Discrete Mathematics for

Dept. Computer Sci., International University of Twintech

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Lecture 1
Course Overview
Chapter 1. The Foundations
1.1 Propositional Logic

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What is Mathematics, really?
 It’s not just about numbers!
 Mathematics is much more than that:

Mathematics is, most generally, the study of

any and all absolutely certain truths about
any and all perfectly well-defined concepts.

 These concepts can be about numbers,

symbols, objects, images, sounds, anything!
 It is a way to interpret the world around you.

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So, what’s this class about?
What are “discrete structures” anyway?
 “Discrete” - Composed of distinct, separable
parts. (Opposite of continuous.)
discrete:continuous :: digital:analog
 “Structures” - Objects built up from simpler
objects according to some definite pattern.
 “Discrete Mathematics” - The study of
discrete, mathematical (i.e. well-defined
conceptual) objects and structures.

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Discrete Objects/Concepts and
Structures We Study
 Trees
 Propositions
 Predicates
 Proofs
 Sets
 Functions
 Orders of Growth
 Algorithms
 Integers
 Summations
 Sequences
 Strings
 Permutations
 Combinations
 Graphs
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 Why Study Discrete Math?
 The basis of all of digital information
processing is: Discrete manipulations of
discrete structures represented in memory.
 It’s the basic language and conceptual
foundation for all of computer science.
 Discrete math concepts are also widely used
throughout math, science, engineering,
economics, biology, etc., …
 A generally useful tool for rational thought!
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Uses for Discrete Math in
Computer Science
 Advanced algorithms & data structures
 Programming language compilers & interpreters
 Computer networks
 Operating systems
 Computer architecture
 Database management systems
 Cryptography
 Error correction codes
 Graphics & animation algorithms, game engines,
etc.…
 i.e., the whole field!

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 Course Topics
 Logic and Proofs (Chap. 1)
 Basic Structures (Chap. 2)
 Sets, Functions, Sequences and Summations
 Algorithms, Integers, and Matrices (Chap. 3)
 Induction and Recursion (Chap. 4)
 Counting (Chap. 5)
 Discrete Probability (Chap. 6)

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1.1 Propositional Logic
 Logic
 Study of reasoning.
 Specifically concerned with whether reasoning is correct.
 Focuses on the relationship among statements, not on the
content of any particular statement.
 Gives precise meaning to mathematical statements.
 Propositional Logic is the logic that deals with
statements (propositions) and compound statements
built from simpler statements using so-called
Boolean connectives.
 Some applications in computer science:
 Design of digital electronic circuits.
 Expressing conditions in programs.
 Queries to databases & search engines.
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 Definition of a Proposition
Definition: A proposition (denoted p, q, r, …) is simply:
 a statement (i.e., a declarative sentence)
 with some definite meaning,

(not vague or ambiguous)

 having a truth value that’s either true (T) or false (F)
 it is never both, neither, or somewhere “in between!”

 However, you might not know the actual truth value,

 and, the truth value might depend on the situation or context.
 Later, we will study probability theory, in which we
assign degrees of certainty (“between” T and F) to
propositions.
 But for now: think True/False only! (or in terms of 1 and 0)

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Examples of Propositions
 It is raining. (In a given situation)
 Beijing is the capital of China. (T)
 2 + 2 = 5. (F)
 1 + 2 = 3. (T)
 A fact-based declaration is a proposition,
even if no one knows whether it is true
 11213 is prime.

 There exists an odd perfect number.

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Examples of Non-Propositions
The following are NOT propositions:
 Who’s there? (interrogative, question)

 Just do it! (imperative, command)

 La la la la la. (meaningless interjection)

 Yeah, I sorta dunno, whatever... (vague)

 1 + 2 (expression with a non-true/false value)

 x + 2 = 5 (declaration about semantic tokens

of non-constant value)

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 Truth Tables
 An operator or connective combines one or more
operand expressions into a larger expression. (e.g., “+” in numeric
expressions.)
 Unary operators take one operand (e.g., −3);
Binary operators take two operands (e.g. 3  4).
 Propositional or Boolean operators operate on propositions
(or their truth values) instead of on numbers.
 The Boolean domain is the set {T, F}. Either of its elements is
called a Boolean value.
An n-tuple (p1,…,pn) of Boolean values is called a Boolean n-tuple.
 An n-operand truth table is a table that assigns a Boolean value to
the set of all Boolean n-tuples.

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 Some Popular Boolean Operators

Formal Name Nickname Arity Symbol

Negation operator NOT Unary ¬

Conjunction operator AND Binary 

Disjunction operator OR Binary 

Exclusive-OR operator XOR Binary 

Implication operator IMPLIES Binary 

Biconditional operator IFF Binary ↔

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 The Negation Operator
 The unary negation operator “¬” (NOT)
transforms a proposition into its logical negation.
 E.g. If p = “I have brown hair.”
then ¬p = “It is not the case that I have brown
hair” or “I do not have brown hair.”
 The truth table for NOT:
p p
T F
F T
Operand Result
column column
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 The Conjunction Operator
 The binary conjunction operator “” (AND)
combines two propositions to form their logical
conjunction.

 E.g. If p = “I will have salad for lunch.” and

q = “I will have steak for dinner.”
then, pq = “I will have salad for lunch and
I will have steak for dinner.”

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Conjunction Truth Table
Operand columns

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 Note that a conjunction p1  p2  …  pn of n
propositions will have 2n rows in its truth table

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The Disjunction Operator
 The binary disjunction operator “” (OR)
combines two propositions to form their
logical disjunction.

 E.g. If p = “My car has a bad engine.” and

q = “My car has a bad carburetor.”
then, pq = “My car has a bad engine, or
my car has a bad carburetor.”

Meaning is like “and/or” in informal English.

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 Disjunction Truth Table
p q pq
T T T
T F T Note difference
F T T from AND

F F F
 Note that pq means that p is true, or q is
true, or both are true!
 So, this operation is also called inclusive or,
because it includes the possibility that both
p and q are true.
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 The Exclusive-Or Operator

 The binary exclusive-or operator “” (XOR)

combines two propositions to form their logical
“exclusive or”

 E.g. If p = “I will earn an A in this course.” and

q = “I will drop this course.”, then
p  q = “I will either earn an A in this course,
or I will drop it (but not both!)”

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Exclusive-Or Truth Table
p q pq
Note difference
T T F from OR.
T F T
F T T
F F F
 Note that pq means that p is true, or q is
true, but not both!
 This operation is called exclusive or,
because it excludes the possibility that both
p and q are true.
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 Natural Language is Ambiguous
 Note that the English “or” can be ambiguous
regarding the “both” case!
p q p "or" q
 “Pat is a singer or T T ?
Pat is a writer.” - 
T F T
 “Pat is a man or
F T T
Pat is a woman.” - 
F F F
 Need context to disambiguate the meaning!
 For this class, assume “or” means inclusive ().

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 The Implication Operator
 The conditional statement (aka implication)
p  q states that p implies q.
 I.e., If p is true, then q is true; but if p is not true,
then q could be either true or false.
 E.g., let p = “You study hard.”
q = “You will get a good grade.”
p  q = “If you study hard, then you will
get a good grade.” (else, it could go either way)
 p: hypothesis or antecedent or premise
 q: conclusion or consequence

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 Implication Truth Table

p q pq
T T T
The only
T F F False case!
F T T
F F T
 p  q is false only when p is true but q is not true.
 p  q does not require that p or q are ever true!
 E.g. “(1=0)  pigs can fly” is TRUE!

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