SCIENCE Worksheets

Key Stage 4
Science
In this pack you will find knowledge organisers and revision mats with answers on:
BIOLOGY – Cell Biology
CHEMISTRY – Atomic Structure and The Periodic Table
PHYSICS – Forces
BIOLOGY – Organisation
CHEMISTRY – Bonding Structure and Properties of Matter
PHYSICS – Waves
You can choose the order in which you would like to complete them. You should spend
around 30 minutes a day completing and marking work from this booklet.
If you complete a piece of work that you are proud of take a and share it with us, you can
do this via:
If you can’t send a picture in, keep the work safe and we will have an opportunity to showcase it
when we return.
Cell Biology Knowledge Organiser – Foundation and Higher
Required Practical Specialised Cells Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Microscopy Required Practical When a cell changes to become a specialised cell, it is called Animal Cells Plant Cells
vacuole
• Includes preparing a slide, using a light microscope, differentiation. ribosomes ribosomes
cell membrane
drawing any observations – use a pencil and label important nucleus cell membrane
Specialised Function Adaptation nucleus
observations. cell wall
Cell
eyepiece sperm To get the male Streamlined head, long

mitochondria
DNA to the tail, lots of mitochondria to
chloroplast
female DNA. provide energy. mitochondria chloroplasm
stage nerve To send electrical Long to cover more distance.
stage clips Plant and animal cells have similarities and differences:
impulses around Has branched connections to
the body. connect in a network. Animal Plant
light muscle To contract Long and contain lots of nucleus
focussing
quickly. mitochondria for energy.
e e
wheels
cytoplasm e e
root hair To absorb water A large surface area to absorb
from the soil. more water.
Osmosis and Potato Practical
chloroplast X e
phloem Transports Pores to allow cell sap to flow.
• Independent variable – concentration. substances Cells are long and joined end- cell membrane e e
• Dependent variable – change in mass. around the plant. to-end. permanent vacuole X e
• Control variable – volume of solution, temperature, time, xylem Transports water Hollow in the centre. Tubes
through the plant. are joined end-to-end. mitochondria e e
surface area of the potato.
The potato in the sugar solution will lose water and so will have ribosomes e e
less mass at the end; the potato in the pure water solution will Equations and Maths
gain water. Equation
cell wall X e
Bacterial Cells
image size
÷ ÷ Bacterial cells do not have a true nucleus, they just have a single strand of DNA
that floats in the cytoplasm. They contain a plasmid.
actual size
× magnification chromosome
Maths Skills cell membrane cell wall

Conversions:
Micrometres to millimetres: divide by 1000.
cytoplasm flagella
Standard Form:
0.003 = 3 × 10-3
5.6 x 10-5 = 0.0056
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Cell Biology Knowledge Organiser - Foundation and Higher
Chromosomes and Mitosis Stem Cells Exchange – Humans Key Processes
In the nucleus of a human cell there are Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated Multicellular organisms have a large surface are to volume Diffusion is the spreading out of
23 pairs of chromosomes. Chromosomes cells, they have the potential to turn into any ratio so that all the substances can be exchanged. particles from an area of higher
contain a double helix of DNA. Chromosomes kind of cell. Gas exchange: Lungs concentration to an area of lower
have a large number of genes. concentration.
The alveoli are where gas exchange takes place.
Cell membranes are semi-permeable,
They have a large surface area, moist lining, thin walls and a
only small molecules
good blood supply.
can get through.
Cell Diffusion
Adult stem cells are found in the bone Osmosis is the movement of water
marrow, they can only turn into some types molecules across a partially
of cells e.g. blood cells. permeable membrane from a region
The cell cycle makes new cells. of higher concentration to a region
Uses of stem cells:
Mitosis: DNA has to be copied/replicated of lower concentration.
• Replacing faulty blood cells;
before the cell carries out mitosis. Active transport is the movement
• making insulin producing cells;
of substances against the concentration
• making nerve cells.
gradient. This process requires
Villi: Small Intestine energy from respiration. Active Transport in Cells
Some people are against stem cell research.
Millions of villi line the small intestine increasing the surface
Exchange in Fish
For Stem Cell Research Against Stem area to absorb more digested food.
Fish have a large surface area for gas exchange. These are called
Cell Research
They are a single layer of cells with a good blood supply. gills. Water enters the fish through the mouth and goes out
Curing patients with Embryos are
Key Vocabulary stem cells - more human life.
Exchange in Plants through the gills. The oxygen is transported from the water to
active transport the blood by diffusion. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood
important than the
alveoli to the water. Each gill has gill filaments which give the gills a
rights of embryos.
chromosome large surface area. Lamellae cover each gill filament to further
They are just using Scientists
diffusion increase the surface area for more gas exchange. They have a
unwanted embryos from should find
eukaryotic thin surface layer and capillaries for good blood supply which
fertility clinics, which other sources
gas exchange helps with diffusion.
would normally be of stem cells.
mitosis destroyed.
multicellular
Stem Cells in Plants oxygen CO2
osmosis
prokaryotic In plants, stem cells are found in the meristem. The surface of the leaf is flattened to increase the surface area
undifferentiated These stem cells are able to produce clones for more gas exchange by diffusion.
replicated of the plant. They can be used to grow crops Oxygen and water vapour diffuse out of the stomata. Guard
specialised with specific features for a farmer, e.g. disease cells open and close the stomata, controlling water loss.
villi resistant.

1
AQA Combined Science Unit 4.1: Cell Biology
a c f k
Draw and label a typical plant cell. Draw and label the parts of a typical bacterial cell. Diffusion is: (Tick the correct box.) How many chromosomes does…
a. The movement of water particles from a high water • a human skin cell contain?
concentration to a lower water concentration

across a partially permeable membrane.
• a human gamete contain?
b. The spreading out of the particles of any gas or

liquid from an area of high concentration to an
area of lower concentration.
l
c. The movement of particles from a low Name the tubes that transport water up the stem of a
concentration to a higher concentration. plant.
Which organelle is…
• the site of aerobic respiration? d
Why do cells undergo mitosis?
g
Light microscopes have objective lenses.
What is the purpose of the objective lens? m
• the site of protein synthesis? Draw and label a typical animal cell.
What has to happen before the cell divides?

• the site of photosynthesis?

h
What is osmosis?
What happens to the cell during mitosis?
1.
Sperm cells are specialised cells. Explain how the

b
acrosome helps the sperm cell to carry out its function. 2.

i
3. Name three substances that are transported into, or out Which organelle is…
of, animal cells by diffusion. • the site of aerobic respiration?
e 1.
What are ‘embryonic’ stem cells?
2. • controls the movement of substances in and out of the

cell?
3.
Name two medical conditions that could be treated with
embryonic stem cells in the future.
j • contains the genetic information?
1. Name the tubes that transport the food around the
plant.
2.

2
n r w
Root hair cells are specialised cells. Describe how the Describe how active transport is used by the following: Describe three ways that exchange surfaces are adapted
root hair cell is adapted to carry out its function. 1. plants to their function.
1.
2. animals 2.

3.

x
Why do some people object to embryonic stem cell
s
Where in the body are adult stem cells found and how research?
do they differ from embryonic stem cells?

o
How do prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells? t
Write each of the following numbers in standard form. y
Which has a bigger surface area to volume ratio, an

2500 elephant or a mouse?

0.003

4 200 000
0.00000006 z
The width of a cell is 0.025mm; under the microscope
p
Plants can be cloned from meristem cells. Give two it is 10mm.
advantages of cloning plants. What was the magnification?
u
The unit centimetres is written as cm. What do each of
1. the following units represent?
2. mm:
μm:
q
Describe two ways in which active transport is different
nm:
to diffusion.
pm:
1.
2.
v
What is the equation for calculating the magnification
of an image?
3
a c f k
Draw and label a typical plant cell. Draw and label the parts of a typical bacterial cell. Diffusion is: (Tick the correct box.) How many chromosomes does…
a. The movement of water particles from a high water • a human skin cell contain?
concentration to a lower water concentration
cytoplasm 46/23 pairs (diploid)
ribosomes cell wall pili across a partially permeable membrane.
cell membrane nucleiod region • a human gamete contain?
containing circular
DNA chromoson b. The spreading out of the particles of any gas or
cell wall
nucleus 23 single (haploid)
cell membrane
liquid from an area of high concentration to an
flagella
plasmid area of lower concentration.
l
chloroplast mitochondria
c. The movement of particles from a low Name the tubes that transport water up the stem of a
concentration to a higher concentration. plant.
Which organelle is…
• the site of aerobic respiration? d xylem
Why do cells undergo mitosis?
To produce new cells for growth and repair. g
mitochondria Light microscopes have objective lenses.
What is the purpose of the objective lens? m
• the site of protein synthesis? What has to happen before the cell divides? Draw and label a typical animal cell.
The cell grows and increases the amount of organelles, and To form and magnify an image of the specimen.
ribosomes
it replicates its DNA.
• the site of photosynthesis? ribosomes nucleus
What happens to the cell during mitosis?
h
chloroplasts What is osmosis?
1. Chromosomes line up in the centre of the cell and
The movement of water molecules from an area of high
copies are pulled apart by spindle fibres to opposite cell membrane cytoplasm
water concentration to an area of lower water concentration
ends of the cell. plasmid
b across a partially permeable membrane.
Sperm cells are specialised cells. Explain how the
2. Nuclear membranes form around the chromosomes to
acrosome helps the sperm cell to carry out its function.
make two nuclei.
The acrosome contains enzymes that digest through the egg
3. Finally, the cell splits into two identical ‘daughter’
cell membrane. i
cells. Name three substances that are transported into, or out Which organelle is…
of, animal cells by diffusion. • the site of aerobic respiration?
e 1. oxygen mitochondria
What are ‘embryonic’ stem cells?
Undifferentiated cells found in the early embryo. 2. carbon dioxide • controls the movement of substances in and out of the
cell?
3. amino acids
Name two medical conditions that could be treated with
cell membrane
embryonic stem cells in the future.
j • contains the genetic information?
1. diabetes Name the tubes that transport the food around the
plant. nucleus
2. spinal injuries/paralysis
phloem
4
n r w
Root hair cells are specialised cells. Describe how the Describe how active transport is used by the following: Describe three ways that exchange surfaces are adapted
root hair cell is adapted to carry out its function. 1. plants to their function.
It has a large surface area for the rapid absorption of water To obtain mineral ions from the soil. 1. large surface area
and mineral ions from the soil. 2. animals
2. thin walls
To absorb nutrients (e.g. glucose) from the
small intestine when they are at low concen- 3. moist/good blood supply (animals)
trations.
x
Why do some people object to embryonic stem cell
s
Where in the body are adult stem cells found and how research?
do they differ from embryonic stem cells? They believe that all embryos have the potential to become
Found in the bone marrow. a human being, so should not be used for experimentation.
They can only turn into certain cell types, such as blood
cells.
o
How do prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells? t
Write each of the following numbers in standard form. y
Bacterial cells are much smaller. They don’t have a nucleus, Which has a bigger surface area to volume ratio, an
mitochondria or chloroplasts. They do have plasmids with 2500 2.5 x 10³ elephant or a mouse?
extra DNA. 0.003 3 x 10-³ mouse
4 200 000 4.2 x 10⁶
0.00000006 6 x 10-⁸ The width of a cell is 0.025mm; under the microscope

z
p
Plants can be cloned from meristem cells. Give two it is 10mm
advantages of cloning plants. What was the magnification?
u
The unit centimetres is written as cm. What do each of
1. Farmers can produce clones of a desired plant quickly magnification = 10 ÷ 0.025 = 400
the following units represent?
and cheaply.
mm: millimetres
2. Saves rare species from extinction.
μm: micrometres
q
Describe two ways in which active transport is different
nm: nanometres
to diffusion.
pm: picometres
1. Moves against a concentration gradient (low to high).
2. requires energy
v
What is the equation for calculating the magnification
of an image?
magnification = image size

real size
Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table – Foundation and Higher
Atoms Equations and Maths Mixtures, Chromatography and Separation
Contained in the nucleus are the protons and neutrons. Moving around the nucleus are To calculate the relative atomic mass, use Mixtures – in a mixture there are no chemical
the electron shells. They are negatively charged. the following equation: bonds, so the elements are easy to separate.
relative atomic mass (Ar) = Examples of mixtures are air and salt water.
Particle Relative Mass Charge
sum of (isotope abundance × isotope mass number) Chromatography – to Filtration – to separate
proton 1 +1 sum of abundances of all isotopes separate out mixtures. solids from liquids.
neutron 1 0 piece of wood
Balancing Symbol Equations pin

electron Very small -1
There must be the same number of atoms on
both sides of the equation: paper
Overall, atoms have no charge; they have the same number of protons as electrons. An
ion is a charged particle - it does not have an equal number of protons to electrons. CH4 + 4O2 2H2O + CO2 beaker
Atomic Number and Mass Number C=1 ink spot

water
O=4
start
atomic mass number H=4
number Evaporation – to Crystallisation - to
separate a soluble separate a soluble
salt from a solution; salt from a solution;
a quick way of a slower method of
Elements Chemical Equations separating out the salt. separating out salt.
Elements are made of atoms with the same atomic number. Atoms can be represented as A chemical reaction can be shown by using a
symbols. word equation.
N = nitrogen F = fluorine Zn = zinc Ca = calcium e.g. magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
On the left-hand side are the reactants, and
Isotope Protons Electrons Neutrons
Isotopes – an isotope is an element the right-hand side are the products.
1
with the same number of protons
1
H 1 1 1-1=0
but a different number of neutrons.
2
They can also be shown by a symbol
They have the same atomic number,
but different mass number. 1
H 1 1 2-1=1 equation.
Separating out salt from rock salt:
3 e.g. 2Mg + O2 2MgO
1
H 1 1 3-1=2 1. Grind the mixture of rock salt.
2. Add water and stir.
Equations need to be balanced, so the same
Compounds – a compound is when two or more elements are chemically joined. 3. Filter the mixture, leaving the sand in the
number of atoms are on each side. To do this,
Examples of compounds are carbon dioxide and magnesium oxide. Some examples of filter paper
numbers are put in front of the compounds.
formulas are CO2, NaCl, HCl, H20, Na2SO4. They are held together by chemical bonds and 4. Evaporate the water from the salt, leaving
are difficult to separate. CH4 + 4O2 2H2O + CO2 the crystals.

Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table – Foundation and Higher
Distillation History of the Atom Development of the Periodic Alkali Metals
To separate out mixtures of liquids. Table The alkali metals (group
Scientist Time Discovery 1 elements) are soft, very
1. Simple distillation – separating a liquid In the early 1800s, elements
from a solution. John Dalton start of 19th Atoms were first described as solid spheres. were arranged by atomic mass. reactive metals. They all
century The periodic table was not have one electron in their
JJ Thomson 1897 Plum pudding model – the atom is a ball of complete because some of the outer shell, making them
thermometer (100oc)
water charge with electrons scattered. elements had not been found. very reactive. They are low
Some elements were put in the density. As you go down
Ernest Rutherford 1909 Alpha scattering experiment – mass
concentrated at the centre; the nucleus is wrong group. the group, they become
salt charged. Most of the mass is in the nucleus.
heat more reactive. They get
Most atoms are empty space. Dimitri Mendeleev (1869) left
bigger and it is easier to
Niels Bohr around 1911 Electrons are in shells orbiting the nucleus. gaps in the periodic table. He put
lose an electron that is
2. Fractional distillation – separating out a them in order of atomic mass.
further away from the
mixture of liquids. Fractional distillation The gaps show that he believed
James Chadwick around 1940 Discovered that there are neutrons in the nucleus.
can be used to separate out crude oil into nucleus. there was some undiscovered
fractions. elements. He was right! Once They form ionic compounds
gas 20°C found, they fitted in the pattern. with non-metals.
Electronic Structure
150°C The react with water and
gasoline (petrol) Electrons are found in shells. A
produce hydrogen.
200°C maximum of two in the most inner The Modern Periodic Table
kerosene E.g.
300°C shell, then eight in the 2nd and 3rd Elements are in order of atomic
crude oil diesel oil
370°C shell. The inner shell is filled first, mass/proton number. It shows lithium + water
fuel oil lithium hydroxide + water
400°C then the 2nd then the 3rd shell. where the metals and non-
metals are. Metals are on the
lubricating oil, left and non-metals on the
furnace parafin wax, asphalt 2Li + 2H2O LiOH + H2
right. The columns show the
Group 7 Elements and Noble Gases
groups. The group number
Halogens They react with chlorine
Metals and Non-metals shows the number of electrons
The halogens are non-metals: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine. As in the outer shell. The rows are and produce salt.
They are found at the left part of the periodic you go down the group they become less reactive. It is harder to gain periods – each period shows
table. Non-metals are at the right of the table. an extra electron because its outer shell is further away from the another full shell of electrons. E.g.
nucleus. The melting and boiling points also become higher. The periodic table can be used
Metals lithium + chlorine
Noble Gases to predict the reactivity of lithium chloride
Are strong, malleable, good conductors of elements.
electricity and heat. They bond metallically. The noble gases (group 0 elements) include: helium, neon and argon.
They are un-reactive as they have full outer shells, which makes them
2Li + Cl2 2NaCl
Non-Metals very stable. They are all colourless gases at room temperature.
Are dull, brittle, and not always solids at room The boiling points all increase as they go down the group – they have
They react with oxygen to
temperature. greater intermolecular forces because of the increase in the number of
form metal oxides.
electrons.

1
AQA Chemistry GCSE Unit 4.1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table – Foundation
a d g k
Draw and label an atom. Include labels for the following: What are the symbols for the following elements. Complete and balance the following equations. Separating Mixtures
neutron, proton, electron. What are the following separation techniques?
Element Symbol
Mg + O2 MgO
oxygen
Be + S BeS
lithium
Be + F2
sodium
potassium K + Cl2
helium
D
True or false? carbon
h
1. The radius of an atom is 0.1nm. Mixtures
2. Most of the mass is in the shell of the atom. magnesium Write the definition of a mixture. Give two examples.
b e
Fill in the table to show the charges and mass of the Complete the following diagram for sodium, include the
components of an atom. atomic number and the atomic mass number.
Name Charge Relative Mass
proton
neutron Na F D
i
Name the compounds and the elements they contain.
electron What separation technique would you use to separate out
What is the overall charge of an atom? different inks in pens?
NaCl - sodium chloride, sodium and chlorine
positive What is the mass number?
negative MgO - C
no charge How do you calculate neutron number?
MgS -
How can salt be collected using the process of crystallisation?
c FeS -
A compound is 2 or more e , chemically
j . f
Isotopes are elements with a different number of
n but the same number of p , j
Which of the following are compounds? What is the ratio of the elements in the following
e.g. carbon 12 and carbon 14. Sand and water can be separated by using a process called
Put a ring round them. compounds?
F
How can you use isotopes to calculate the relative atomic
oxygen, salt water, magnesium oxide, sodium chloride, e.g. CaO = 1:1 NaCl =
mass? Write down the equation. Describe in 4 steps how to collect salt from rock salt.
nitrogen
Relative atomic = sum of ( )
Why have you circled the ones you have? mass (Ar) MgCl2 = lithium fluoride = 1.
2.
K20 = sodium hydroxide = 3.
4.
2
AQA Chemistry GCSE Unit 4.1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table – Foundation
a d g j
Complete the electronic structure diagrams for: List 3 halogens Complete the following dot and cross diagrams for: Describe the plum pudding model of the atom.
oxygen c ,f ,i , NaCl Draw a diagram.
How many electrons do they have in their outer shell?

O Circle the correct answer.
a) 1 b) 7 c) 8
Describe how the reactivity changes as you go down the group.

magnesium
Keywords: reactive, nucleus, distance, less
Mg
MgO
Write balanced symbol equations for the following reactions: Why did scientists believe this model?
b
What are the following gases?
bromine + potassium iodide
A n, N n, X n, R n
k
Describe what the alpha scattering experiment showed
Describe why the noble gases are so unreactive. chlorine + sodium iodide scientists.
Keywords: full, electrons, shell.
Keywords: alpha, gold, positive, gold, scattered particles
fluorine + potassium chloride
e h
The boiling points of the noble gases increase/decrease as Underline the properties of metals and circle the Complete word equations for the following reactions:
you go down the group. (delete the wrong answer). properties of non-metals:
Can you explain your answer? e.g. sodium + chlorine sodium chloride
strong, low density, malleable, dull, good conductors
of heat and electricity, high melting and boiling point, lithium + iodine
brittle, not good conductors of electricity.
potassium + bromine
c f
Describe what happens to the reactivity of the alkali James Chadwick discovered the…
metals as you go down the group. (underline the correct answer) i l
How are the groups arranged in the periodic table? Niels Bohr discovered that
proton
Why?
neutron How can you tell that the alkali metals are very reactive?
Hint: Think about the number of electrons in the outer shell. Why did Mendeleev leave gaps in the periodic table?
electron
Complete the word and symbol equation for sodium

reacting with water: How can you tell the noble gases are unreactive?
sodium + water sodium hydroxide + What happened to some of the gaps he left?
Na + NaOH +
1
AQA Chemistry GCSE Unit 4.1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table – Foundation Answers
a d g k
Draw and label an atom. Include labels for the following: What are the symbols for the following elements. Complete and balance the following equations. Separating Mixtures
neutron, proton, electron. What are the following separation techniques?
Element Symbol
Mg + O2 MgO
oxygen
Be + S BeS
lithium
Be + F2 BeF2
sodium
electrons
neutrons potassium K + Cl2 2KCl
protons
helium
True or false? Distillation
1. The radius of an atom is 0.1nm. True carbon
h
2. Most of the mass is in the shell of the atom. False, most Mixtures
of the mass is in the centre magnesium Write the definition of a mixture. Give two examples.
Two or more elements together, not chemically joined and

b e
Fill in the table to show the charges and mass of the Complete the following diagram for sodium, include the
can be easily separated.
components of an atom. atomic number and the atomic mass number.
Name Charge Relative Mass Salt water, sand and water

proton 23 mass number
neutron Na Fractional distillation

i
Name the compounds and the elements they contain.
electron What separation technique would you use to separate out
11 atomic number
What is the overall charge of an atom? different inks in pens?
NaCl - sodium chloride, sodium and chlorine
No charge What is the mass number?
Total number of protons and neutrons. MgO - magnesium oxide, magnesium and oxygen Chromatography
How do you calculate neutron number?
MgS - magnesium sulfide, magnesium and sulfur
Atomic mass – proton number How can salt be collected using the process of crystallisation?
c FeS - iron sufide, iron and sulfur By heating up a mixture of salt and water, the water will
A compound is 2 or more elements, chemically joined.
f evaporate and leave the salt in the bowl.
Isotopes are elements with a different number of
Which of the following are compounds?
neutrons but the same number of protons, e.g. carbon j
Put a ring round them. What is the ratio of the elements in the following
12 and carbon 14. Sand and water can be separated by using a process called
compounds?
filtration.
oxygen, salt water, magnesium oxide, sodium chloride,
How can you use isotopes to calculate the relative atomic
nitrogen e.g. CaO = 1:1 NaCl = 1:1
mass? Write down the equation. Describe in 4 steps how to collect salt from rock salt.
Why have you circled the ones you have? 1. Grind the mixture;
Ar = sum of (isotope abundance x isotope mass number) MgCl2 = 1:2 lithium fluoride = 1:1 2. Add water and stir;
They have 2 or more elements in the word equation. sum of abundances of all the isotopes.
3. Filter the mixture;
K20 = 2:1 sodium hydroxide = 1:1:1 4. Evaporate the salt water and salt is left over.
2
AQA Chemistry GCSE Unit 4.1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table – Foundation Answers
a d g j
Complete the electronic structure diagrams for: List 3 halogens Complete the following dot and cross diagrams for: Describe the plum pudding model of the atom.
oxygen chlorine, fluorine, iodine, astatine NaCl Draw a diagram.
A sphere of positive
How many electrons do they have in their outer shell?
charge with electrons
7 electrons
dotted about; looking like a plum
Describe how the reactivity changes as you go down the pudding.
group.
They become less reactive, the atom becomes larger
because there are more electron shells, further from the
magnesium
nucleus so the pull of the nucleus is less. So the electron
is less likely to be gained as there is less of a positive pull.
MgO
Write balanced symbol equations for the following reactions:
bromine + potassium iodide Why did scientists believe this model?

Br2 + 2KI 2KBr + I2 Lack of experimental evidence.
b chlorine + sodium iodide

What are the following gases? k
Cl2+ 2NaI 2NaCl + I2 Describe what the alpha scattering experiment showed
argon, neon, xenon, radon
scientists.
fluorine + potassium chloride
Describe why the noble gases are so unreactive. Most alpha particles go straight through, some are
F2 + KCl 2KF + Cl2
Their outer shell is full of electrons. scattered, some rebound off the gold foil.
This shows that the nucleus of an atom has a very small
The boiling points of the noble gases increase as you go e h radius. Most of the mass is concentrated in the nucleus.
Underline the properties of metals and circle the Complete word equations for the following reactions:
down the group.
properties of non-metals:
This is because there are more forces to bond the atoms
sodium + chlorine sodium chloride
together, therefore more energy is required to break the
strong, low density, malleable, dull, good conductors
bonds.
of heat and electricity, high melting and boiling point, lithium + iodine lithium iodide
brittle, not good conductors of electricity.
c
Describe what happens to the reactivity of the alkali potassium + bromine potassium bromide
metals as you go down the group. f
James Chadwick discovered the…
It increases
(underline the correct answer) i l
How are the groups arranged in the periodic table? Niels Bohr discovered that
Why? proton According to their properties. electrons orbit the nucleus in shells.
The number of electrons increases. They are further away
from the nucleus. There is less pull on the outer electrons neutron Why did Mendeleev leave gaps in the periodic table?
so the atom is more likely to loose an electron. How can you tell that the alkali metals are very reactive? He knew that the elements existed but they hadn’t been
electron According to their properties. found, based on their mass.
Complete the word and symbol equation for sodium
reacting with water: What happened to some of the gaps he left?
sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen How can you tell the noble gases are unreactive? They have been filled. Scientists have found some of the
Full shell of outer electrons. elements.
2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
AQA Combined Science: Physics Topic 5 Forces
Scalar and Vector Quantities Gravity
A scalar quantity has magnitude only. Examples include temperature or mass. Gravity is the natural phenomenon by which any object with mass or energy is drawn together.
• The mass of an object is a scalar measure of how much matter the object is made up of. Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Examples include velocity.
• The weight of an object is a vector measure of how gravity is acting on the mass. Weight is measured in newtons (N).
Speed is the scalar magnitude of velocity.
weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field strength (N/kg)
A vector quantity can be shown using an arrow. The size of the arrow is relative
(The gravitational field strength will be given for any calculations. On earth, it is approximately 9.8N/kg).
to the magnitude of the quantity and the direction shows the associated direction.
An object’s centre of mass is the point at which the weight of the object is considered to be acting. It does not necessarily occur at the
Contact and Non-Contact Forces centre of the object.
Forces either push or pull on an object. This is as a result of its interaction with The mass of an object and its weight are directly proportional. As the mass is increased, so is the weight. Weight is measured using a
another object. spring-balance (or newton metre) and is measured in newtons (N).
Forces are categorised into two groups: Resultant Forces
Contact forces – the objects are touching e.g. friction, air resistance, tension and A resultant force is a single force which replaces several other forces. It has the same effect acting on the object as the combination of the
contact force. other forces it has replaced.
Non-contact forces – the objects are not touching e.g. gravitational, electrostatic The forces acting on this object are represented in a free body diagram.
and magnetic forces. The arrows are relative to the magnitude and direction of the force.
30 N 50 N
Forces are calculated by the equation: force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s²) The car is being pushed to the left by a force of 30N. It is also being pushed
to the right by a force of 50N.
Forces are another example of a vector quantity and so they can also be
The resultant force is 50N – 30N = 20N
represented by an arrow.
The 20N resultant force is pushing to the right, so the car will move right.
tance
r) resis 30 N
(wate When a resultant force is not zero, an object will change speed (accelerate or decelerate)
t)
(thrus
force or change direction (or both).
swimmer’s
When an object is stationary, there are still forces acting upon it.
In this case, the resultant force is 30N – 30N = 0N.
The forces are in equilibrium and are balanced.
When forces are balanced, an object will either remain stationary or if it is moving, it
30 N
will continue to move at a constant speed.

