Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Essentials of Organizational Behavior 13th Edition Robbins Solutions Manual
Essentials of Organizational Behavior 13th Edition Robbins Solutions Manual
Chapter 7
Motivation Concepts
Chapter Overview
Motivation is one of the major areas of interest in OB. Properly motivating a PPT 7.2
workforce can lead to gains in productivity, innovation, and employee retention.
This chapter will review the basics of motivation, assess the number of motivation theories,
and provide an integrative model that shows how the best of these theories fits together.
Chapter Objectives
I. INTRODUCTION
Motivation is a problem in the U.S. workforce. Poorly motivated workers express
themselves through detrimental behaviors such as time wasting, absenteeism, and high
turnover. It is important that motivational theories are understood and applied in the
workplace.
II. DEFINING MOTIVATION
Motivation: the processes that account for an individual’s PPT 7.4
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal, specifically for OB, toward attaining an organizational goal.
A. Three Key Elements in the Definition:
1. Intensity: how much effort a person puts forth to meet a goal.
2. Direction: efforts are channeled toward organizational goals.
3. Persistence: how long a person maintains effort toward a
goal. PPT 7.5
III. EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Four early theories of employee motivation formulated during the 1950s, although now
of questionable validity, are probably the best known. We discuss more valid
explanations later, but these four represent a foundation, and practicing managers still
use their terminology.
A. Hierarchy of Needs Theory. In this, perhaps best known (and least PPT 7.6
supported) of all motivational theories, Abraham Maslow proposed
that there are five levels of human needs. As each of the lower level Exhibit 7-1
needs are satisfied, the next unsatisfied need becomes dominant.
Satisfied needs no longer motivate; only unsatisfied needs motivate people. In
cultures that do not share American traits, the hierarchical order of needs may be
out of sequence.
1. Physiological: lower order need, includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other
bodily needs. Lower order needs are satisfied externally, through forces outside
of the person.
2. Safety: lower order need, includes security and protection from physical and
emotional harm.
3. Social: upper order need, includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and
friendship. Upper order needs are satisfied internally, that is, from within the
person.
4. Esteem: upper order need, includes internal (self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement) and external (status, recognition, and attention) esteem factors.
5. Self-actualization: upper order need, defined as the drive to “be all one can be,”
it includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment.
B. Theory X and Theory Y. Douglas McGregor’s theory proposed that there
were two basic views of human nature, one essentially negative (Theory X) PPT 7.7
and the other positive (Theory Y). Which view a manager believed was true
would give that manager a pre-set series of assumptions and related behaviors.
1. Theory X. In this negative view of human nature, workers inherently dislike
work and must be directed or even coerced into performing it.
2. Theory Y. In this positive view, employees view work as being as natural as rest
or play. Therefore, they can learn to accept and even seek responsibility.
3. Unfortunately, as with Maslow’s theory, there is no research evidence that either
view of human nature is valid or that taking actions based on Theory Y will
increase motivation in workers.
C. Two-Factor Theory. Frederick Herzberg proposed that an individual’s relation Exhibit 7-2
to work is basic and that one’s attitude toward work can very well determine
success or failure. In other words, things that people feel good about at work
are motivating and those things they don’t feel good about are de-motivating. PPT 7.8
This theory is also known as the motivation-hygiene theory.
1. In his research, Herzberg realized that the opposite of satisfaction is not
dissatisfaction; rather there are two different factor scales, one ranging from
satisfaction to no satisfaction and the other from dissatisfaction to no
dissatisfaction. When he related a number of workplace factors against these
two scales, he realized they were very different concepts. He called the first set
of factors motivation factors and the second hygiene factors.
a. Hygiene Factors. These workplace factors, when not met, lead to job
dissatisfaction. When they are met, they do NOT lead to job satisfaction, but
rather, to a lack of dissatisfaction. Therefore, meeting hygiene factors does
NOT increase motivation; it merely placates the workers. Hygiene factors
include quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working
conditions, relations with others, and job security.
c. Managers should make sure goals are aligned with company objectives.
