Adjectives of Quantity answer the question: How much? They provide a general idea of quantity
without specifying an exact number.

Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) indicate the quantity of something in terms of precise
numbers or order.

1. The hand has five fingers.

• 'Five' tells us the exact number of fingers.

2. Few cats like cold water.

• 'Few' suggests a small number of cats.

3. There are no pictures in this book.

• 'No' indicates zero pictures.

4. I have taught you many things.

• 'Many' indicates a large number.

5. All men must die.

• 'All' means every single one.

6. Here are some ripe mangoes.

• 'Some' tells us an unspecified number.

7. Most boys like cricket.

• 'Most' indicates the majority.

8. There are several mistakes in your exercise.

 • 'Several' indicates more than a few but not a lot.

9. Sunday is the first day of the week.

• 'First' tells us the order of the day in the week.

Adjectives of Number answer the question: How many?

There are three kinds of Numeral Adjectives:

1. Cardinals: These denote an exact number. Examples include one, two, three, etc.

2. Ordinals: These indicate the order in a series. Examples include first, second, third, etc. (They
perform the role of Demonstrative Adjectives.)

3. Definite Numeral Adjectives: These specify an exact number.

Comparison between Adjectives of Quantity and Adjectives of Number:

• Adjectives of Quantity:

• Example: "I ate some rice."

• They show how much of something is present but don't specify a number.

• Adjectives of Number:

• Example: "Some boys are clever."

• They give a precise or approximate count or order.

Note: A Cardinal answers "how many," and an Ordinal specifies the order of things in a series.

Description Examples

Comparative degree should be This book is better than the other.

used only when comparison is
implied.

Comparatives ending in '-or' or '- I am senior to him. He prefers health to wealth.

er' are followed by 'to'.

Double comparatives and Incorrect: He is more abler than his brother. Correct: He is abler than
superlatives should be avoided. his brother. Incorrect: He is the most richest man in the city. Correct:
He is the richest man in the city.

'Less' is used for quantity, 'fewer' There were fewer calls this week. There is less reason to be watchful
for number. now.
 'Some' is used in affirmative He has got some good story books. There is some milk in the pot. He
sentences and 'Any' in negative has not got any good story books. There isn't any milk in the pot.
sentences.

Differentiate between 'Little', 'a Incorrect: He has a little hope of success. Correct: He has little hope of
little', and 'the little'. success. There is a little butter left in the tin. He has eaten the little
butter left in the tin.

Differentiate between 'Few', 'a Few men are free from faults. I have read a few books. I have read the
few', and 'the few'. few books I have.

'Much' refers to quantity and I do not have much time to waste. Many girls are at play.
'many' to number.

'Nearest' signifies distance, while Bareilly is the town nearest to our village. My mother is my nearest
'Next' signifies position or order. relative. She was sitting next to me. When will the next train arrive?

'Farther' refers to more distance Delhi is farther from Amritsar than Chandigarh. Let us walk a little
and 'further' means additional. farther. This requires further consideration. He made no further
remarks after that.

Distinguish between 'Later', You reached home later than me. What is the latest news? Of the two
'latter', 'latest', and 'last'. boys, already mentioned, the latter is my brother. The last boy in this
row is my friend.

Differentiate between 'First' and Dr. Bakshi was the first Principal of our college. Mahatma Gandhi was
'Foremost'. the foremost leader of the country.

Differentiate among 'Older', He is his elder brother. She is my eldest daughter. You are older than
'elder', 'oldest', and 'eldest'. me. This is the oldest house in the village.

Differentiate between 'Each' and Last week each day was a fine day. Each of the five girls was given a
'Every'. prize. Every chair in the hall was occupied. Every student got a watch.

'Each other' for two entities and Both the sisters love each other very much. The three sisters love one
'One another' for more than two. another very much.

Adjectives used as nouns The poor should be helped. The rich are generally proud. The
generally take the definite article powerful never think of the weak. The elders asked me to do this.
'the'.

English Grammar Topic: Article

Indefinite Article Usage:

• Words such as "hour," "honest," and "heir" begin with a vowel sound since the initial consonant
"h" is not pronounced.

• . Before a word beginning with a consonant sound, "a" is used:

 • Examples: A boy, a reindeer, a woman, a yard, a horse, a hole.

• Words like university, union, European, ewe, unicorn, useful article start with a consonant
sound, that of "yu."