Resultant Forces Measure the size of the arrows and make sure you draw your resultant Work Done and Energy Transfer
force arrow to the correct scale so it represents the resultant force
A scale vector diagram can be used to calculate resultant forces When a force acts on an object and makes it move, there is work done on the
size.
that are not acting directly opposite of one another, on a straight object. This movement requires energy. The input energy could be from fuel,
line. Worked example 2: food or electricity for example.
Worked example 1: A horse-drawn carriage is pulled by two horses at 400N each. One The energy is transferred to a different type of energy when the work is
of the horses is pulling in a different direction to the other horse. done. Not all the energy transfers are useful, sometimes energy is wasted.
A boat is being pulled Show the resultant force and direction of the horse-drawn carriage. For example, when car brakes are applied, some energy is wastefully transferred
toward the harbour by as heat to the surroundings. Work done against the force of friction always
As before, you will need to draw construction lines from the end causes a temperature rise in the object.
two winch motors. Each
of each force arrow and parallel to the other one. The intercept
motor is pulling with a
represents the direction of the resultant force. The resultant force is Work done is calculated by this equation:
force of 100N and they
the sum of the individual forces so in this example, it is 800N.
are working at right work done [energy transferred] (J) = force (N) × distance moved (in the direction of the force) (m)
angles to one another.
Worked example
To find the resultant
force, you would first
A man’s car has broken down and he is pushing it to the side of the road.
draw construction lines
He pushes the car with a force of 160N and the car is moved a total of 8m.
from the end of each
Calculate the energy transferred.
arrow parallel to the
other force arrow. E=F×d
E = 160 × 8
Remember that the
size of the arrow is E = 1280J
representative of the
size of the force being 1 joule of energy is transferred for every 1 newton of force moving an object by
exerted. a distance of 1 metre.
Where the construction 1J = 1Nm

lines intercept indicates
the direction of the
resultant force: from the centre of mass through the intercept.
The resultant force is the sum of the forces acting so in this example,
that is 200N.

Required Practical Investigation Activity 6: Investigate the Relationship Between Force and Extension for a Spring Spring Constant and Hooke’s Law
F=k×e Hooke’s Law describes that

force applied (N) = spring constant (N/m) × extension (m) the extension of an elastic
object is proportional to
You should be familiar with the equation above and the required
the force applied to the
practical shown to the right.
object. However, there is a
The spring constant is a value which describes the elasticity of a maximum applied force for
material. It is specific to each material. You can carry out a practical which the extension will still
investigation and use your results to find the spring constant of a increase proportionally. If
material. the limit of proportionality
is exceeded, then the object
1. Set up the equipment as shown. becomes permanently
deformed and can no longer
2. Measure the original length of the elastic object, e.g. a spring,
return to its original shape.
and record this.
This can be identified on a
3. Attach a mass hanger (remember the hanger itself has a graph of extension against
weight). Record the new length of the spring. force when the gradient stops being linear (a straight line) and begins to plateau.
The limit is shown on the graph above and this is the specific object’s elastic limit.
4. Continue to add masses to the hanger in regular intervals and record the length each time.
Once you have your results, you can find the extension for each Forces and Elasticity
mass using this formula: spring length – original length
When work is done on an elastic object,
The data collected is continuous so you would plot a line graph such as a spring, the energy is stored as
using the x-axis for extension (m) and the y-axis for force (N). elastic potential energy.
As a result of Hooke’s Law, you should have a linear graph.
The gradient of the graph is equal to the spring constant. You can When the force is applied, the
calculate it by rearranging the formula above or by calculating object changes shape and stretches.
the gradient from your graph. The energy is stored as elastic

potential and when the force is no
longer applied, the object returns to
its original shape. The stored elastic
potential energy is transferred as
kinetic energy and the object recoils
and goes back to its original shape.

Work Done: Elastic Objects Velocity Forces and Motion: Distance vs Displacement speed = distance ÷ time
Work is done on elastic objects to stretch or Velocity is a vector quantity. It is Distance is a scalar quantity. It measures how far something has moved
compress them. the speed of an object in a given and does not have any associated direction.
direction. Displacement is a vector quantity. It measures how far something has

To calculate the work done (elastic potential
moved and is measured in relation to the direction of a straight line
energy transferred), use this equation: Circular Motion (Higher tier only) between the starting and end points. ference 8
cum cm
E (J) = 0.5 × k × e²
cir
Objects moving in a circular path E.g. A dog is tethered to a post.
don’t go off in a straight line because It runs 360˚ around the post
(elastic potential energy = 0.5 × spring constant
You should be able to use this equation and rearrange
of a centripetal force caused by three times. Each 360˚ lap is 8m
× extension²)
it to find the distance or time.
another force acting on the object.
distance = 8 × 3 = 24m
You might need to use this equation also: Worked example:
For example, a car driving around
F=k×e displacement = 0m (The dog is
a corner has a centripetal force John runs 5km. It takes him 25 minutes. Find his
in the same position as when it
Worked example: caused by friction acting between average speed in metres per second.
started.)
the surface of the road and the tyres. Step 1: convert the units
A bungee jumper jumps from a bridge with a
When the Earth orbits around the km m (×1000) = 5000m
weight of 800N. The elastic cord is stretched by
Sun, it is held in orbit by gravity Speed min s (×60) = 1500s
25m. Calculate the work done.
which causes the centripetal force.
Step 2: calculate s = d ÷ t
You should be able to recall the typical speed of different transportation
Step 1: find the spring constant using F = k × e
When an object is moving in a methods. s = 5000 ÷ 1500
circular motion, its speed is constant. s = 3.33m/s
Rearrange to k = F ÷ e
Its direction changes constantly Activity Typical Value
Worked
. example 2:
800 ÷ 25 = 32N/m and because direction is related to
walking 1.5m/s
velocity, this means that the velocity Zi Xin has driven along the motorway. Her average
Step 2: use the value for k to find the speed is 65mph. She has travelled 15 miles.
of the object is constantly changing running 3m/s
elastic potential energy (work done) using How long has her journey taken? Give your answer
too. The changes in velocity mean
E (J) = 0.5 × k × e² cycling 6m/s
that the object is accelerating, even in minutes.
though it travels at a constant speed. driving a car 25mph (40km/h)
0.5 × 32 × 25² Step 1: calculate t = d ÷ s
train travel 60mph (95km/h) t = 15 ÷ 65
E = 10 000J The acceleration occurs because
there is a resultant force acting on aeroplane travel 550mph (885km/h) t = 0.23 (hours)
the object. In this case, the resultant
speed of sound 330m/s Step 2: convert units
force is the velocity, which is greater
hr min (×60) = 13.8 minutes
than the centripetal force acting.
These values are average only. The speed of a moving object is rarely
constant and always fluctuating.

Distance-Time and Velocity-Time Graphs Changing Speed on a D-T graph The terminal velocity of an object depends on
its shape and weight. The shape of the object
When an object travels in a straight line, we can show the distance which has been covered
determines the amount of resistant force which
in a distance-time graph.
can act on it. For example, an object with a
large surface area will have a greater amount of
resistance acting on it.
Consider a skydiver and his parachute. When

the skydiver first jumps from the aeroplane,
he has a small area where the air resistance can act.
He will fall until he reaches a terminal velocity of
approximately 120mph.
When the graph is a straight line, it is representing a constant speed. A

curve represents a changing speed, either acceleration or deceleration.
The speed at any given point can be calculated by drawing a tangent from
the curve and finding the gradient of the tangent.
You should be able to understand what the features of the two types of graph can tell you
about the motion of an object.
Graph Feature Distance-Time Graph Velocity-Time Graph

After the skydiver releases his parachute, the
x-axis time time
shape and area has been changed and so the
y-axis distance velocity
Terminal Velocity
amount of air resistance acting is increased.
gradient speed acceleration (or When an object begins moving, the force accelerating the object is much This causes him to decelerate and his terminal
deceleration) greater than the force resisting the movement. A resistant force might be velocity is reduced to about 15mph. This makes
air resistance or friction, for example. it a much safer speed to land on the ground.
plateau stationary (stopped) constant speed
uphill straight line steady speed moving away from start acceleration As the velocity of the object increases, the force resisting the movement
point also increases. This causes the acceleration of the object to be reduced
downhill straight steady speed returning to the start deceleration gradually until the forces become equal and are balanced. This doesn’t
line point cause the object to stop moving. As the object is already in motion,
balanced forces mean it will continue to move at a steady speed. This
uphill curve acceleration increasing acceleration
steady speed is the maximum that the object can achieve and is called the
downhill curve deceleration increasing deceleration
terminal velocity.
area below graph distance travelled

Acceleration Braking Distance
Acceleration can be calculated using the equation: The braking distance is the distance travelled by a vehicle once
the brakes are applied and until it reaches a full stop.
acceleration (m/s²) = change in velocity (m/s)
time taken (s) Braking distance is affected by:
• adverse weather conditions (wet or icy)
Worked example:
• poor vehicle condition (brakes or tyres)
A dog is sitting, waiting for a stick to be thrown. After the stick is thrown, the dog is
When force is applied to the brakes, work is done by the
running at a speed of 4m/s. It has taken the dog 16s to reach this velocity. Calculate the friction between the car wheels and the brakes.
acceleration of the dog.
a = ∆v ÷ t The work done reduces the kinetic energy and it is transferred
as heat energy, increasing the temperature of the brakes.
a = (4-0) ÷ 16
A = 0.25m/s² increased speed = increased force required to stop the vehicle
increased braking force = increased deceleration
Changes in velocity due to acceleration can be calculated using the equation below.
This equation of motion can be applied to any moving object which is travelling in a Large decelerations can cause a huge increase in temperature and may lead to the brakes overheating and the driver losing
straight line with a uniform acceleration. control over the vehicle
Final velocity² (m/s) – initial velocity² (m/s) = 2 × acceleration (m/s²) × displacement (m) Newton’s Laws of Motion: Newton’s First Law Newton’s Laws of Motion: Newton’s Second Law
or
If the resultant force acting on an object is zero… The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting
v² – u² = 2as • a stationary object will remain stationary. on it and inversely proportional to the mass of the object
• a moving object will continue at a steady speed resultant force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s²)
Worked example:
and in the same direction. Inertial mass – how difficult it is to change an objects velocity. It is
A bus has an initial velocity of 2m/s and accelerates at 1.5m/s² over a distance of 50m. defined as the ratio of force over acceleration.
Calculate the final velocity of the bus.
100N resistance
100N thrust
Step 1: rearrange the equation: v² – u² = 2as (friction and air)
Newton’s Laws of Motion: Newton’s Third Law
v² = 2as + u²
Step 2: insert known values and solve When two objects interact, the forces acting on one another are always
equal and opposite.
v² = (2 × 1.5 × 50) + 2²
v² = (150) + 4 For example, a book laid on a table is being acted upon by at least two
v² = 154 forces: the downward pull of gravity and the upward reaction force from
Inertia – the tendency of an object to continue in
the table surface. The forces are equal and opposite so the book does not
v = √154 a state of rest or uniform motion (same speed and
move. We describe the forces as being balanced.
v = 12.41m/s direction).

Stopping Distance Required Practical Investigation 7
The stopping distance of a vehicle is calculated by: Aim: investigate the effect of varying the force on the acceleration of an object of constant mass, and the effect of varying the mass of an object on the acceleration
stopping distance = thinking distance + braking produced by a constant force.
distance
You may be given any of the following apparatus set-ups to conduct these investigations:
Reaction time is the time taken for the driver to
respond to a hazard. It varies from 0.2s to 0.9s Light
between most people. Gates Bench
Glider and Card String Pulley
Reaction time is affected by:
• tiredness
• drugs
Weight
• alcohol Stack
• distractions
or
You can measure human reaction time in the lab
using simple equipment: a metre ruler and stopwatch
can be used to see how quickly a person reacts
and catches the metre ruler. The data collected is
quantitative and you should collect repeat readings
and calculate an average result.
Momentum
or
momentum (N) = mass (kg) × velocity (m/s)
The law of conservation of mass (in a closed system)
states that the total momentum before an event is
equal to the total momentum after an event.
Worked example:
Something is a fair test when only the independent variable has been allowed to affect the dependent variable.
Calculate the momentum of a 85kg cyclist travelling
The independent variable was force.
at 7m/s.
The dependent variable was acceleration.
p=m×v
The control variables were:
p = 85kg × 7m/s
• same total mass
p = 595kg m/s
• same surface/glider/string/pulley (friction)
• same gradient if you used a ramp

1
AQA Physics Combined Science Unit 5: Forces Foundation
a d g
Complete the following sentence: State the equation that can be used to determine the weight of
A vector quantity has a m and a d whereas a an object.
scalar quantities only has a m .
Place a tick in the correct column to show whether the following Calculate the weight of an object on the moon if its mass is 3kg.
are vector or scalar quantities. The first one has been done for you. The gravitational field strength on the moon is 1.6N/kg.

