Name: Irish Maireign R.

Magpantay Section: Stem 11- Newton

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Define the following:
Endocarditis Inflammation of the innermost lining of the heart,
including valves
1. Myocarditis Inflammation of the muscular layer of the heart

Pericarditis Inflammation of the membranes that sorrounds the

heart (pericardium)
Thrombophleditis Blood clots and inflammation developing in a vein

Endocrine system
 it is a system made up of all the body's different hormones, regulates all biological
processes in the body from conception through adulthood and into old age, including the
development of the brain and nervous system, the growth and function of the reproductive
system, as well as the metabolism and blood sugar levels.
The Different organs in Endocrine system:

Hypothalamus - The hypothalamus links our endocrine and nervous

systems together. The hypothalamus drives the endocrine system.

Pituitary gland - The pituitary gland receives signals from the

hypothalamus. This gland has two lobes, the posterior and anterior lobes.
The posterior lobe secretes hormones that are made by the hypothalamus.
The anterior lobe produces its own hormones, several of which act on other
endocrine glands.

Thyroid gland - The thyroid gland is critical to the healthy development and
maturation of vertebrates and regulates metabolism.

Adrenal glands - The adrenal gland is made up of two glands: the cortex
and medulla. These glands produce hormones in response to stress and
regulate blood pressure, glucose metabolism, and the body's salt and water
balance.

Pancreas - The pancreas is responsible for producing glucagon and insulin.

Both hormones help regulate the concentration of glucose (sugar) in the
blood.

Gonads - The male reproductive gonads, or testes, and female reproductive

gonads, or ovaries, produce steroids that affect growth and development
and also regulate reproductive cycles and behaviors. The major categories
of gonadal steroids are androgens, estrogens, and progestins, all of which
are found in both males and females but at different levels.

Different types of glands:

 1) Adrenal Gland - A small gland that makes steroid hormones,
adrenaline, and noradrenaline. These hormones help control heart
rate, blood pressure, and other important body functions. There are
two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. Also called suprarenal
gland.

2) Thyroid Gland - It is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the

front of your neck under your skin. It produces hormones that regulate
the body's metabolic rate, growth and development. It plays a role in
controlling heart, muscle and digestive function, brain development
and bone maintenance.

3) Pituitary Gland - the major endocrine gland. A pea-sized body attached

to the base of the brain, the pituitary is important in controlling growth
and development and the functioning of the other endocrine glands.

4) Gonads - A gonad, sex gland, or reproductive gland is a mixed gland

that produces the gametes and sex hormones of an organism. Female
reproductive cells are egg cells, and male reproductive cells are
sperm.The male gonad, the testicle, produces sperm in the form of
spermatozoa.

Diseases associated with the systems of the body:

a) Hemophilia - it is usually an inherited bleeding disorder in which the

blood does not clot properly. This can lead to spontaneous bleeding as
well as bleeding following injuries or surgery. Blood contains many
proteins called clotting factors that can help to stop bleeding.

b) Diabetes - it is a chronic disease that occurs either when the pancreas

does not produce enough insulin or when the body cannot effectively
use the insulin it produces. Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood
glucose.

c) Lung cancer - it is cancer that forms in tissues of the lung, usually in

the cells that line the air passages. It is the leading cause of cancer
death in both men and women.

d) Hyperacidity - It is the inflammation of the stomach’s lining that is

usually caused by bacterial infection or other lifestyle habits like
alcohol consumption.

Types of blood:

a) Erythrocytes (Red blood cell) – These are the most common type of
blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen to
the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system.
 b) Granulocytes - It is the most common type of white blood cell. They
contain enzyme granules, which form in the cytoplasm (a thick, semi-
fluid solution that fills each cell). When infection or inflammation
enters the body, granulocytes rush to the area, releasing their
granules to fight infection.

c) Leukocytes (White blood cell) - it is a cellular component of the blood

that lacks hemoglobin, has a nucleus and is capable of motility, They
defend the body against infection and disease. White blood cells are
produced by bone marrow and their levels of production are regulated
by organs such as the spleen, liver, and kidneys.

d) Platelets (Thrombucytes) – it is a small, colorless cell fragments in our

blood that form clots and stop or prevent bleeding. Platelets are made
in our bone marrow, the sponge-like tissue inside our bones.

Different muscles in our body:

1) Deltoid - is a muscle that are in the shoulder, which is the ball-and-socket joint that
connects your arm to the trunk of your body. Deltoid muscles help you move your arms in
different directions. They also protect and stabilize your shoulder joint.

2) Trapezius - is a muscle that starts at the base of your neck, goes across your shoulders
and extends to the middle of your back. The trapezius (traps muscle) helps you move your
head, neck, arms, shoulders and torso. It also stabilizes your spine and helps with posture.