• Similarly, we say a one-rupee note, such a one, a one-eyed man because "one" begins with the
consonant sound of "w."

. Some native speakers use "an" before words beginning with "h" if the first syllable is not stressed:

• Example: An hotel (More common: a hotel)

• An historical novel (More common: a historical novel)

Definite Article Usage:

. The Definite Article "the" is used:

1. Particular Reference: When talking about a specific person or thing, or one already mentioned.

• Examples: The book you want is out of print. Let’s go to the park. The girl cried.

2. Representing a Whole Class: When a singular noun represents an entire class.

• Examples: The cow is a useful animal. The horse is a noble animal. The rose is the
sweetest of all flowers.

• Note: Do not say, "a kind of a fig tree".

3. Names with the Definite Article: Includes oceans (e.g., the Pacific), rivers (e.g., the Ganga),
groups of islands (e.g., the West Indies), and some country names (e.g., the Netherlands).

4. Names of Certain Books: Examples include The Vedas, the Puranas, the Iliad, the Ramayana.

5. Unique Entities: Examples are the sun, the sky, the ocean, the sea, the earth.

6. Proper Noun Qualified by an Adjective: Examples are the great Caesar, the immortal
Shakespeare.

7. Superlatives: Examples include The darkest cloud, This is the best book.

8. Ordinals: Examples are He was the first man, The ninth chapter.

9. Musical Instruments: For instance, He can play the flute.

10. Adjective with Understood Noun: Examples are The poor are always with us.

11. Emphasis for Superlative: Example: The Verb is the word in a sentence.

12. As an Adverb with Comparatives: Examples are The more the merrier.

Indefinite Article Usage:

. The Indefinite Article is used:

 1. Numerical Sense: Examples include Twelve inches make a foot, Not a word was said.

2. Vague Sense of Certain: An example is A Kishore Kumar is suspected by the police.

3. Representative of a Class: Examples are A pupil should obey his teacher, A cow is a useful
animal.

4. Making a Common Noun of a Proper Noun: An example is A Daniel come to judgement.

Omission of the Article:

112. The Article is omitted:

1. Substances and Abstract Nouns: Examples are Sugar is bad, Gold is a precious metal.

2. Plural Countable Nouns: Examples include Children like chocolates, Computers are used.

3. Most Proper Nouns: Names of people, continents, cities, etc.

4. Names of Meals: Examples are What time do you have lunch?, Dinner is ready.

5. Languages: Examples are We are studying English, They speak Punjabi.

6. Places Visited for Their Primary Purpose: Examples are I learnt French at school, We go to
church on Sundays.

7. Names of Relations: Examples include Father has returned, Aunt wants you to see her.

8. Predicative Nouns Denoting a Unique Position: Examples are He was elected chairman, Mr.
Banerji became Principal.

9. Transitive Verb Followed by Its Object: Examples include to catch fire, to lay siege.

10. Preposition Followed by Its Object: Examples are at home, by day, on earth.

Definition of Verb: A Verb is a word that states something about a person or a thing. It tells something
about a person or a thing in the state of:

1. Doing

2. Being

3. Being acted upon

Thus, a verb is an action word.

Examples:

• Rama laughs.

• Boys run fast.

Helping and Main Verbs: In some sentences, the verb can be in two parts - a Helping Verb and a Main
Verb.
Examples:

1. She is painting a picture. (is is the Helping Verb, painting is the Main Verb)

2. Mohan has painted a picture. (has is the Helping Verb, painted is the Main Verb)

3. Meera is singing a song. (is is the Helping Verb, singing is the Main Verb)

4. The boys have taken their lunch. (have is the Helping Verb, taken is the Main Verb)

5. The rooms are being cleaned. (are being is the Helping Verb, cleaned is the Main Verb)

Sometimes, helping verbs can be used as full verbs or main verbs.

Examples:

• Sheela is a good girl. (is is acting as the Main Verb)

• He was a good student. (was is acting as the Main Verb)

• We are good friends. (are is acting as the Main Verb)

• They have nothing in their pockets. (have is acting as the Main Verb)

Transitive Verbs: A Transitive Verb is a verb that denotes an action which passes from the subject or
doer to an object.

Examples:

• The policeman arrested the thief.

• The boys are eating apples.

Note: If you can answer the question "What?" or "Whom?" after a Verb, the verb is Transitive.