Quantity Vector Scalar

Force Students placed masses, one at a time, on a spring and measured
its extension. They collected the following results.
Speed
Distance Explain the effect on an object’s weight if its mass was doubled. Force (N) 0 1 2 3 4 5

Velocity Length of
3 5 7 9 11 17
Spring (cm)
Displacement
e
Calculate the resultant forces acting on the van below. Extension (cm) 0 2 4 6 8 14
b
Forces can be contact or non contact. For each one, give an Plot a force/extension graph for the data shown above. Remember
example. to include a line of best fit.
Contact:

Non-contact:

c Horizontal force:
Explain the difference between mass and weight.
Vertical force:
Mass:
Weight: On a force diagram, what two things do the arrows show?

Unit of mass:
Unit of weight: f
Complete the sentences below.
Name the apparatus used to determine an objects weight. Mark the limit of proportionality on your graph.
Elastic deformation occurs when a force has been applied to a
spring and it r to its original shape. I State the equation that links force, spring constant and extension.
d occurs when the spring does not return to its

original shape.
2
AQA Physics Combined Science Unit 5: Forces Foundation
a c f j
Define work done. The graph below Are the following forces balanced or unbalanced? A car is travelling along a busy road. As it approaches
is a distance/ a roundabout, the driver applies the brakes.
time graph of a An ornament knocked off a window sill.
If the road is icy, how will this affect the braking
person travelling
distance? Explain your answer.
from home to
State the equation that links work done, force and A football as it rolls towards a goal.
the supermarket
distance.
and home
again. k
State the equation that links force, mass and
g
Write the units for… Describe an experiment to determine whether your acceleration.
work done: reaction time is faster with your right or left hand.
Where on the graph is the person stationary? Key words: ruler, partner, repeats
force:
Rearrange the equation you have given above to
distance: calculate acceleration.

Between points A and E, where is the speed the

A lorry travels 200m when the brakes are applied with fastest? Explain you answer.

a force of 600N. Calculate the work done to stop the Calculate the force acting on an object with a mass

lorry. of 15kg and acceleration of 4m/s2.

A car increases its velocity from 5m/s to 12m/s in

a time of 10 seconds. Calculate its acceleration.
Remember to include all units.
Calculate the mass of an object, if it has a force of
2000N and its acceleration is 50m/s2.
Calculate the force if 3000J of energy is required to
move a box of books a distance of 150cm.

l
State whether the following statements are true or
d
Explain the term deceleration. false. If a statement is false, please write the correct
statement.
Draw lines to match the methods of transportation

b h The resultant force on an object is the overall force
Describe the effect of friction on a moving object.
with their average speeds. acting on it.
A coach travels at an average speed of 30mph for 20

car 1.5m/s minutes. How far has it travelled in that time?
State two ways in which friction on a moving object
The larger the resultant force on an object the more
walking 55m/s can be overcome.
it accelerates.

train 3m/s e
Stopping distance is calculated by adding thinking
running 25m/s distance and braking distance. Newton’s second law states that when two objects
Thinking distance is affected by: i interact, the forces they exert on each are in the
What is terminal velocity?
State three factors that could affect a person’s s ; same direction.
r t .
walking speed.
1. Terminal velocity depends on two things: If the resultant force on an object is zero, then the
Braking distance is affected by:
2. s object must be stationary.
t ;
3. r conditions.
a
1
AQA Physics Combined Science Unit 5: Forces Foundation Answers
a d g
Complete the following sentence: State the equation that can be used to determine the weight of
A vector quantity has a magnitude and a direction whereas a scalar an object.
quantities only has a magnitude. weight = mass × gravitational field strength
Place a tick in the correct column to show whether the following Calculate the weight of an object on the moon if its mass is 3kg.
are vector or scalar quantities. The first one has been done for you. The gravitational field strength on the moon is 1.6N/kg.
weight = 3 × 1.6
Quantity Vector Scalar
= 4.8N
Force Students placed masses, one at a time, on a spring and measured
its extension. They collected the following results.
Speed
Explain the effect on an object’s weight if its mass was doubled.
Distance The weight would also be doubled. Force (N) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Velocity Length of
3 5 7 9 11 17
Spring (cm)
Displacement
e
Calculate the resultant forces acting on the van below. Extension (cm) 0 2 4 6 8 14
b
Forces can be contact or non contact. For each one, give an Plot a force/extension graph for the data shown above. Remember
example. to include a line of best fit.
Contact: 14
friction, air resistance, tension, normal 13
12
Non-contact: 11
10
magnetic, gravitational, electrostatic
9
8
c Horizontal force: 800 – 600 = 200N 7

Explain the difference between mass and weight. 6
Vertical force: 1000 – 1000 = 0N
Mass: the amount of stuff in an object. 5
4
Weight: the force acting on an object due to gravity. On a force diagram, what two things do the arrows show? 3
Direction of force and relative size. 2
Unit of mass: kg 1
Unit of weight: N f 1 2 3 4 5
Complete the sentences below.
Name the apparatus used to determine an objects weight. Mark the limit of proportionality on your graph.
Elastic deformation occurs when a force has been applied to a
newton meter
spring and it returns to its original shape. Inelastic deformation State the equation that links force, spring constant and extension.
occurs when the spring does not return to its original shape. force = spring constant × extension
2
AQA Physics Combined Science Unit 5: Forces Foundation Answers
a c f j
Define work done. The graph below Are the following forces balanced or unbalanced? A car is travelling along a busy road. As it approaches
This occurs when a force moves an object for a is a distance/ a roundabout, the driver applies the brakes.
time graph of a An ornament knocked off a window sill.
distance. If the road is icy, how will this affect the braking
person travelling unbalanced
distance? Explain your answer.
State the equation that links work done, force and from home to
A football as it rolls towards a goal. Less friction, therefore it will take longer to stop.
distance. the supermarket
unbalanced
work done = force × distance and home
k
again. State the equation that links force, mass and
Write the units for…
g acceleration.
work done: joules Describe an experiment to determine whether your
force = mass × acceleration
reaction time is faster with your right or left hand.
force: newtons
Where on the graph is the person stationary? Key words: ruler, partner, repeats Rearrange the equation you have given above to
distance: metres
B-C and D-E Work with a partner. calculate acceleration.
Person A places their forearm on the table so that acceleration = force ÷ mass
A lorry travels 200m when the brakes are applied with
Between points A and E, where is the speed the their right hand is hanging over the edge of the
a force of 600N. Calculate the work done to stop the Calculate the force acting on an object with a mass
fastest? Explain you answer. table.
lorry. of 15kg and acceleration of 4m/s2.
C-D because it is the steepest part of the graph. Person B places a ruler vertically between Person
work done = force × distance F = ma 15 × 4 60N
A’s thumb and first finger, with the 0cm end of the
= 600 × 200
A car increases its velocity from 5m/s to 12m/s in ruler pointing downwards. The thumb and first
= 120 000J Calculate the mass of an object, if it has a force of
a time of 10 seconds. Calculate its acceleration. finger should be as far apart as possible.
Remember to include all units. Person B should place the 0cm mark level with the 2000N and its acceleration is 50m/s2.
Calculate the force if 3000J of energy is required to mass = force ÷ acceleration
acceleration = change in velocity ÷ time top of Person A’s thumb and drop the ruler without
move a box of books a distance of 150cm. = 2000 ÷ 50
= (12 – 5) ÷ 10 telling them.
Convert cm to m: 150cm = 1.5m = 40kg
= 7 ÷ 10 Person A catches the ruler as quickly as possible.
Rearrange formula:
0.7m/s Reading from the top of the thumb, record how
force = work done ÷ distance
many cms it took to catch. l
= 3000 ÷ 1.5 State whether the following statements are true or
Repeat 9 more times with the right hand.
= 2000N d false. If a statement is false, please write the correct
Explain the term deceleration. Repeat experiment with the left hand.
statement.
Negative acceleration, when something is slowing
b down. The resultant force on an object is the overall force
Draw lines to match the methods of transportation h
Describe the effect of friction on a moving object. acting on it.
with their average speeds. A coach travels at an average speed of 30mph for 20 It slows it down. True
minutes. How far has it travelled in that time?
car 1.5m/s State two ways in which friction on a moving object The larger the resultant force on an object the more
10 miles
walking 55m/s can be overcome. it accelerates.
Using a lubricant. True
train 3m/s e Make the object more streamlined.
Stopping distance is calculated by adding thinking
Newton’s second law states that when two objects
distance and braking distance. Smoother surfaces.
running 25m/s interact, the forces they exert on each are in the
Thinking distance is affected by:
i same direction.
State three factors that could affect a person’s speed; What is terminal velocity? False. The forces act in opposite direction.
walking speed. reaction time. When an object is falling at a steady speed.
If the resultant force on an object is zero, then the
1. age
Braking distance is affected by: Terminal velocity depends on two things: object must be stationary.
2. fitness shape
tyres; False. It could be travelling at a constant speed.
3. terrain road conditions. area
AQA GCSE Biology (Combined Science) Unit 2: Organisation
Principles of Organisation
6. Add 2cm3 of starch solution into the test tube, using a different measuring
cylinder to measure, and begin a timer (leave the timer to run continuously).
7. After 10 seconds, use a pipette to extract some of the amylase/starch solution,
and place one drop into the first well of the spotting tile. Squirt the remaining
solution back into the test tube.
8. Continue to place one drop into the next well of the spotting tile, every 10
cell tissue organ organ system organism seconds, until the iodine remains orange.
9. Record the time taken for the starch to be completely digested by the amylase
Cells are the basic A group of cells with An organ is a Organs work together Organ systems work
by counting the wells that were tested positive for starch (indicated by the
building blocks of all a similar structure combination of tissues within an organ together to form whole
blue/black colour change of the iodine). Each well represents 10 seconds of
living things. and function is called carrying out a specific system. living organisms.
time.
a tissue. function.
10. Repeat steps 1 to 8 for pH values 7 and 10.
Food Tests (Required Practical) Effect of pH on the Rate of Reaction of Amylase (Required Practical)
The Digestive System
Iodine is used to test for the presence of starch.
What Which What does a The purpose of the digestive system is to break down large molecules into smaller,
If starch is present, the colour will change to
are you indicator positive result soluble molecules, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. The rate of these
blue-black.
testing do you look like? reactions is increased by enzymes.
The independent variable in the investigation
for? use?
is the pH of the buffer solution.
sugar Benedict’s Once heated, the The dependent variable in the investigation is the time tongue
taken for the reaction to complete (how long it takes for all salivary glands
reagent solution will change mouth
from blue-green to the starch to be digested by the amylase).
oesophagus
yellow-red. Method:
1. Use the marker pen to label a test tube with the first value of pH buffer
starch iodine Blue-black colour
solution (pH 4) and stand it in the test tube rack.
indicates starch is
present. 2. Into each well of the spotting tiles, place a drop of iodine.
3. Using a measuring cylinder, measure 2cm3 of amylase and pour into the liver
protein biuret The solution will stomach
test tube. gall bladder
change from blue to
pink-purple. 4. Using a syringe, measure 1cm3 of the buffer solution and pour into the pancreas
test tube.
lipid sudan III The lipids will small intestine large intestine
5. Leave this to stand for five minutes and then use the thermometer to
separate and the
measure the temperature. Make a note of the temperature.
top layer will turn
bright red. anus rectum

Enzymes The Heart and Blood Vessels The Heart as a Double Pump
An enzyme is a biological
catalyst; enzymes speed up The heart is a large muscular organ which pumps blood carrying oxygen The heart works as a double pump for two circulatory
chemical reactions without or waste products around the body. The lungs are the site of gas exchange systems; the pulmonary circulation and the systemic
being changed or used up. where oxygen from the air is exchanged for waste carbon dioxide in the circulation.
This happens because the enzyme lowers the activation blood. Oxygen is used in the respiration reaction to release energy for the The pulmonary circulation serves the
energy required for the reaction to occur. Enzymes are made cells and carbon dioxide is made as a waste product during the reaction. lungs and bring deoxygenated blood to
up of chains of amino acids folded into a globular shape. glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + [energy] exchange waste carbon dioxide gas for
oxygen at the alveoli.
Enzymes have an active site which the substrate (reactants) The systemic circulation serves the rest of the body
fits into. Enzymes are very specific and will only catalyse one and transports oxygen and nutrients from digestion
specific reaction. If the reactants are not the complimentary to the cells of the body, whilst carrying carbon
shape, the enzyme will not work for that reaction. dioxide and other waste away from the cells.
Enzymes also work optimally at specific conditions of pH and The systemic circulation flows through the whole
temperature. In extremes of pH or temperature, the enzyme vein artery capillary body. This means the blood is flowing at a much higher pressure than in the
will denature. This means that the bonds holding together pulmonary circuit.
The three types of blood vessels, shown above, are each adapted to carry
the 3D shape of the active site will break and the active out their specific function.
shape will deform. The substrate will not be able to fit into The Heart as Pacemaker
Capillaries are narrow vessels which form networks to closely supply cells
the active site anymore and the enzyme cannot function.
and organs between the veins and arteries. The walls of the capillaries are The rate of the heart beating is very carefully,
only one cell thick, which provides a short diffusion pathway to increase and automatically, controlled within the heart
Enzyme Reactant Product itself.
the rate at which substances are transferred.
amylase starch sugars (glucose) Located in the muscular walls of
The table below compares the structure and function of arteries and veins:
the heart are small groups of
protease protein amino acids cells which act as pacemakers.
Artery Vein
lipase lipid glycerol and fatty acids They produce electrical impulses
direction of blood flow away from the heart towards the heart
which stimulate the surrounding
The products of digestion are used to build new oxygenated or oxygenated (except deoxygenated muscle to contract, squeezing the
deoxygenated blood? the pulmonary (except the chambers of the heart and pumping
carbohydrates and proteins and some of the glucose is used
artery) pulmonary vein) the blood.
for respiration.
pressure high low (negative)
Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. The sino-atrial node (SAN) is located near the
It is an alkaline substance which neutralises the wall structure thick, elastic, thin, less right atrium and it stimulates the atria to contract.
hydrochloric acid in the stomach. It also works to emulsify muscular, connective muscular, less
The atrio-ventricular node (AVN) is located in between the ventricles and
fats into small droplets. The fat droplets have a higher tissue for strength connective tissue
stimulates them to contract.
surface area and so the rate of their digestion by lipase is lumen (channel inside narrow wide (with valves)
increased. the vessel)