8. Research has found that people differ in the way they regulate their thoughts
and behaviors during goal pursuit. Generally, people fall into one of two
categories, though they could belong to both.
a. Those with a promotion focus strive for advancement and accomplishment,
and they approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals.
b. Those with a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties and obligations and
avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals.
c. Ideally, it’s probably best to be both promotion and prevention oriented.
9. Implementing Goal-Setting. Setting specific, challenging goals for employees is
the best thing managers can do to improve performance. However, it appears
that few managers actually set goals for their employees. One of the ways an
organization can ensure this happens is through Management by Objectives
(MBO).
D. Management by Objectives (MBO). One of the more effective ways to formalize goal-
setting theory into an organization is through management by
objectives. MBO emphasizes participatively set goals that are PPT 7.14
tangible, verifiable, and measurable. MBO operationalizes the
concept of objectives by devising a process by which objectives cascade down
through the organization. The result of MBO is a hierarchy of objectives that build
toward organizational objectives. It also provides specific performance goals for
individuals.
1. Four ingredients common to MBO programs:
a. goal specificity,
b. participation in decision making,
c. an explicit time period, and
d. performance feedback. PPT 7.15
2. MBO and Goal Setting. The primary difference between MBO
programs and goal-setting theory relates to the issue of
Exhibit 7-3
participation. MBO strongly advocates it, while goal-setting
theory demonstrates that having managers assign goals is usually just as
effective.
V. OTHER CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
PPT 7.16
A. Self-Efficacy Theory (also known as "social cognitive theory" or
"social learning theory"). Typically, people with high self-efficacy respond better to
challenges and negative feedback than those with low self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy: an individual's belief that he or she is capable of PPT 7.17
performing a task.
1. Goal-Setting Theory and Self-Efficacy Theory Complement Each Other. When
managers set difficult goals for employees, this leads employees
to have a higher level of self-efficacy and they set higher goals Exhibit 7-4
on their own. This is because when managers set difficult goals
for people, it communicates their confidence in those people.
2. Four Ways to Increase Self-Efficacy: PPT 7.18
a. Enactive Mastery: gaining relevant experience with the task or job. Past
success in a task increases future confidence.
b. Vicarious Modeling: becoming more confident because another person is
observed doing the task.
5. Although equity theory’s propositions have not all held up, the PPT 7.21
hypothesis served as an important precursor to the study of
organizational justice, or more simply, fairness, in the Exhibit 7-6
workplace. Organizational justice is concerned with how
employees feel authorities and decision makers treat them. For the most part,
employees evaluate how fairly they are treated along four dimensions.
a. Distributive justice is concerned with the fairness of the outcome, such as
pay and recognition that employees receive. People base distributive
judgments on a feeling or an emotional reaction to the way they think they
are being treated relative to others, and their reactions are often “hot” and
emotional rather than rational.
b. Procedural justice focuses on the fairness of the process used to distribute
rewards. The two key elements of procedural justice are:
1) Employees perceive that procedures are fairer when they are given a say
in the decision-making process. Having direct influence over how
decisions are made, or at the very least being able to present your
opinion to decision makers, creates a sense of control and makes us feel
empowered.
2) Employees perceive that procedures are fairer when decision makers
follow several “rules.” It is important that managers be consistent,
unbiased, use accurate information, and are open to appeals for
procedural justice to work.
3) In the absence of distributive justice, research has shown that
procedural justice becomes more important to employees.
c. Informational justice reflects whether managers provide employees with
explanations for key decisions and keep them informed of important
organizational matters. The more detailed and candid managers are with
employees, the more fairly treated those employees feel.
1) Though it may seem obvious that managers should be honest with their
employees and not keep them in the dark about organizational matters,
many managers are hesitant to share information. This is especially the
case with bad news, which is uncomfortable for both the manager
delivering it and the employee receiving it.
2) Research has linked the absence of explanations to increased litigation
intentions by employees who have been laid off. Explanations for bad
news are beneficial when they take the form of post hoc excuses rather
than justifications.
d. Interpersonal justice reflects the individual's perception of the degree to
which he or she is treated with dignity, concern, and respect. This is a more
interpersonal view of justice, normally related directly between supervisor
and employee.