Intransitive Verbs: An Intransitive Verb denotes a state or action that is complete in itself and does not
pass over to an object.

Examples:

• Silence is golden.

• Mohan seems happy.

• Water boils at 100°C.

• He is laughing.

• He died yesterday.

Transitive Verbs with Two Objects: Some Transitive Verbs take two objects:
 1. an Indirect Object (denotes the person to whom something is given or for whom something is
done)

2. a Direct Object (usually the name of some thing).

Examples:

• He gave me an apple. (me = Indirect Object, apple = Direct Object)

• The teacher told us a story.

These sentences can be rewritten:

• He gave an apple to me.

• The teacher told a story to us.

Verbs that can be both Transitive and Intransitive: Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive
based on the context.

Examples:

• Transitive: The horse drew the cart.

• Intransitive: She drew near me.

Intransitive Verb becoming Transitive: An Intransitive Verb can become Transitive when combined with
a preposition.

Examples:

• They laughed at her.

• He looked at the sun.

Transitive Verb used Intransitively: Some Transitive Verbs can be used intransitively.

Examples:

• Transitive: He eats bread.

• Intransitive: We eat to live.

Auxiliary Verbs:

An Auxiliary Verb is a verb that helps form the tense, mood, or voice of the main verb.

Examples:

• He was going to the market. (was = Auxiliary; going = Main)

• You can play well. (can = Auxiliary; play = Main)

Types of Auxiliary Verbs:

1. Primary Auxiliaries

2. Modal Auxiliaries

1. Primary Auxiliaries:

These help form tenses, questions, negatives, passives, etc.

Auxiliary Forms Examples

Be Be, is, am, are, was, were, He is playing.<br>We are playing.<br>I am playing.<br>They
been, being were playing.

Have Have, has, had, having She has eaten.

Do Do, does, did, done, doing They did dance.

2. Modal Auxiliaries:

They express ideas like ability, possibility, probability, advisability, etc.

Modal Function Example

can Ability He can play.

could Past ability or possibility He could play.

may Permission or possibility You may go.

might Lesser possibility It might rain.

shall Future (first person) or strong determination or order I shall go.

should Advice or past of shall You should eat.

will Future (second and third person) or willingness He will go.

would Past of will or polite request He would go.

must Necessity or determination You must study.

ought to Advice You ought to go.

need Necessity in negative or interrogative forms Need I say more?

dare Courage or challenge Dare he say that?

Note: A Modal Auxiliary does not change based on Number, Person, Tense, or Voice. For example, both
"He can play" and "They can play" are correct.
Use of Modal Auxiliaries:

1. May, Might

Modal Use Examples

May Permission May I go out?<br>May I come in?<br>You may go now.

Possibility It may rain tonight.<br>He may come today.

A wish May you have a happy and long life!<br>May God bless you!

A purpose We eat that we may live.

Might Possibility It might rain today.

Polite reply/request You might accompany us.

Suggestion You might get this book from the library.

Reproach You might have told me that truth.

2. Can, Could
Modal Use Examples

Can Power or ability You can solve this sum.<br>He can outdo every
competitor.

Permission You can go now.

Ability resulting from circumstances Can you come?

Could Used similarly to "can" but in the past (implied by the definition)
tense

3. Must and Ought

Modal Use Examples

Must Compulsion or obligation We must keep our promises.<br>We must not tell lies.

Determination I must face the circumstances bravely.

Duty A judge must be upright.

Certainty or likelihood He must be up by this time.

Inevitability We must all die.

Ought Obligation and duty We ought to love our neighbours.<br>You ought to work hard.
4. Will and Shall

Modal Use Examples

Will Determination (1st person) I will do as I like.

Willingness (1st person) I will lend you my pen.

Promise (1st person) I will help you.

Threat (1st person) I will expose her.

Future tense (2nd & 3rd person) He will be thirty next month.

Polite request Will you open the door?<br>Will you have another
cup of tea?

Shall Future tense (1st person) I shall go to Chandigarh next month.

Command or promise (2nd & 3rd You shall not go there without my permission.
person)

Offers of service or suggestion Shall I open the door?<br>Shall we go for a picnic?

5. Would and Should

Modal Use Examples

Would Polite request Would you lend me your book?

Habitual action in the past When I was young, I would get up early.