Artificial pacemakers can be surgically implanted into a person if their Drugs – illegal drugs (e.g. ecstasy and cannabis) can lead to increased heart rate
heart nodes are not functioning correctly. and blood pressure, increasing the risk of heart disease.
Alcohol – regularly exceeding unit guidelines for alcohol can lead to increased
blood pressure and risk of heart disease.
Coronary Heart Disease

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood via the vena
Coronary heart disease is a condition resulting from blockages in the cava. It is then pumped down through the valves
coronary arteries. These are the main arteries which supply blood to the into the right ventricle. From here, it is forced up
heart itself and they can become blocked by build-up of fatty deposits. through the pulmonary artery towards the lungs
where it exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen.
In the UK and around the world, coronary heart disease is a major cause
The oxygenated blood then enters the left atrium via the
of many deaths. Blood pulmonary vein and down into the left ventricle. The
The main symptoms can include chest pain, heart attack or heart failure. Blood is composed of red blood cells muscular wall of the left ventricle is much thicker so it can
Yet, not all people suffer the same symptoms, if any at all. (erythrocytes), white blood cells and platelets, all pump the blood more forcefully out of the heart and around
Lifestyle factors can increase the risk of a person developing coronary suspended within a plasma (a tissue). the entire body, via the aorta.
heart disease. The plasma transports the different blood cells The blood only flows in one direction. This is because there
around the body as well as carbon dioxide, are valves in the heart which close under pressure and
Diet – a high-fat diet (containing lots of saturated fat) can lead to higher
nutrients, urea and hormones. It also distributes prevent the backward flow of blood.
cholesterol levels and this cholesterol forms the fatty deposits which
the heat throughout the body.
damage and block the arteries.
Red blood cells transport oxygen attached to the
Smoking – chemicals in cigarette smoke, including nicotine and carbon
monoxide, increase the risk of heart disease. Carbon monoxide reduces haem group in their structure. It has a biconcave shape to increase surface area
the amount of oxygen which can be transported by the red blood cells and does not contain a nucleus so it can bind with more oxygen molecules.
and nicotine causes an increased heart rate. The lack of oxygen to the White blood cells form part of the immune system and ingest pathogens
heart and increased pressure can lead to heart attacks. and produce antibodies. Platelets are important blood clotting factors.
Stress – prolonged exposure to stress or stressful situations (such as high at the lungs
pressure jobs) can lead to high blood pressure and an increased risk of haemoglobin + oxygen oxyhaemoglobin
heart disease. at the cells

Rate Calculations for Blood Flow Plant Tissues, Organs and Systems Root Hair Cells
The number of beats the heart performs each minute is called the Leaves are plant organs and their main function is to absorb sunlight Plants absorb water by osmosis through
pulse (or heart rate). energy for use in photosynthesis. Within the cells are small organelles called the root hair cells of the roots. Dissolved
It is easily measured by counting the number of beats in a given time, chloroplasts which contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. This is the in the water are important minerals for
e.g. 15s, and finding the total beats per minute. part of the plant which absorbs the sunlight and where photosynthesis occurs. the plant’s growth and development,
sunlight which are absorbed by active transport.

Typically, a lower resting pulse rate indicates a greater level of
physical fitness. During exercise, and for some time after, the pulse carbon dioxide + water oxygen + glucose The root hair cells are adapted to their
rate increases while the heart is working to provide more oxygen to function with the following features:
Leaves are adapted to carry out their function. Leaves are typically flat and
the muscles. • Finger-like projection in the membrane increases the surface
thin with a large surface area. This means they have a maximum area to
absorb the sunlight and carbon dioxide. The thin shape reduces the distance area available for water and minerals to be absorbed across.
Cardiac output is a measure of the volume of blood pumped by the
heart each minute. Stroke volume is a measure of the volume of for diffusion of water and gases. • The narrow shape of the projection can squeeze into small
blood pumped from the heart each contraction (heart beat). spaces between soil particles, bringing it closer and reducing
Leaves contain vessels called xylem and phloem. The xylem transport water
the distance of the diffusion pathway.
Cardiac output (cm³/min) = heart rate (bpm) × stroke volume (cm³/beat) and dissolved minerals toward the leaves. The phloem transport glucose and
• The cell has many mitochondria, which release energy required
other products from photosynthesis around the plant.
Cancer for the active transport of some substances.
The large air spaces between the cells of the spongy mesophyll layer allow
Cancer is the result of uncontrolled cell growth and division.
for the diffusion of gases. Carbon dioxide enters the leaves and oxygen exits
The uncontrolled growth of cells is called a tumour. Xylem and Phloem
the leaves.
Benign Tumour Malignant Tumour Xylem vessels transport water through
waxy cuticle palisade layer
• Usually grows slowly. • cancerous the plant, from roots to leaves.
They are made up of dead, lignified
• Usually grows within • Usually grows rapidly.
a membrane and can cells, which are joined end to end
• Can spread around upper epidermis
be easily removed. xylem with no walls between them, forming
the body, via the
a long central tube down the middle.
bloodstream.
• Does not normally grow back. The movement of the water, and
• Cells can break away and
spongy mesophyll lower epidermis dissolved minerals, along the xylem is
• Does not spread around the body. cause secondary tumours
to grow in other areas of in a transpiration stream.
• Can cause damage to organs
the body (metastasis). Xylem vessels also provide support and strength to the plant
and be life-threatening.
guard cells stomata structure. They are found in the middle of roots so they
aren’t crushed within the soil. They are found in the middle
The guard cells are specially adapted cells located on the underside of the leaf. of the stem to provide strength and prevent bending. In the
They are positioned in pairs, surrounding the stomata (a small opening in the leaves, they are found in vascular bundles alongside the
epidermis layer). The guard cells change shape to open and close the stomata, phloem and can be seen as the veins which network across
controlling the rate of gas exchange in the leaf. the leaf.

Phloem vessels transport food such as
Disease Interactions Health and Disease
dissolved sugars and glucose from
photosynthesis. The food is transported Having one type of illness can often make a person more susceptible to Health is the state of being free from illness or disease. It
around the plant to where growth is occurring another type of illness: refers to physical and mental wellbeing.
(root and shoot tips), as well as to the organs Disease and lifestyle factors, such as diet, stress, smoking,
• immune disorders increased risk of infectious disease
which store the food. The transport occurs alcohol consumption and the use of illegal drugs, can all
in all directions throughout the plant. • viral infection of cells increased risk of cancer impact the health of a person.
The cells making up the phloem tube are Some conditions are associated with certain lifestyle choices:
• immune reactions can trigger allergies
living, with small holes in the walls where the
• Liver conditions are associated with poor diet and prolonged
cells are joined. • very poor physical health increased risk of depression or other mental excessive alcohol consumption.
illness
Transpiration and Translocation • Lung cancer is associated with smoking.
• Memory loss, poor physical health and hygiene are

Transpiration is the loss of water, by evaporation and diffusion,
associated with the use of illegal or recreational drugs.
from the leaves of the plant. Water is a cohesive molecule and as it evaporates,
• Obesity and diabetes are associated with poor diet.
there is less water in the leaf, so water from further back moves up to take
its place. This, in turn, draws more water with it. This is the transpiration • Anxiety and depression are associated with stress and
stream. prolonged excessive alcohol consumption.
Transpiration occurs naturally as there is a tendency for water to diffuse
There can often be correlations between some factors
from the leaves (where the concentration is relatively high) to the air around and types of illness or specific diseases.
the plants (where the concentration is relatively low), via the stomata.
For example, in the graph shown to the right, there is a
Environmental factors can change the rate at which transpiration occurs:
positive correlation between the number of cigarettes
• Increased light intensity will increase the rate of transpiration because light
smoked and the number of lung cancer deaths.
stimulates the stomata to open. The leaf will also be warmed by the sunlight.
• Increased temperature will cause the water to evaporate more quickly and However, there are other factors which can contribute
so increase the rate of transpiration. to the development of lung cancer e.g. working with
asbestos, genetic predisposition.
• Increased humidity (moisture in the air) will reduce the rate of
transpiration. Whereas if the air becomes drier, the rate increases. This means that although the evidence in the graph
A greater concentration gradient will increase the rate of diffusion. gives a strong indication that smoking is a cause of
• If the wind speed increases, then the rate of transpiration also increases. lung cancer, it cannot be stated that ‘smoking will
This is because as the water surrounding the leaves is moved away more cause lung cancer’. Not every person who smokes
quickly, the concentration gradient is increased. will develop lung cancer and not every person who
• If the water content in the soil is decreased, then the rate of absorption in develops lung cancer will be a smoker.
the roots decreases. This causes the stomata to become flaccid and close, Therefore, it can be stated that smoking increases the
reducing transpiration. If the loss of turgor affects the whole plant, then it risk of lung cancer.
will wilt.

Heart Disease (Treatments)
There are a range of medical treatments for heart disease.
Treatment Description Advantages Disadvantages
statins Drugs used to lower cholesterol levels in the blood, • Can be used to prevent heart disease developing. • Long-term treatment.
by reducing the amount produced in the liver. • Possible negative side-effects.
• Improved quality of life.
stents Mechanical device which is used to stretch narrow or • Used for patients where drugs are less effective. • Requires surgery under general anaesthetic, which
blocked arteries, restoring blood flow. carries risk of infection.
• Offers long-term benefits.
• Made from metal alloys so will not be rejected by the

patients body.
heart transplant The entire organ is replaced with one from an organ • Can treat complete heart failure in a person. • Requires major surgery under general anaesthetic,
donor (a person who has died and previously expressed which carries risks.
• extended life
a wish for their organs to be used in this way).
• Lack of donors available.
• Risk of infection or transplant rejection.
• Artificial plastic hearts can be used temporarily until
a donor is found. • Long recovery times.

1
AQA Combined Science Unit 2: Organisation
a d h l
Place the following structures in order from smallest to Define what an enzyme is. What is the function of phloem tissue? Transpiration is:
largest: (Tick the correct box.)

cell organ nucleus The movement of water molecules from a
e high water concentration to a lower water
tissue organism Enzymes are described as being specific to a substrate.
What does this mean? Use the diagram to help your i concentration across a partially permeable
The xylem tissue is composed of hollow tubes
explanation. membrane.
1. strengthened by lignin. What is the function of xylem
2. tissue?
The evaporation and diffusion of water from the
3. leaves of a plant.
4.
The movement of glucose molecules around the
5.
plant.
b j Name three factors that affect the rate of

Describe how a root hair cell is adapted for the efficient
uptake of water and mineral ions. transpiration.

•

•
•
f
Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
•
The is the part of the body
Bile neutralises s a to lower
where food is absorbed into the bloodstream.
m
the pH so protease enzymes can work. Describe how to test for starch.
c 1.
The diagram below shows the lock and key model of It also e fats to give them a larger
enzyme function. Label the diagram using the following 2.
words: s a for lipase to work
3.
enzyme, active site, substrate, products, enzyme- on. This speeds up d .
substrate complex.
k
Where, in the plant, is meristem tissue located?
g
Describe how to carry out the test for reducing sugars. n
Describe how to test for protein.
Keywords: Benedict’s, heat, colour change, blue, red.
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.

4.

2
AQA Combined Science Unit 2: Organisation
o r u y
Use the graph below to describe how temperature affects Why does the left ventricle have a thicker, more muscular What are statins? Choose the correct answer. Describe two ways that the lungs are adapted for
enzyme function. Keywords: optimum, rate of activity, wall than the right ventricle? gaseous exchange.
They reduce the amount of LDL.
temperature, increase, decrease 50 °C
•
They reduce the amount of HDL.
•
They increase the amount of LDL.
•
•
s
Label the following parts on the diagram below: v
Stents can be used to treat coronary heart disease. Give
trachea, bronchus, bronchiole, alveolus. z
one advantage and one disadvantage of using stents. Match up the four components of the blood and their
functions
advantage:

red blood cells help to clot the blood
disadvantage:
white blood cells transport oxygen

p
Label the following blood vessels on the diagram of the platelets defend against pathogens
heart: w
How can the valves in the heart become damaged?
aorta, vena cava, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein. plasma liquid part of blood

t a
In coronary heart disease, layers of fatty material builds Explain how an infection from a microorganism could
What happens when the valves become leaky?
up inside the coronary arteries. Explain how this can lead lead to the development of other, non-communicable
diseases.
to a heart attack. Keywords: fatty material, oxygen, heart
attack, arteries.
What can they be replaced by?

What could be the problems? b
What is the difference between a benign and a malignant
tumour?
q
The artery carries blood a from the heart.
x
It has thick layers of m for strength and A problem with heart transplants is rejection of the
donor heart. What is meant by rejection in terms of a
elastic f . The walls are thick with a small
heart transplant?
l .