3) Pectoral – is a muscles that are in the group of skeletal muscles that connect the upper
extremities to the anterior and lateral thoracic walls. Juxtaposed with the regional fascia,
these muscles are responsible for moving the upper extremities in a wide range of motion.

4) Biceps - is a large, thick muscle on the ventral portion of the upper arm. The biceps works
across three joints. The most important of these functions is to supinate the forearm and
flex the elbow. Besides, the long head of biceps prevents the upward displacement of the
head of the humerus.

5) Hamstrings - are muscles which extend the hip and flex the knee. The hamstrings play an
important part in the complex gait cycle during walking, which includes absorption of kinetic
energy and protection of the knee and hip joints.

6) Gastrocnemius – it is a complex muscle that is fundamentally involved in walking and

posture. It affects the entire lower limb and the movement of the hip and the lumbar area. It
is a muscular district called to work during daily and sports activities and maintain
orthostatism.

7) Quadriceps femoris - is a hip flexor and a knee extensor. It consists of four individual
muscles; three vastus muscles and the rectus femoris. They form the main bulk of the thigh,
and collectively are one of the most powerful muscles in the body.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Cerebrum
  The cerebrum sits at the topmost part of the brain and is the source of intellectual activities.
It holds your memories, allows you to plan, enables you to imagine and think. It allows you
to recognize friends, read books, and play games. The cerebrum is split into two halves
(hemispheres) by a deep fissure.

Cerebellum

 Cerebellum is a part of your brain located at the

back of your head, just above and behind where your spinal cord connects to your brain
itself. It is important for maitaining the balance, posture and coordinates movement.

Hyphotalamus

 The hypothalamus is a structure deep within your

brain. It's the main link between your endocrine
system and your nervous system. Your
hypothalamus keeps your body balanced in a
stable state called homeostasis

Medulla oblongata

 The medulla oblongata is the connection between

the brainstem and the spinal cord, carrying multiple
important functional centers. It is a key conduit for
nerve signals to and from your body. It also helps
control vital processes like your heartbeat, breathing
and blood pressure It is comprised of the
cardiovascular-respiratory regulation system,
descending motor tracts, ascending sensory tracts,
and origin of cranial nerves IX, X, XI, and XII.

The different blood vessels in the heart:

1) Arteries – it carries blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has
a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the lungs.

2) Capillaries- it is a delicate blood vessels that exist throughout your body. They transport
blood, nutrients and oxygen to cells in your organs and body systems. Capillaries are the
smallest blood vessels in your vascular system.

3) Veins – it is a blood vessels in the circulatory system of humans and most other animals
that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues
back to the heart; exceptions are those of the pulmonary and fetal circulations which carry
oxygenated blood to the heart.

4) Venules are the smallest veins and receive blood from capillaries. They also play a role in
the exchange of oxygen and nutrients for water products. There are post-capillary
sphincters located between the capillaries and venules. The venule is very thin-walled and
easily prone to rupture with excessive volume. Veins.

Cardiac Conduction System:

 Atrioventricular valves - these are located between the atria and the ventricles. They
close during the start of ventricular contraction (systole), producing the first heart sound.
 There are two AV valves: Tricuspid valve – located between the right atrium and the right
ventricle.

 Atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His) - is a continuation of the specialised tissue of the

AV node, and serves to transmit the electrical impulse from the AV node to the Purkinje
fibres of the ventricles.

 Purkinje fibers - it plays a major role in electrical conduction and propagation of impulse to
the ventricular muscle. Many ventricular arrhythmias are initiated in the Purkinje fiber
conduction system.

 Sinoventricular valves - semilunar valve, either of two pocketlike half-moon-shaped

structures located between the left ventricle and the aorta (aortic valve) and between the
right ventricle and the pulmonary artery (pulmonary valve) of the heart.

Nerves In The Body:

1) Accessory nerve - provides motor function

(movement) to two muscles essential to neck
and shoulder movement, the
sternocleidomastoid (SCM) and the trapezius,
as well as to the larynx (voice box) and other
structures in the throat. It's the 11th of the 12
cranial nerves and is often referred to as CN
XI.

2) Facial nerve – it is the seventh cranial nerve. It

contains the motor, sensory, and
parasympathetic (secretomotor) nerve fibers,
whi ch provide innervation to many areas of the
head and neck region. The facial nerve is
comprised of three nuclei: the main motor
nucleus the parasympathetic nuclei and the
sensory nucleus.

3) Glossopharyngeal nerve - it is the ninth set of

12 cranial nerves (CN IX). It provides motor,
parasympathetic and sensory information to
your mouth and throat. Among its many
functions, the nerve helps raise part of your
throat, enabling swallowing.

