Nucleus: inner layer and outer layer.

in layer + out layer + dispersed nuclear pores = nuclear envelope

At outer layer: ribosomes here. Dna inside -> mRNA -> mRNAs move out of nuclear pore -> bind to
ribosomes -> move to rough ER (1)

At inner layer: proteins – Lamins control structure of cell envelope, bind to histone protein, DNAs,
control cell division

Nuclear pores: move things (carb/ pro….) in and out the nucleus

At Nucleolus: rRNA synthesis + protein = ribosomes

Chromatins: DNAs + proteins (main: histones) = genetic material

2 forms

Euchromatin: loose, expression of dna, transcribe dna -> more RNAs -> more in the center of nucleus

Heterochromatin: tight, closer to the envelope in the inner side

DNA: DNA replication, DNA transcription -> RNA (t,m,r)

Rough ER: ribosomes bind on ( (1) -> protein)

 rough ER = protein synthesis site.

Which kind of proteins?

Proteins that going to be lysosomes

Proteins going to membranes

Proteins going to be excreted

 Rough ER = protein folding site (inside ER, filamentous area)

 Rough ER = glycosylation (enzymes in ER add on sugar residues onto protein -> active)

Protein bud off becoming one of above mentioned proteins -> move to Golgi apparatus

@Smooth ER: no ribosomes

Many enzymes on the surface + precursor for fatty acid…. -> Lipid synthesis site: fatty acid,
phospholipid, cholesterol -> those butt off -> Golgi apparatus / membranes

CYP450 enzymes: important for detoxification (liver has a lot. Toxins, alcohol, drugs to liver ->
biotransformation)

Enzyme specific making glucose: glycogen -----chopped-- glucose-6-phosphate ---(enzyme in smooth

ER)--- glucose

Sarcoplasmic reticulum: store calcium + several pumps on smooth ER  pump calcium out to cytosol
Golgi apparatus: vesicles through the cis face, buds off at trans face

Receive vesicles from rough & smooth ER (proteins/ lipid moles)

Modification (modify proteins a bit like protein modified like folding in rough ER)

Glycosylation (n-type/ o-type). Golgi only does o-type

Phosphorylation

Package molecules (lipid & protein in the vesicles)  those may go to lysosome, membrane or excreted

Cell membrane: acts as barrier for simple diffusion/ Facilitated diffusion/ vesicular transport

Phospholipid bilayer: phospholipid head +fatty acid tail

Cholesterols: control fluidity. More cholesterols -> less space between phospholipids -> less fluidity

Proteins: integral pro & peripheral pro.  may be transporters/ enzymes/ linker proteins

Lysosomes : spherical

Contains hydrolytic enzymes:  break down macromolecules

Protease

Nucleases

Lipases

glucosidases

autophagy of organelles (recycle the pooped-out organelles)

autolysis of damaged cells: lysosomes bust the enzymes out and start breaking down

Peroxisomes: spherical

Contain catalase (3)

Oxidase (4)

Metabolic enzymes

(3)(4) important for free radicals

e.g: O2 -> (O2-- (superoxidehyde) -> H2O2 -> O.H. (hydroxal radical) -> dangerous radical can bind to
protein, nucleic acids, membranes. H2O2 likes to accumulate in peroxisomes because of fatty acid
metabolism. Catalase in peroxisoms + h2o2 -> h20
Fatty acid oxidation (by catalase) -> acetyl-coA molecules. 2 types

Alpha oxidation breaks down branch chain fatty acid

Beta oxidation breaks down very long fatty acid

Make lipids from acetyl-coA & cholesterols

Ethanol metabolism

Mitochondria