3
AQA Combined Science Unit 2: Organisation Answers
a d h l
Place the following structures in order from smallest to Define what an enzyme is. What is the function of phloem tissue? Transpiration is:
largest: To transport food substances (dissolved sugars) around the (Tick the correct box.)
A biological catalyst.
plant. This process is called translocation.
cell organ nucleus
The movement of water molecules from a
e high water concentration to a lower water
tissue organism Enzymes are described as being specific to a substrate.
What does this mean? Use the diagram to help your i concentration across a partially permeable
The xylem tissue is composed of hollow tubes
explanation. membrane.
1. nucleus strengthened by lignin. What is the function of xylem
2. cell tissue? The evaporation and diffusion of water from the

To transport water and dissolved minerals from the roots leaves of a plant.
3. tissue
to the stem and the leaves. This is called the transpiration
4. organ stream. The movement of glucose molecules around the
5. organism plant.
Name three factors that affect the rate of

b The active site of the enzyme has a unique shape. Only a j transpiration.
Describe how a root hair cell is adapted for the efficient
substrate with a complimentary shape can fit and bind to uptake of water and mineral ions. Any three from the following:
form an enzyme-substrate complex. • temperature;
• light intensity;
• air flow;
• humidity.
f
Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
The small intestine is the part of the body where food is

absorbed into the bloodstream. Bile neutralises stomach acid to lower the pH so protease
m
enzymes can work. Describe how to test for starch.
They have a large surface area for the rapid absorption of 1. Place the test sample into a test tube.
c
The diagram below shows the lock and key model of It also emulsifies fats to give them a larger water and mineral ions from the soil.
enzyme function. Label the diagram using the following 2. Add a few drops of iodine solution and mix.
surface area for lipase to work on. This speeds up digestion.
words:
3. The colour will change from orange to blue/black if
enzyme, active site, substrate, products, enzyme-
starch is present.
substrate complex.
k
substrate products Where, in the plant, is meristem tissue located?
g
Describe how to carry out the test for reducing sugars. n
Growing tips of roots and shoots. Describe how to test for protein.
active site Keywords: Benedict’s, heat, colour change, blue, red.
1. Place the test sample into a test tube (about 2ml). 1. Place the test sample into a test tube (about 2ml).
2. Add an equal amount of Benedict’s reagent. 2. Add an equal amount of Biuret reagent and mix.
3. Heat in a water bath for 5 minutes.
3. The colour will change from blue to purple if protein
4. The colour will change from blue to either green/yel-
is present.
enzyme enzyme low/red, depending on the amount of reducing sugar
present.
enzyme-substrate
complex
4
AQA Combined Science Unit 2: Organisation Answers
o r u y
Use the graph below to describe how temperature affects Why does the left ventricle have a thicker, more muscular What are statins? Choose the correct answer. Describe two ways that the lungs are adapted for
enzyme function. Keywords: optimum, rate of activity, wall than the right ventricle? gaseous exchange.
They reduce the amount of LDL.
temperature, increase, decrease 50 °C The left ventricle has to pump blood at high pressure so Any three from the following:
that it can reach all body cells. Whereas the right ventricle They reduce the amount of HDL. • large surface area;
only has to pump blood to the lungs. • moist lining;
They increase the amount of LDL. • thin walls;
• good blood supply.
s
Label the following parts on the diagram below: v
Stents can be used to treat coronary heart disease. Give
trachea, bronchus, bronchiole, alveolus. z
one advantage and one disadvantage of using stents. Match up the four components of the blood and their
Initially, as temperature increases, the rate of enzyme functions
advantage: Patients recover quickly and they are effective
activity also increases up to 40˚C. This is the optimum bronchiole trachea
for a long time.
temperature. After 40˚C, as the temperature increases, the red blood cells help to clot the blood
rate of enzyme activity decreases. disadvantage: There is a risk of the patient developing a
blood clot near the stent, which can lead to a heart attack. white blood cells transport oxygen
p
Label the following blood vessels on the diagram of the platelets defend against pathogens
heart: w
How can the valves in the heart become damaged?
aorta, vena cava, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein. alveolus bronchus plasma liquid part of blood
Heart attack, infection, old age.
aorta pulmonary artery What happens when the valves become leaky?
t Blood flows in two directions. a
In coronary heart disease, layers of fatty material builds Explain how an infection from a microorganism could
up inside the coronary arteries. Explain how this can lead What can they be replaced by? lead to the development of other, non-communicable
to a heart attack. Keywords: fatty material, oxygen, heart Biological or mechanical valves. diseases.
attack, arteries. Infection from some viruses can lead to the development
What could be the problems?
The layers of fatty material block the coronary arteries and of cancer (e.g. HPV infection and cervical cancer). Also,
A blood clot.
restrict blood flow to heart muscle cells. This results in a infection with pathogens can sometimes trigger allergic
lack of oxygen and the heart muscle cells stop respiring. reactions and worsen asthma, for example.
vena cava pulmonary vein This can lead to a heart attack.
b
What is the difference between a benign and a malignant
tumour?
q A benign tumour remains in one place and doesn’t invade
The artery carries blood away from the heart.
other tissues in the body – not usually dangerous.
It has thick layers of muscle for strength and x
A problem with heart transplants is rejection of the A malignant tumour spreads to other parts of the body
elastic fibres. The walls are thick with a small
donor heart. What is meant by rejection in terms of a when cells break off and travel in the bloodstream to form
lumen.
heart transplant? secondary tumours.
When the body’s immune system (white blood cells) attacks
and destroys the donor heart muscle cells.
AQA GCSE Chemistry (Combined Science) Unit 2: Bonding, Structure and Properties of Matter
Solid Liquid Gas
The particles in a gas are randomly arranged.

The particles in a gas are able to move around
very quickly in all directions. Of the three states of
The particles in a liquid are randomly arranged. matter, gas particles have the highest amount of
The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. The particles in a solid are arranged in a regular kinetic energy.
The particles in a liquid are able to move around each
pattern. The particles in a solid vibrate in a fixed
For a substance to change from one state to another, other. The particles in a liquid have a greater amount Gases, like liquids, are able to flow and can fill the
position and are tightly packed together. The particles
energy must be transferred. of kinetic energy than particles in a solid. container that they are placed in. The particles in a
in a solid have a low amount of kinetic energy.
Liquids are able to flow and can take the shape of gas are far apart from one another which allows the
The particles gain energy. This results in the breaking
Solids have a fixed shape and are unable to flow like the container that they are placed in. As with a solid, particles to move in any direction.
of some of the attractive forces between particles
liquids. The particles cannot be compressed because liquids cannot be compressed because the particles Gases can be compressed; when squashed,
during melting.
the particles are very close together. are close together. the particles have empty space to move into.
To evaporate or boil a liquid, more energy is needed
to overcome the remaining chemical bonds between Limitations of the Particle Model (HT only) Identifying the Physical State of a Substance
the particles.
The chemical bonds between particles are not represented in the diagrams above. If the given temperature of a substance is lower
Note the difference between boiling and evaporation. than the melting point, the physical state of the
Particles are represented as solid spheres – this is not the case. Particles like atoms are mostly empty space.
When a liquid evaporates, particles leave the surface substance will be solid.
Particles are not always spherical in nature.
of the liquid only. When a liquid boils, bubbles of
If the given temperature of the substance is between
gas form throughout the liquid before rising to the State Symbols the melting point and boiling point, the substance
surface and escaping.
will be a liquid.
In chemical equations, the three states of matter are represented as symbols:
The amount of energy needed for a substance to
solid (s) If the given temperature of the substance is higher
change state is dependent upon the strength of the
liquid (l) than the boiling point, the substance will be a gas.
attractive forces between particles. The stronger
the forces of attraction, the more energy needed gas (g)
to break them apart. Substances that have strong aqueous (aq)
attractive forces between particles generally have
higher melting and boiling points. Aqueous solutions are those that are formed when a substance is dissolved in water.

Formation of Ions Metallic Bonding Ionic Bonding Covalent Bonding
Ions are charged particle. They can be either Metallic bonding occurs between Ionic bonding occurs between a metal and a Covalent bonding is the sharing of a pair of electrons between atoms to gain a
positively or negatively charged, for example Na+ or metals only. Positive metal ions are non-metal. Metals lose electrons to become full outer shell. This occurs between non-metals only. Simple covalent bonding
Cl- . surrounded by a sea of delocalised positively charged. Opposite charges are occurs between the molecules below. Simple covalent structures have low
electrons. The ions are tightly attracted by electrostatic forces – an ionic melting and boiling points – this is because the weak intermolecular forces
When an element loses or gains electrons, it becomes
packed and arranged in rows. bond. that hold the molecules together break when a substance is heated, not the
an ion.
strong covalent bonds between atoms. They do not conduct electricity as they
do not have any free delocalised electrons.
Metals lose electrons to become positively charged.
Dot and cross diagrams are useful to show the bonding in simple molecules.
Non-metals gain electrons to become negatively
The outer electron shell of each atom is represented as a circle, the circles
charged.
from each atom overlap to show where there is a covalent bond, and the
There are strong electrostatic forces
Group 1 and 2 elements lose electrons and group 6 electrons from each atom are either drawn as dots or crosses. There are two
of attraction between the positive
and 7 elements gain electrons. Ionic Compounds different types of dot and cross diagram – one with a circle to represent the
metal ions and negatively charged
Ionic compounds form structures called giant outer electron shell and one without.
electrons.
Group Ions Element Example lattices. There are strong electrostatic forces
of attraction that act in all directions and You should be able to draw the dot and cross
Pure metals are too soft for many
1 +1 Li Li+ + e- diagrams for the following simple covalent structures:
uses and are often mixed with other act between the oppositely charged ions that
+ chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen, water, ammonia,
2 +2 Ca Ca² + 2e - metals to make alloys. The mixture make up the giant ionic lattice.
hydrogen chloride and methane.
of the metals introduces different-
6 -2 Br + e - Br -
sized metal atoms. This distorts
-
7 -1 O+ 2e - O² the layers and prevents them
from sliding over one another.
This makes it harder for alloys to be
Metals and Non-metals Properties of Ionic Compounds
bent and shaped like pure metals.
• High melting point – lots of energy needed
Metals are found on the left-hand side of the
to overcome the electrostatic forces of
periodic table. Metals are strong, shiny, malleable
attraction.
and good conductors of heat and electricity. On the
other hand, non-metals are brittle, dull, not always • High boiling point
solids at room temperature and poor conductors of
• Cannot conduct electricity in a solid as the
heat and electricity. Non-metals are found on the
ions are not free to move.
right-hand side of the periodic table.
• Ionic compounds, when molten or in
solution, can conduct electricity as the ions
are free to move and can carry the electrical
current.

Structural Formulae Giant Covalent Structure – Graphite Nanoscience Fullerenes and Nanotubes
In this type of diagram, the
Graphite is made up of Nanoscience refers to structures that are 1–100nm Molecules of carbon that are
element symbol represents
layers of carbon arranged in size, of the order of a few hundred atoms. shaped like hollow tubes or
the type of atom and the
in hexagons. Each carbon Nanoparticles have a high surface area to volume balls, arranged in hexagons
straight line represents the
is bonded to three other ratio. This means that smaller amounts are needed of five or seven carbon atoms.
covalent bonding between
carbons and has one free in comparison to normal sized particles. As the side They can be used to deliver
each atom.
delocalised electron that is length of a cube decreases by a factor of 10, the drugs into the body.
The structure of small able to move between the layers. The layers are held surface area to volume ratio increases approximately
Buckminsterfullerene has the formula C₆₀
molecules can also be together by weak intermolecular forces. The layers of by a factor of 10.
represented as a 3D model. carbon can slide over each other easily as there are no Name of Particle Diameter
Carbon Nanotubes are tiny carbon cylinders that
strong covalent bonds between the layers. Graphite nanoparticle 1–100nm are very long compared to
has a high melting point because a lot of energy fine particles (PM₂₅) 100–2500nm their width. Nanotubes can
.
Giant Covalent Structure – Diamond is needed to break the covalent bonds between the conduct electricity as well
coarse particles (PM1₀) 2500–10000nm
carbon atoms. Graphite can conduct electricity. as strengthening materials
Each carbon atom is bonded
to four other carbon atoms, without adding much
Giant Covalent Structure – Graphene Polymers
making diamond very weight. The properties of
strong. Diamond has a high Graphene is one layer of Polymers are long chain molecules that are made up carbon nanotubes make them
melting and boiling point. graphite. It is very strong of many smaller units called monomers. Atoms in a useful in electronics and nanotechnology.
Large amounts of energy are because of the covalent polymer chain are held together by strong covalent
needed to break the strong covalent bonds between bonds between the carbon bonds. Between polymer molecules, there are Possible Risks of Nanoparticles
each carbon atom. Diamond does not conduct atoms. As with graphite, intermolecular forces. Intermolecular forces attract As nanoparticles are so small, it makes it possible
electricity because it has no free electrons. each carbon in graphene polymer chains towards each other. Longer polymer for them to be inhaled and enter the lungs. Once
is bonded to three others with one free delocalised chains have stronger forces of attraction than shorter inside the body, nanoparticles may initiate harmful
Silicon dioxide (silicon and oxygen atoms) has a electron. Graphene is able to conduct electricity. ones therefore making stronger materials. reactions and toxic substances could bind to them
similar structure to that of diamond, in that its Graphene, when added to other materials, can
because of their large surface area to volume ratio.
atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds. make them even stronger. Useful in electricals and
Nanoparticles have many applications. These include
Large amounts of energy are needed to break the composites.
medicine, cosmetics, sun creams and deodorants.
strong covalent bonds therefore silicon dioxide,
They can also be used as catalysts.
like diamond, has a high melting and boiling point.
Modern nanoparticles are a relatively new

phenomenon therefore it is difficult for scientists to
truly determine the risks associated with them.