4) Trigeminal nerve - it is the fifth cranial nerve (CN

V) and the largest of the cranial nerves. Its primary
function is to provide sensory innervation to the
face and is divided into three main branches. The
different branches are the ophthalmic (V1),
maxillary (V2), and mandibular (V3) nerves.
Basal Ganglia

 The “basal ganglia” refers to a group of subcortical nuclei responsible primarily for motor
control, as well as other roles such as motor learning, executive functions and
behaviors, and emotions.

Thalamus

 The thalamus is a paired gray matter structure of the diencephalon located near the
center of the brain. It is above the midbrain or mesencephalon, allowing for nerve fiber
connections to the cerebral cortex in all directions — each thalamus connects to the
other via the interthalamic adhesion.

Wernicke’s area

 Wernicke area is located in Brodmann area 22, the posterior segment of the superior
temporal gyrus in the dominant hemisphere. [1] Since 95% of people have a left
dominant hemisphere, the Wernicke area is usually found on the left side. This area
encompasses the auditory cortex on the lateral sulcus.

Wernicke Aphasia

 Wernicke Aphasia is characterized by

impaired language comprehension. Despite
this impaired comprehension, speech may have a
normal rate, rhythm, and grammar. The most
common cause of Wernicke's aphasia is an
ischemic stroke affecting the posterior temporal
lobe of the dominant hemisphere.

Broca’s Aphasia

 Broca aphasia is a non-fluent aphasia in

which the output of spontaneous speech is
markedly diminished and there is a loss of normal grammatical structure. Specifically,
small linking words, conjunctions, such as and, or, and but, and the use of prepositions
are lost.

Dysphagia

 Dysphagia is difficulty swallowing — taking more time and effort to move food or liquid
from your mouth to your stomach.

Dysarthria

 Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder where damage to your nervous system causes
the muscles that produce speech to become paralyzed or weakened. The damage may
make it difficult to control your tongue or voice box, causing you to slur words. Speech
therapy can help you communicate more effectively.

Aneurysm

 An aneurysm is an abnormal swelling or bulge in the wall of a blood vessel, such as an

artery. Aneurysms can occur anywhere throughout the circulatory system, but most
 commonly develop along the aorta (the body's main artery that runs the length of the
trunk) and in blood vessels of the brain.

Cerebrovascular Accidents

 In medicine, a loss of blood flow to part of the brain, which damages brain tissue.
Cerebrovascular accidents are caused by blood clots and broken blood vessels in the
brain. Symptoms include dizziness, numbness, weakness on one side of the body.

Dementia

 Dementia is not a specific disease but is rather a general term for the impaired ability to
remember, think, or make decisions that interferes with doing everyday activities.
Alzheimer's disease is the most common type of dementia.

Tumor

 An abnormal mass of tissue that forms when cells grow and divide more than they
should or do not die when they should. Tumors may be benign (not cancer) or malignant
(cancer). Benign tumors may grow large but do not spread into, or invade, nearby
tissues or other parts of the body.

Hemostasis

 Hemostasis is a process to prevent and stop bleeding, meaning to keep blood within a
damaged blood vessel.

Homeostasis

 Homeostasis is defined as a self-regulating process by which a living organism can

maintain internal stability while adjusting to changing external conditions.

Stability

 The tendency of an individual organism, a community, a population, or an ecosystem to

maintain a more or less constant structure over relatively long periods of time.

Thermoregulation

 Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within

certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different.

Amneocentisis

 Amniocentesis (also called amnio) is a prenatal test that takes amniotic fluid from
around your baby in the uterus (also called womb). The fluid is tested to see if your baby
has certain health conditions.

Chorionic villi sampling

  Chorionic villus sampling (CVS), or chorionic villus biopsy, is a prenatal test that
involves taking a sample of tissue from the placenta to test for chromosomal
abnormalities and certain other genetic problems.

Arcuate fasciculus

 The arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of axons that connects the temporal cortex and
inferior parietal cortex to locations in the frontal lobe. One of the key roles of the arcuate
fasciculus is connecting Broca's and Wernicke's areas, which are involved in producing
and understanding language.

Longitudinal Fissures

 The longitudinal fissure (or cerebral fissure,

great longitudinal fissure, median longitudinal
fissure, interhemispheric fissure) is the deep
groove that separates the two cerebral
hemispheres of the vertebrate brain. Lying
within it is a continuation of the dura mater
(one of the meninges) called the falx cerebri.

Sylvian Sulcus

 The Sylvian fissure is the most prominent

anatomic structure on the lateral surface of the
human brain.

Esophagus

 The esophagus is the muscular tube that carries food and liquids from your mouth to the
stomach.

Laser Beam

 The lasers used in biology have a wavelength located either in the infrared range or in
the ultra-violet range; they operate in continuous or pulse mode.