Should Obligation We should help the poor.<br>You should be properly dressed.

Rule Explanation Example

1 A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. He plays cricket. They play cricket.

2 If the subject consists of two or more singular nouns or John and Jolly were two brothers.
pronouns joined by 'and', it takes a plural verb.

2(a) If nouns refer to the same person or thing or express one Rice and Curry is his favourite dish.
idea, the verb is singular.

2(b) If two singular subjects joined by 'and' are qualified by each Every man and every woman desires
or every, they take a singular verb. happiness.

3 Singular subjects connected by or, either-or, neither-nor Neither Hari nor Ramesh has gone to
are followed by a singular verb. school today.

4 When subjects connected by 'or' or 'nor' are of different Neither the headmaster nor the
numbers, the verb agrees with the subject nearest to it. teachers were present.

5 If the subject consists of two nouns or pronouns joined by I, as well as they, am sick of his
'with' or 'as well as' the verb agrees with the first of them. behavior.

6 When two subjects are connected by 'not only... but also', Not only the soldiers but their
the verb agrees with the latter subject. captain also has been arrested.

7 When the subject is the formal 'there', the verb agrees with There is no hope of his success.
the real subject that follows it.

8 Words like either, neither, each, everyone, one of the, take Each of these two girls is intelligent.
a singular verb.

9 Nouns which are plural in form but singular in meaning Mathematics is my favorite subject.
should be followed by singular verbs.
10 Collective nouns are followed by a singular verb when The jury was unanimous. The jury
considered as a singular unit, but a plural verb when were divided.
individual members are referred to.

11 When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb agrees The boy, who stands first, is my son.
with its antecedent.

12 When the subject is a sum of money considered as a whole, A hundred rupees is not a small
a singular verb is used. If it refers to the coins considered amount. A hundred rupees were
separately, a plural verb is used. found in his purse.

Tense Usage Examples

Simple Present or
Present Indefinite
Tense

Express what is happening Here comes the bride. There goes the bus.
now.

Express a habitual action. He gets up early. He takes exercise daily. I go to

school by bus.

Express a universal truth. The earth moves round the sun. The sun rises in the
East. The soul is immortal.

Express a permanent My house faces East. This road runs from Ludhiana to
situation or fact. Delhi.

Indicate a future action. The college reopens next week. We leave by the 8.30
a.m. train.

Present Continuous
Tense

Express an ongoing action What are you doing now? Mohan is singing a song
at the time of speaking. now.

Indicate a future action. We are leaving for Delhi tomorrow. She is coming to
meet me next week.

Present Perfect
Tense

Express an action just The sun has set. We have just arrived.
completed.
 Indicate a past action I have lived in Kolkata for ten years. We have known
whose results continue. each other for five years.

Express Future Perfect I shall go there after I have done my lesson.

with certain words.

Present Perfect
Continuous Tense

Show an action beginning I have been standing here for two hours.
in the past and continuing
to present.

Note with 'since' and 'for'. We have been living here since 1958. Sita has been
dancing since morning. The boys have been playing
for three hours. It has been raining for two hours.

Tense Usage Examples

Simple Past

Express an action done or took I saw him yesterday. He failed last year. She died in
place in the past. 1970.

Express a habitual action in the As a child, I played cricket.

past.

Indicate an action actually While they bathed, we fished.

ongoing at the stated past time.

Past Continuous
Tense

Indicate an action still ongoing in When we reached there, she was singing. When
the referred past time. you arrived, they were having lunch. She was
cooking when the telephone rang.

Past Perfect
Tense

Denote an action completed in The train had left when we reached the station.
the past before another action The patient had died before the doctor arrived.
commenced. The sun had set before we reached home.

Past Perfect
Continuous
Tense
 Indicate an action that We had been waiting for you for two hours when
continued for a time before a you came. I had been writing for an hour when you
past time point. came to see me.

Tense Usage Examples

Simple Future

Denotes an action that is about to I shall do it now. We shall go there next week.
take place or will happen in the Meena will come here at six o' clock.
future.

Future
Continuous
Tense

Denotes an action ongoing at a She will be singing then. I shall be taking my

certain point in the future. examination tomorrow at this time.

Future Perfect
Tense

Denotes that an action will be I shall have done my work before you come. The
completed at a certain future play will have begun before you get to the
time point. theatre. They will have spent all their money by
then.