1
AQA Chemistry Unit 4.2 - Bonding, Structure and the Properties of Matter - Foundation
a d f h
The three types of chemical bonding are… Using this example, draw dot and cross diagrams for Complete the polymer diagram for the following Match up the following with the state symbol.
1. I H2O, NH3 and O2 monomer. solid (g)
2. C liquid (l)
3. M gas (s)
solution (aq)
Describe the movement and arrangement of subatomic
What happens to the intermolecular forces when a liquid
particles in each of the above.
turns into a gas? (Delete the incorrect answers)
1. 1. H2O
Increase
Decrease
2.
Stay the same
3. What is a monomer?
i
Describe the changes of state during:
2. NH3
evaporation:
b
Draw a dot and cross diagram for the following ionic What is a polymer?
bonding:
sodium chloride
condensation:
3. O2 g
Properties of metals and alloys.
melting:
Which four groups are more likely to make ions? Choose

from the groups below:
e j
Describe how metals conduct heat and electricity. Use Small molecules form substances with high/low boiling
1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 0
the diagram to help explain. points because they have strong/weak intermolecular
forces.
c
Describe the bonding in ionic compounds
Keywords: ions, negative, positive, opposite, attraction. They do/do not conduct electricity because they do not
Describe how the 2 pictures are different to each other. have any free electrons.
k
My main areas for improvement are:
Why can ionic compounds conduct electricity when in Why are some alloys harder than pure metals?
solution?
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2
a e h
Draw a diagram of the structure of diamond. What are the formulas for the following?
Match up the answers.
Iron (II) oxide Fe(OH)2
Iron (II) hydroxide FeO

Iron (lll) oxide Fe2O3
Why is this structure so strong? Choose the correct answer. i

How many:
1. Many strong ionic bonds. is a single layer of graphite. mm in 1m?
2. Many strong covalent bonds. Why is this material so strong?
m in 1mm?
3. Many strong metallic bonds.
b What are the abbreviated units for the following:

What is this a diagram of?
Where is this product used?
metre;
centimetre;
millimetre;
f
nanometre;
micrometre.
Explain why it can conduct electricity and heat.
j
Compare diamond and graphite.
Describe the structure, hardness and conductivity.
c
The topic I understand the most in this unit is Keywords: covalent, atoms, electricity, electrons, flat
What is this structure?
How many carbon atoms are there?
The topic I need to work on is

a) 20 b) 30 c) 40 d) 50 e) 60
g k
Explain the differences and similarities between silicon dioxide and diamond. My main areas for improvement are:
d
This is a carbon n .
It has high t
strength, high h
and e conductivity.
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1
AQA Chemistry Unit 4.2 - Bonding, Structure and the Properties of Matter - Foundation Answers
a d f h
The three types of chemical bonding are… Using this example, draw dot and cross diagrams for Complete the polymer diagram for the following Match up the following with the state symbol.
1. ionic H2O, NH3 and O2 monomer. solid (g)
2. covalent liquid (l)
3. metallic gas (s)
solution (aq)
Describe the movement and arrangement of subatomic
What happens to the intermolecular forces when a liquid
particles in each of the above.
turns into a gas?
1. Electrons are lost and gained to fill the outer shell. 1. H2O
Decrease
2. Electrons are shared to fill the outer shell.
3. Positive metal ions are surrounded by free electrons.
What is a monomer?
One molecule. i
Describe the changes of state during:
2. NH3
evaporation:
What is a polymer?
b liquid changes to a gas.
Draw a dot and cross diagram for the following ionic A long chain of monomers.
bonding:
sodium chloride
condensation:
gas changes to a liquid.

3. O2 g
Properties of metals and alloys.
melting:
solid changes to a liquid.
e j
Describe how metals conduct heat and electricity. Use Small molecules form substances with low boiling
Which four groups are more likely to make ions?
the diagram to help explain. points because they have weak intermolecular forces.
1, 2, 6 and 7 Metals have free Electrons that are able to move around
They do not conduct electricity because they do not have
and transfer energy.
c any free electrons.
Describe the bonding in ionic compounds
Describe how the 2 pictures are different to each other.
They are held together by the strong ionic forces of
Alloys have different sized particles. In pure metals, all
oppositely charged ions. Metal ions have a positive charge k
the atoms are the same. My main areas for improvement are:
and non-metals ions have a negative charge so they are
attracted. They have very strong bonds.
Why are some alloys harder than pure metals?
They have different sized particles so the layers can not
Why can ionic compounds conduct electricity when in
solution? slide across each other as easily.
The ions are free to move about and can conduct electricity.
2
a e h
Draw a diagram of the structure of diamond. What are the formulas for the following?
Match up the answers.
Iron (II) oxide Fe(OH)2
Iron (II) hydroxide FeO

Iron (lll) oxide Fe2O3
i
How many:
Why is this structure so strong? Choose the correct answer. Graphene is a single layer of graphite. mm in 1m? 1000mm
2. Many strong covalent bonds. Why is this material so strong?
m in 1mm? 0.001m
It has strong covalent bonds.
b What are the abbreviated units for the following:

What is this a diagram of?
Where is this product used?
metre; m
Graphite In electronics and composites.
centimetre; cm
millimetre; mm
f
nanometre; nm
Explain why it can conduct electricity and heat. micrometre. μm

Graphite has free delocalised electrons that can pass between layers; the
electrons can carry the charge. j
Compare diamond and graphite.
Describe the structure, hardness and conductivity.
c
The topic I understand the most in this unit is
Both – forms of carbon.
Single covalent bonds
What is this structure? Have many atoms.
Buckminsterfullerene Graphite – flat sheets, conducts electricity, each carbon atom forms 3 covalent
bonds.
How many carbon atoms are there?
Diamond – tetrahedral structure, each carbon atom forms 4 covalent bonds,
The topic I need to work on is
e) 60 does not conduct electricity.
g k
Explain the differences and similarities between silicon dioxide and diamond. My main areas for improvement are:
Silicon dioxide contains silicon and oxygen
atoms instead of carbon but has a similar
structure to diamond.
d
This is a carbon nanotube.
It has high tensile
strength, high
heat and electrical
conductivity.
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AQA Combined Science: Physics Topic 6 Waves
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves Properties of Waves Required Practical Investigation 8
Waves can be either transverse or longitudinal. Aim: make observations and identify the suitability of apparatus to measure
one wavelength direction frequency = waves passing a the frequency, wavelength and speed of waves in a ripple tank and waves in
In a transverse wave, the vibrations are at a right angle of the in Hz given point per second
transverse a solid, and take appropriate
(perpendicular) to the direction of the energy transfer. The Lamphouse
crest amplitude frequency = oscillasions
wave measurements.
wave has peaks (or crests) and troughs. Examples include oscillation in Hz per second
To battery
water waves and light waves. The ripple tank apparatus & rheostat
trough amplitude
shown is the most commonly Eccentric motor
Hand Straight wave dipper
Rubber
motion used for this investigation. It is
band
one wavelength direction of wave movement
likely you will work in groups Water
or observe the investigation
Wave
as a demonstration by your
direction The frequency of a wave is the number of waves which pass a given point
Transverse waves teacher.
every second.
White screen
Method (assuming the
time period (s) = 1 ÷ frequency (Hz)
In a longitudinal wave, the vibrations are in the same apparatus is already set-up):
direction (parallel) as the energy transfer. The wave has t=1÷f Turn on the power and observe the waves. Make any necessary adjustments
areas of compression and rarefaction. Examples of this type to the equipment so that the waves are clear to observe (alter the voltage
of wave are sound waves. The wave speed is how quickly the energy is transferred through a medium
supplying the motor). N.B. The lowest frequency setting on the motor will
(how quickly the wave travels).
Hand ensure that the waves measurements can be made more easily.
motion
wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m) To measure the wavelength, use the metre ruler and make an estimate quickly.
You may want to use a stroboscope and freeze the wave patterns to make
v=f×λ
measurements.
Compression Rarefaction The speed of sound waves travelling through air can be measured by a Record 10 wavelengths and calculate the average value.
simple method. One person stands a measured distance from a large flat
Longitudinal waves
wall, e.g. 100m. The person then claps and another person measures the To measure the wave frequency, mark a given point onto the white paper and
When a wave travels, energy is transferred but the matter time taken to hear the echo. The speed of the sound can then be count the number of waves which pass the point within 10 seconds. Divide
itself does not move. Particles of water or air vibrate and calculated using the equation your answer by 10 to find the number of waves per second.
transfer energy but do not move with the wave.
speed = distance × time. Record 10 frequencies and calculate the average value.
This can be shown by placing
To calculate the wave speed, use this formula:
a cork in a tank of water and Remember the distance will be double because the wave has travelled to speed = frequency × wavelength
generating ripples across the the wall and back again. It is important to take several measurements and
surface. The cork will bob up and calculate the average to reduce the likelihood of human error.
down on the oscillations of the
wave but will not travel across
the tank.

Remember: the wavelength is the distance between one peak (or crest) of a wave 8. Using a protractor, measure the angles of incidence, reflection and refraction. Required Practical Investigation 10
and the next peak. Record your results.
Aim: investigate how the amount of infrared
9. Repeat the experiment by placing a clear acrylic block on the A3 paper in the
radiation absorbed or radiated by a surface depends
same position as the glass block.
on the nature of that surface.
10. The incident ray must follow the same line as before. Draw the reflected and
In this investigation, you are finding out which
refracted rays and measure using a protractor.
type of surface emits the most infrared radiation:
11. Collect four sets of results from other members of the class. • dark and matt
• dark and shiny
The law of reflection states:
• light and matt
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
• light and shiny
Method:
1. Place the Leslie cube on a heatproof mat.
2. Once the kettle has boiled, fill the Leslie cube

with hot water.
3. Ensuring that the thermometer or the
Required Practical Investigation 9
infrared detector is an equal distance
Aim: investigate the reflection of light by different types of surface and the from each of the surfaces (in turn) on the
refraction of light by different substances. Leslie cube, measure the amount of infrared
radiation emitted.
Method:
4. Repeat the experiment twice more to collect
1. In a darkened room, set up the ray box on a flat surface and insert the filter
three results for each surface.
to produce a single ray of light. Risk assessment:
2. Place a glass block in the centre of a piece of plain A3 paper. The ray box will become hot during use and may cause minor burns.
To prevent this, you should not touch the lamp and ensure you allow time for the
3. Draw a line around the glass block. ray box to cool after use.
4. Draw a line at 90°C to the glass block and label the line normal, as shown You will be working in a semi-dark environment which means there is a higher
in the diagram. risk of trips or falls. You should ensure your working space is clear of bags and
5. Position the ray box so the ray of light hits the glass at an angle. coats, and that stools are tucked under desks before you start your investigation.
6. Using a pencil, draw the incidence, reflected and emergent rays as shown in
the diagram.
7. Remove the glass block and draw the refracted ray going through the block.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic waves transfer energy from a source to an absorber as transverse waves. The different waves are grouped depending on their frequency and form a continuous spectrum known as the electromagnetic
spectrum. Each of the frequencies of waves travel at the same velocity and can pass through a vacuum as well as air.
Frequency Wave Use Other Information
Low radio waves Communication via television and radio, and Easily transmitted through air and can be reflected to change their
satellite communications. direction. Harmless if absorbed by the human body. Are reflected back off
the atmosphere and cannot pass through into space.
microwaves Communications including satellite When the molecules absorb microwaves, their internal energy increases.
communications and cooking food. This can be harmful when internal body cells become heated by over
exposure to microwaves. Can pass through the atmosphere and into space.
infrared Short-range communications (remote controls), It can cause burns to skin.

electrical heaters, cooking food, optical fibres,
security systems and thermal imaging cameras.
visible light Used for lighting, photography and fibre optics. Frequency range that is detectable by the human eye.
ultraviolet Sterilising water and killing bacteria. Detecting Causes skin tanning and can lead to burns or skin cancer.
forged bank notes.
X-rays Medical imaging and airport security scanners. Very little energy is absorbed by body tissues. Instead, it is transmitted
through the body.
gamma rays Sterilising medical equipment or food and
High treatment for some cancers. These waves can lead to gene mutation and cancer.
You can remember the order of the electromagnetic spectrum easily with the phrase:
Roman men invented very unusual X-ray guns.

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

You should be able to complete or construct a ray diagram to show how a wave is refracted at the boundary of a different medium.
As the wave moves to a more dense medium (e.g. from gas to solid), it slows down and bends so that the angle from the normal becomes smaller. The angle of
incidence is larger than the angle of refraction.
air
As the wave moves from a more dense medium (e.g. from solid to gas), it speeds up and bends so that the angle from the normal becomes larger. The angle of
refraction is larger than the angle of incidence.
The angle at which a wave enters the glass block is equal to the angle that it leaves the glass block (when entering and leaving the same medium);
glass block
however, if a wave crosses a boundary between two mediums at an angle of 90˚C, then it will not change direction but instead carry on in a straight line.
Gamma rays occur as the result of changes to the nuclei of atoms and atoms themselves. It is a form of radiation and the waves can be generated and absorbed
across a wide range of frequencies.
air
UV, X-rays and gamma are all types of radiation and can be harmful to human health; they cause damage to human body tissues. The severity of the damage
caused depends on the dose of radiation a tissue or cell is exposed to. Radiographers and dentists who routinely carry out X-ray examinations wear a device to
monitor the amount of exposure and ensure they are within a safe limit.
X-rays and gamma rays are ionising and can cause mutations to genes which may result in cancer.
UV waves can cause the skin to burn and age prematurely. UV exposure also increases the risk of developing skin cancer.
Radio Waves (Higher tier only)
Oscillations in electrical circuits can produce radio waves which when absorbed by a conductor, produce an alternating current.
The alternating current has the same frequency as the radio wave and so information can be coded for transmission. This is how television and radio are broadcast.

1
AQA Trilogy Unit 6.6: Waves and Electromagnetic Waves - Foundation
a c f i
Complete the gap fill: Which type of wave oscillates perpendicular You are given the following equation in the A wave has a frequency of 54Hz and a speed
(at right angles) to the direction of energy exam: period = 1/frequency of 330m/s. Calculate the wavelength.
All waves transfer e from one place to transfer? What are the units for…
another, but the m does not move. The
particles oscillate (v ) around a fixed period (time)?
point and pass e onto the next particle Which type of wave oscillates parallel to the frequency?
and in turn they oscillate too. direction of energy transfer?

b
State the two types of wave. g
d What is the symbol equation linking wave
1. Which letter on the graph represents…
speed, frequency and wavelength?
2.

amplitude?
Which type of wave is represented in this wavelength? Now complete the rest of the table:
picture? crest?
Movement of energy trough?
Symbol in the What It
Units
Equation Represents
B
j
Identifying the suitability of apparatus
A v to measure wave speed, frequency, and
C
wavelength was a required practical.
Movement of
hand & rope frequency
State a control variable in this practical:

D m
Which type of wave is represented in this
picture? Why was it important to control this variable?
e
Match up the keyword to the correct h
Calculate the speed of a wave with a
definition:
wavelength of 42cm and a frequency of 11Hz.
The maximum
displacement of a point What was the biggest source of error in your
frequency on a wave away from its
practical?
undisturbed position.