Pacemaker

 An artificial cardiac pacemaker is a medical device, nowadays always implanted, that

generates electrical pulses delivered by electrodes to the chambers of the heart, either
the upper atria or lower ventricles.

CT Scanner

 CT scans can be used to identify disease or injury within various regions of the body.

Anatomy and Physiology of:

1. Excretory System - The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes
excess, unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain
internal chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body.

2. Central and Peripheral System - The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain
and spinal cord. The brain controls most body functions, including awareness, movements,
 sensations, thoughts, speech and memory. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the
part of the nervous system outside of the CNS. It is made up of nerves and ganglia that
send signals to and receive signals from the CNS. The PNS is divided into the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system controls
body movements that are under our control such as walking. The autonomic nervous
system controls involuntary functions that the body does on its own such as breathing and
digestion.

Another Activities

1) Mechanism of contraction of a skeletal muscle.

 Muscle contraction occurs when the thin actin and thick myosin filaments slide past
each other. It is generally assumed that this process is driven by cross-bridges which
extend from the myosin filaments and cyclically interact with the actin filaments as ATP
is hydrolysed.

2) Anatomy and Physiology of Organ System:

 Integumentary system - The integumentary

system is the largest organ of the body that
forms a physical barrier between the external
environment and the internal environment
that it serves to protect and maintain. The
integumentary system includes the epidermis,
dermis, hypodermis, associated glands, hair, and
nails. In addition to its barrier function, this system
performs many intricate functions such as body
temperature regulation, cell fluid maintenance, synthesis of
Vitamin D, and detection of stimuli.

 Muscular System - The muscular system is

composed of specialized cells called muscle
fibers. Their predominant function is
contractibility. Muscles, attached to bones or
internal organs and blood vessels, are
responsible for movement. Nearly all
movement in the body is the result of muscle
contraction. The integrated action of joints,
bones, and skeletal muscles produces
obvious movements such as walking and
running. In addition to movement, muscle
contraction also fulfills some other
important functions in the body, such as
posture, joint stability, and heat production.
Posture, such as sitting and standing, is
maintained as a result of muscle
contraction.

 Skeletal System - Skeletal muscle is found

throughout the body and functions to
contract in response to a stimulus. Skeletal
muscle serves many purposes, including
producing movement, sustaining body
posture and position, maintaining body
 temperature, storing nutrients, and stabilizing joints. In contrast to smooth and cardiac
muscle contraction, most skeletal muscle contraction is under voluntary control,
receiving neural inputs allowing conscious control of muscles. Skeletal muscle is a
highly organized tissue composed of bundles of muscle fibers called myofibers which
contain several myofibrils. Each myofiber represents a muscle cell with its basic cellular
unit, the sarcomere. Bundles of myofibers form fascicles, and bundles of fascicles form
muscle tissue. Skeletal muscle fibers are striated, multinucleated cells ranging from 10
to 100 micrometers in diameter and many centimeters long.

 Circulatory System - The cardiovascular

system provides blood supply throughout the
body. By responding to various stimuli, it can
control the velocity and amount of blood
carried through the vessels. The
cardiovascular system consists of the heart,
arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart and
vessels work together intricately to provide
adequate blood flow to all parts of the body.
The regulation of the cardiovascular system
occurs via a myriad of stimuli, including
changing blood volume, hormones,
electrolytes, osmolarity, medications, adrenal
glands, kidneys, and much more. The
parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous
systems
also play a key role in the regulation of the
cardiovascular system.

 Respiratory System - The lungs are the

foundational organs of the respiratory
system, whose most basic function is to facilitate
gas exchange from the environment into the
bloodstream. Oxygen gets transported
through the alveoli into the capillary network,
where it can enter the arterial system, ultimately to
perfuse tissue. The respiratory system is
composed primarily of the nose,
oropharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and lungs. The lungs further
divide into individual lobes, which ultimately
subdivide into over 300 million alveoli. The alveoli
are the primary location for gas exchange. The
function of the pulmonary system is to extract
oxygen from the environment and provide it for aerobic respiration at the cellular level.
Oxygen is ultimately used to produce ATP, and carbon dioxide is breathed out with
other metabolic byproducts.

 Digestive System - The gastrointestinal (GI)

system comprises the GI tract and accessory
organs. The GI tract consists of the oral cavity,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine, and anal canal. The accessory
organs include the teeth, tongue, and glandular
organs such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas. The main functions of the GI
 system include ingestion and digestion of food, nutrient absorption, secretion of water
and enzymes, and excretion of waste products .

 Nervous System - The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and nerve cells
(neurons) that carry signals or messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to
different parts of the body. It is made up of the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain
and spinal cord. The brain controls most body functions, including awareness,
movements, sensations, thoughts, speech and memory. The peripheral nervous system
(PNS) is made up of nerves and ganglia that send signals to and receive signals from
the CNS.