Future Perfect
Continuous
Tense

Indicates that the action, finished We shall have been playing for three hours when
or not, will have been ongoing for you come here. Ashok will have been living in
some time in the future. Japan for ten years by the end of this month.

Errors in the Use of Tenses

The Simple Past vs Present Perfect

 Incorrect Correct

I did not write the letter yet. I have not written the letter yet.

I have received the letter yesterday. I received the letter yesterday.

I did not hear from her for a month. I have not heard from her for a month.

I lived in Chennai since 1962. I have lived in Chennai since 1962.

The Present Perfect vs Simple Past

Incorrect Correct

Columbus has discovered America. Columbus discovered America.

The Mughals have won the battle of Panipat. The Mughals won the battle of Panipat.

The servant has not come when called. The servant did not come when called.

The Present Perfect & Time Expressions

Incorrect Correct

I have written a letter to him yesterday. I wrote a letter to him yesterday.

A new theatre has been started last Tuesday. A new theatre was started last Tuesday.

I have finished my work last evening. I finished my work last evening.

The old man has died of cold last night. The old man died of cold last night.

A moment ago I have heard strange news. A moment ago I heard strange news.

The Past Perfect vs Simple Past

Incorrect Correct

I had written a letter to her yesterday. I wrote a letter to her yesterday.

He had gone to Mumbai last week. He went to Mumbai last week.

We had gone to the cinema last night. We went to the cinema last night.

She had died in 1992. She died in 1992.

The Simple Past vs Past Perfect

 Incorrect Correct

The train left before we reached the station. The train had left before we reached the station.

The patient died before the doctor arrived. The patient had died before the doctor arrived.

I finished my work before he came to see me. I had finished my work before he came to see me.

Past Perfect or Perfect Continuous vs Simple Past or Past Continuous

Incorrect Correct

He told me that she was ill for six days. He told me that she had been ill for six days.

She was fasting for six weeks when the doctor She had been fasting for six weeks when the doctor
came. came.

The Simple Future vs Future Perfect

Incorrect Correct

He will reach home before the sun will set. He will have reached home before the sun sets.

I shall leave this place by the time she will come. I shall have left this place by the time she comes.

Definition: Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of an adjective, a verb, or another adverb. In essence, an
adverb describes how a work is done and generally answers the question 'how'.

Examples:

• Meera is very sad. (modifies an adjective)

• The child wept bitterly. (modifies a verb)

• He walks very quickly. (modifies another adverb)

Kinds of Adverbs:
Adverbs are primarily categorized into three main types:

1. Simple Adverbs

2. Interrogative Adverbs

3. Relative Adverbs
I. Simple Adverbs

Simple Adverbs can be further sub-divided into six categories:

Type of Adverb Definition Example Question Sample

Answered Adverbs

Time Indicate the time of an I met an old friend When? Now, then,
action yesterday. before, today,
etc.

Place Indicate where an He is sitting there. Where? Here, there,

action is performed inside, outside,
etc.

Number (Frequency) Indicate how often an I visit my How often? Once, twice,
action is performed grandmother twice often, seldom,
a week. etc.

Manner/Quality/State Indicate the manner of She speaks English How? So, likewise,
an action fluently. badly, happily,
etc.

Quantity/Extent/Degree Indicate 'how much', Rahul is very How much? Very, wholly,
'in what degree' and intelligent. little, too, etc.
'to what extent'

Affirmation/Negation Affirm or deny Did you mind it? Affirmative or Yes, no, not,
something Not at all. Negative? certainly, etc.

II. Interrogative Adverbs

These adverbs are used to ask questions and may belong to any class of Adverbs.

Type of Interrogative Adverb Example

Reason Why is he late?

Place Where do you live?

Time When will you go there?

Manner How are you?

III. Relative Adverbs

These adverbs join sentences and serve as a double part of speech - an Adverb and a Conjunction
combined.
Examples:

• This is where he lives.

• I don't know why he left.

• Do you know when he is coming?

• Tell me how I can do it.

FORMATION OF ADVERBS

a. Formation by adding 'ly' to Adjectives

Mostly results in Adverbs of Manner.

Adjective Adverb

strong strongly

faithful faithfully

sincere sincerely

quick quickly

slow slowly

neat neatly

busy busily

happy happily

true truly

severe severely

b. Same Form as the Corresponding Adjectives

Usage Example

He put in hard work. He worked hard.