The number of waves

passing a point each
amplitude second. How could you overcome this error?

The distance from a
point on one wave to
wavelength the equivalent point on
the adjacent wave.
2
a b c d
Which type of wave are electromagnetic (EM) Complete the gap fill by choosing from some Which type of EM wave has the… The amount of absorption, or radiation, of
waves - transverse or longitudinal? of the following words: infrared by different surfaces was a required
longest wavelength? practical. What was the…
velocity, magnetism, energy, spectrum,
acceleration, absorber highest frequency? independent variable?
Electromagnetic waves transfer from shortest wavelength? dependent variable?

the source of the waves to an . The
lowest frequency? control variable?
waves form a continuous , and all
Which part of the EM spectrum can human eyes types, travel at the same through a
most energy?
detect? vacuum (space) or air.
hazard, the harm it could cause, and how you
least energy? minimised the risk?

e
Complete the boxes to show the order of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum and state at least two uses of each type of EM wave.
EM Wave:
Uses:
f
The amount of absorption, or radiation, of infrared radiation by different surfaces was a required practical. Briefly outline a method for collecting valid results for this experiment.

3
a d g
Next to each EM wave, place a tick or cross to indicate whether State two factors that affect the amount of harm caused by Suggest why nurses wear lead lined aprons when performing
it can cause harm to the human body. certain EM waves: x-ray examinations.
radio waves ✘ 1.

microwaves ✘ 2.
infrared waves ✘
visible light ✘ e
State one advantage of using gamma rays to treat or detect
ultraviolet waves ✓
cancer:

x-rays ✓

gamma rays

b
Match up the EM wave to the description of the damage it does
to the human body:

x-rays Causes skin to age State one disadvantage of using gamma rays to treat or detect
prematurely and increases the cancer:
risk of skin cancer.

UV waves

Causes ionisation inside of
cells, this damage leads to the h
State two other precautions that nurses and healthcare
gamma rays cells dying.
professionals can undertake to reduce the harm of x-rays.
f
State one advantage of using x-rays for medical imaging:

c
Complete the gap fill:

Radiation dose is a measure of the risk of resulting
from exposure of the body to the . State one disadvantage of using x-rays for medical imaging:

It is measured in sieverts, and 1 sievert (Sv) is equivalent to

millisieverts (mSv).

Some types of radiation are more hazardous than others due to
the amount of in the wave and how penetrating it is.
4
a c
Complete the gap fill using the following words: Choose the correct phrase to complete each statement to explain
speed, 90, faster, medium, angle, ray, refracted what is happening in your ray diagram on the left.
The of a wave depends on the material ( ) The light ray is travelling from air/glass with a low refractive
it is travelling through. If a wave changes from one medium to index, into air/glass with a higher refractive index.
another, the changes too.
Upon entering the different medium, the average speed of the ray
Waves are only refracted when they meet the boundary between decreases/increases.
two media at an .
The ray is refracted away from/towards the normal.
The more the changes between the two media, the
greater the direction of the wave changes. As the light leaves the glass block and travels into the air, the
speed of the ray increases/decreases.
However, a wave that meets the boundary at ° (perpendicular)
will not be . So the ray is refracted away from/towards the normal.
Light waves travel in air than in glass. The change in

d
speed, and thus direction, between these two media can be shown The refractive index of a medium is the extent to which the
using a diagram. light is refracted when it enters the medium. Look at the table
of data:
b Medium Refractive Index
Use a ruler to draw the path of the light ray as it travels
through the glass block. air 1
glass 1.5
water 1.3
diamond 2.4
What conclusions can be drawn from the data?

Incidence Ray
AQA Trilogy Unit 6.6: Waves and Electromagnetic Waves - Foundation Answers 1
a c f i
Complete the gap fill: Which type of wave oscillates perpendicular You are given the following equation in the A wave has a frequency of 54Hz and a speed
(at right angles) to the direction of energy exam: period = 1/frequency of 330m/s. Calculate the wavelength.
All waves transfer energy from one place to transfer? What are the units for… Rearrange the equation to make wavelength
another, but the matter does not move. The transverse the subject:
particles oscillate (vibrate) around a fixed point period (time)? seconds (s) λ = v/f
and pass energy onto the next particle and in Which type of wave oscillates parallel to the frequency? hertz (Hz) Substitute the numbers into the equation:
turn they oscillate too. direction of energy transfer? 330m/s ÷ 54Hz = 6.12m
longitudinal
b
State the two types of wave. g
d What is the symbol equation linking wave
1. transverse Which letter on the graph represents…
speed, frequency and wavelength?
2. longitudinal
v=fλ
amplitude? C
Which type of wave is represented in this wavelength? B Now complete the rest of the table:
picture? crest? A
Movement of energy trough? D
Symbol in the What It
Units
Equation Represents
B
j
Identifying the suitability of apparatus
A v wave speed m/s to measure wave speed, frequency, and
C
wavelength was a required practical.
Movement of
hand & rope f frequency Hz
State a control variable in this practical:
transverse The volume of water in the tank.
D λ wavelength m
Which type of wave is represented in this Why was it important to control this variable?
picture? The depth of the water will affect the speed
e and wavelength.
Match up the keyword to the correct h
Calculate the speed of a wave with a
definition:
wavelength of 42cm and a frequency of 11Hz. What was the biggest source of error in your
The maximum
displacement of a point practical?
on a wave away from its v=fλ
frequency Counting the waves by eye.
undisturbed position. convert cm into m = 0.42m
Substitute the numbers into the equation:
How could you overcome this error?
The number of waves 11Hz x 0.42m = 4.62m/s
Use a stroboscope.
passing a point each
longitudinal amplitude second.
The distance from a

point on one wave to
wavelength the equivalent point on
the adjacent wave.
a b c d
Which type of wave are electromagnetic (EM) Complete the gap fill by choosing from some Which type of EM wave has the… The amount of absorption, or radiation, of
waves - transverse or longitudinal? of the following words: infrared by different surfaces was a required
longest wavelength? radio waves practical. What was the…
velocity, magnetism, energy, spectrum,
highest frequency? gamma rays independent variable? type of surface
acceleration, absorber
shortest wavelength? gamma rays
Electromagnetic waves transfer energy from the dependent variable? temperature (°C)
transverse source of the waves to an absorber. The waves lowest frequency? radio waves
control variable? Volume of water or start
form a continuous spectrum, and all types,
most energy? gamma rays temperature of the water.
Which part of the EM spectrum can human eyes travel at the same velocity through a vacuum
detect? (space) or air.
least energy? radio waves hazard, the harm it could cause, and how you
minimised the risk?
The words acceleration and magnetism should The hot water could scald skin, so we used test
not be used. tube racks and ensured the floor was clear of
trip hazards.
Visible light only.
e
Complete the boxes to show the order of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum and state at least two uses of each type of EM wave.
EM Wave: radio waves microwaves infrared waves visible light ultraviolet waves x-rays gamma rays
Remote controls, Security marking, Medical imaging and Medical treatments for
Television, radio and Satellite communication Optical fibres and
Uses: infrared cameras and energy efficient lamps medical treatment for cancer and sterilising
Bluetooth. and cooking food. photography (cameras).
heaters. and sunbeds. cancer. food.
f
The amount of absorption, or radiation, of infrared radiation by different surfaces was a required practical. Briefly outline a method for collecting valid results for this experiment.
Cover four boiling tubes in different materials to create different surfaces: matt black, shiny black, white and silver (the independent variable). Pour the same volume of the same start temperature of hot
water into the tubes (these control variable ensures validity). Measure the temperature of each tube every minute (the dependent variable). The tube that cools the fastest emits infrared energy the fastest.
a d g
Next to each EM wave, place a tick or cross to indicate whether State two factors that affect the amount of harm caused by Suggest why nurses wear lead lined aprons when performing
it can cause harm to the human body. certain EM waves: x-ray examinations.
radio waves 1. Type of radiation.
Nurses wear lead lined aprons due to two factors: they are
microwaves 2. Amount of exposure. exposed to harmful x-rays towards the upper end of the EM
infrared waves spectrum on a regular basis. The x-rays themselves are highly
ionising and can cause damage to body cells, resulting in
visible light e
State one advantage of using gamma rays to treat or detect mutations and potentially leading to uncontrolled cell growth
ultraviolet waves cancer: (a tumour). Therefore, nurses can reduce their radiation dose by
x-rays Gamma rays can be used to detect cancer by ingesting or wearing a lead lined apron which blocks the rays.
injecting a radioactive source as a tracer. This is beneficial as
gamma rays
it means early treatment can commence, and the outcome is
therefore more likely to be positive in terms of life-expectancy.
b Gamma rays can be used to treat cancer without invasive
Match up the EM wave to the description of the damage it does
surgery - a high focused beam causes the cancer cells to mutate
to the human body:
further, resulting in them dying.
State one disadvantage of using gamma rays to treat or detect

x-rays Causes skin to age cancer:
prematurely and increases the
risk of skin cancer. Normal cells nearby are also affected during treatment and
undergo ionisation, resulting in the patient feeling unwell.
UV waves
Causes ionisation inside of
cells, this damage leads to the h
State two other precautions that nurses and healthcare
gamma rays cells dying.
professionals can undertake to reduce the harm of x-rays.
f 1. Work from a distance/step into another room/stand behind a

State one advantage of using x-rays for medical imaging:
X-rays can be used to detect broken bones, visualise dental glass window.
c
Complete the gap fill: issues, treat cancer cells and as part of CT scans.
2. Wear a radiation badge/dosimeter to measure and record
Radiation dose is a measure of the risk of harm resulting from State one disadvantage of using x-rays for medical imaging: exposure.
exposure of the body to the radiation. X-rays can cause ionisation in cells and increase the chance of
mutation, therefore leading to rapidly growing and dividing
It is measured in sieverts, and 1 sievert (Sv) is equivalent to 1000 cells (a tumour).
millisieverts (mSv).
Some types of radiation are more hazardous than others due to

the amount of energy in the wave and how penetrating it is.
a c
Complete the gap fill using the following words: Choose the correct phrase to complete each statement to explain
speed, 90, faster, medium, angle, ray, refracted what is happening in your ray diagram on the left.
The speed of a wave depends on the material (medium) it is The light ray is travelling from air/glass with a low refractive
travelling through. If a wave changes from one medium to index, into air/glass with a higher refractive index.
another, the speed changes too.
Upon entering the different medium, the average speed of the ray
Waves are only refracted when they meet the boundary between decreases/increases.
two media at an angle.
The ray is refracted away from/towards the normal.
The more the speed changes between the two media, the greater
the direction of the wave changes. As the light leaves the glass block and travels into the air, the
speed of the ray increases/decreases.
However, a wave that meets the boundary at 90° (perpendicular)
will not be refracted. So the ray is refracted away from/towards the normal.
Light waves travel faster in air than in glass. The change in

d
speed, and thus direction, between these two media can be shown The refractive index of a medium is the extent to which the
using a ray diagram. light is refracted when it enters the medium. Look at the table
of data:
Medium Refractive Index
b
Use a ruler to draw the path of the light ray as it travels
through the glass block. air 1
glass 1.5
water 1.3
diamond 2.4
What conclusions can be drawn from the data?
Air has the lowest refractive index, a value of 1, and diamond

has the highest refractive index of 2.4.
Air is a gas and has the lowest refractive index. The refractive
index increases in liquids (water), and increases further in solids
(glass and diamond).

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Key Stage 4

BIOLOGY – Cell Biology

CHEMISTRY – Atomic Structure and The Periodic Table

CHEMISTRY – Bonding Structure and Properties of Matter

eyepiece sperm To get the male Streamlined head, long

Maths Skills cell membrane cell wall

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• the site of photosynthesis? 

Sperm cells are specialised cells. Explain how the

acrosome helps the sperm cell to carry out its function. 2.  

4 200 000 4.2 x 10⁶

0.00000006 6 x 10-⁸ The width of a cell is 0.025mm; under the microscope

magnification = image size

Balancing Symbol Equations pin

Atomic Number and Mass Number C=1 ink spot

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Name Charge Relative Mass

How many electrons do they have in their outer shell?

Describe how the reactivity changes as you go down the group.

fluorine + potassium chloride

Complete the word and symbol equation for sodium

Two or more elements together, not chemically joined and

Name Charge Relative Mass Salt water, sand and water

neutron Na Fractional distillation

bromine + potassium iodide Why did scientists believe this model?

b chlorine + sodium iodide

Forces are categorised into two groups: Resultant Forces

In this case, the resultant force is 30N – 30N = 0N.

The forces are in equilibrium and are balanced.

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exerted. a distance of 1 metre.

Where the construction 1J = 1Nm

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F=k×e Hooke’s Law describes that

the gradient from your graph. The energy is stored as elastic

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direction. Displacement is a vector quantity. It measures how far something has

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Consider a skydiver and his parachute. When

When the graph is a straight line, it is representing a constant speed. A

Graph Feature Distance-Time Graph Velocity-Time Graph

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Acceleration Braking Distance

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Stopping Distance Required Practical Investigation 7

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Weight:  On a force diagram, what two things do the arrows show?

Draw lines to match the methods of transportation

c Horizontal force: 800 – 600 = 200N 7

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Coronary Heart Disease

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sunlight which are absorbed by active transport.

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• Memory loss, poor physical health and hygiene are

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There are a range of medical treatments for heart disease.

Treatment Description Advantages Disadvantages

• Made from metal alloys so will not be rejected by the

• Improved quality of life.

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• the site of photosynthesis?

acrosome helps the sperm cell to carry out its function. 2.

Weight: On a force diagram, what two things do the arrows show?

What can they be replaced by?

Electromagnetic waves transfer from shortest wavelength? dependent variable?