I want a little sugar. Please move a little.

He has high aims. He aims high in life.

I want an early reply. Please reply early.

c. Formed by Combining a Noun and a Qualifying Adjective

Examples: yesterday, otherwise, meanwhile, sometimes.

d. Formed by Adding a Noun to 'a', 'be', 'to', etc.

Examples: today, abreast, ahead, besides.

e. Formed by Combining a Preposition and a Noun

Examples: herein, henceforth, thereupon.

f. Formed by Combining 'a', or 'be', and 'an' Adjective

Examples: aloud, anew, behind, along.

g. Formed from Participles

Examples: wittingly, surprisingly, knowingly.

h. Specific Formations

Original Adverb

one once

two twice

four fourfold

three thrice

many manifold

i. Adverbial Phrases

Examples: by and by, again and again, far and wide, first and foremost, to and fro, off and on
(occasionally).

USE OF ADVERBS

1. Since, Ago, Before:

• Since refers to a previous time till now: I saw him five years ago and have since
remembered his advice.

• Ago denotes a period of time from the present dating backwards: His father died two
years ago.

• Before stands for formerly: I have never seen him before.

2. Quite, Very:

• Quite conveys the sense of wholly: He is quite all right.

• Very conveys the sense of a high degree: She is very clever.

3. Very, Much:
 • Very is used with Past Participles like: He is very pleased with me.

• Much intensifies the adverb 'too' as in: He is much too confused to do it.

4. Too, Enough:

• Too has a negative sense: He is a bit too greedy.

• Enough implies that a proper limit has been reached: Your pay is good enough for your
work.

5. Hardly, Barely, Scarcely:

• These words are almost negative in meanings.

6. Too Much, Much Too:

• Too much is used before a noun.

• Much too is used before an adjective.

7. However, Rather:

• However means as much as can be.

• Rather means 'somewhat'.

Forms of Verbs

In English, verbs primarily have two forms:

1. The Finite

2. The Non-finite

Finite Verbs: Verbs limited by number, person, and tense.

Example:

• The girl wants an apple.

• The girls want apples.

• The girls wanted apples.

• I want an apple.

• She wants an apple.

Non-finite Verbs: Verbs NOT limited by number, person, or tense.

Example:

• He wants to eat an apple.

• They want to eat apples.

 • Meena wanted to eat an apple.

• She will want to eat an apple.

Types of Non-finites:

→ Infinitive

• Bare Infinitive: Also called Plain Infinitive. It is the infinitive without 'to'.

• e.g., bid, have, let, make

• Example: The teacher made the pupil repeat the lesson.

• To-Infinitive: Infinitive with 'to'.

• e.g., to speak, to play, to criticize

• Example: My duty is to serve my country.

→ Gerund: verb + ing (e.g., playing, eating)

→ Participles

• Present Participle: verb + ing (e.g., playing)

• Past Participle: V3 (e.g., played)

• Perfect Participle: having + V3 (e.g., having played)

Uses of Bare Infinitive:

1. With verbs like bid, have, let, make.

• e.g., He bade me write an essay.

2. With auxiliaries: will/would, shall/should, can/could, etc.

• e.g., You can go now.

3. With auxiliaries need and dare in interrogative and negative sentences.

• e.g., Dare you go into the dark house at night?

4. With expressions like would rather, had better.

• e.g., I would rather stay at home.

5. Following 'but' and 'except'.

• e.g., He did nothing but cry.

6. Questions denoting suggestions or advice starting with why, why not.

 • e.g., Why make such noise over a small matter?

Uses of To-Infinitive:

1. As a Noun: e.g., To speak effectively needs a lot of practice.

2. As Adverb: e.g., We go to school to learn.

3. As adjectives: e.g., It was a night to remember.

4. As object Complement: e.g., He advised me to keep quiet.

5. Too + adjective/adverb + infinitive: e.g., She is too weak to walk.

6. Enough + infinitive: e.g., I have money enough to pay the bill.

Tabulated Structure:

Verb Form Type Example

Finite - The girl wants an apple.

Non-finite Infinitive He wants to eat an apple.

Bare Infinitive The teacher made the pupil repeat

To-Infinitive My duty is to serve my country.

Gerund Playing is fun.

Participles She is playing. (Present)

She has played. (Past)

She has been playing. (Continuous)