C. When employees feel fairly treated, they respond in a number of positive ways. All
four types of justice have been linked to higher levels of task performance and
citizenship behaviors such as helping co-workers, as well as lower levels of
counterproductive behaviors such as shirking job duties.
D. Distributive and procedural justice are more strongly associated with task
performance, while informational and interpersonal justice are more strongly
associated with citizenship behavior. Even more physiological outcomes, such as
how well employees sleep and the state of their health have been linked to fair
treatment.
E. Why does justice have these positive effects? First, fair treatment enhances
commitment to the organization and makes employees feel it cares about their well-
being. In addition, employees who feel fairly treated trust their supervisors more,
which reduces uncertainty and fear of being exploited by the organization. Finally,
fair treatment elicits positive emotions, which in turn prompt citizenship behaviors.
F. To promote fairness in the workplace, managers should consider openly sharing
information on how allocation decisions were made, and following consistent
unbiased procedures, to increase the perception of procedural justice.
G. Despite all attempts to enhance fairness, perceived injustices are likely to occur.
Fairness is often subjective; what one person sees as unfair, another may see as
perfectly appropriate.
1. In general, people see allocations or procedures favoring themselves as fair.
2. When addressing perceived injustices, managers need to focus their attentions
on the source of the problem.
H. In terms of cultural differences, meta-analytic evidence shows individuals in both
individualistic and collectivistic cultures prefer an equitable distribution of rewards
over an equal division. Across nations, the same basic principles of procedural
justice are respected, and workers around the world prefer rewards based on
performance and skills over rewards based on seniority.
1. However, in collectivistic cultures employees expect rewards to reflect their
individual needs as well as their performance.
2. Other research suggests that inputs and outcomes are valued differently in
various cultures. Materialistic cultures are more likely to see cash compensation
and rewards as the most relevant outcomes of work, whereas relational cultures
will see social rewards and status as important outcomes.
3. International managers must consider the cultural preferences of each group of
employees when determining what is “fair” in different contexts.
I. Expectancy Theory.
1. This widely accepted theory explains motivation as a coupling of three beliefs:
a. Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal,
b. Good appraisals will lead to organizational rewards, and PPT 7.22
c. Organizational rewards will satisfy the employee's personal goals.
d. The relationship between these three beliefs and the strength of the links
between them are the focus of this theory.
2. The Three Key Relationships:
a. Effort-Performance Relationship. PPT 7.23
1) The probability perceived by the individual that
exerting a given amount of effort leads to successful
Exhibit 7-7
performance.
2) If the employee believes that effort will not result in successful
performance or that the performance will not be accurately reflected in
the performance appraisal, little effort will be expended.
b. Performance-Reward Relationship.
1) The degree to which the individual believes that performing at a
particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. Unless
Answer: The motivational theories described in the text were created out of the U.S.
culture and significantly reflect its values. For instance, both goal setting and
expectancy theories emphasize goal accomplishment and rational individual
thought. Maslow's hierarchy may not appear in the same order in other cultures.
McClelland's need for achievement presupposes a cultural desire for a moderate
degree of risk acceptance and a concern with performance. Adams' equity theory is
very closely tied to American pay practices and may not be relevant in collectivistic
or former socialistic cultures in which there is more of a sense of entitlement or the
desire to be paid based on need rather than performance.
Exercises
1. Self-analysis. After reviewing all of the motivational theories of this chapter, select
the one you believe to be the most accurate in describing human behavior. Justify
your selection and describe how the motivational theory would explain the actions
you have taken in your own life.
2. Web Crawling. Using your favorite search engine, find webpages that relate to
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y. Read five of the most interesting pages. What
overall impressions do you get on the perceived validity of this theory on those
pages? Did everyone explain the theory in the same way? What may have caused
the differences if there were any?
3. Teamwork. In small groups, discuss the motivations that each of you had when you
made the decision to attend this college and this class in particular. Were they the
same motivations? What motivates you to expend more effort in this class? What
motivates you to continue to attend college and expend the effort necessary to
graduate?
As a group, decide which motivational theory best fits the results of your discussion.
Be ready to give a short description of the most common motivators found in your
group. Justify your application of the chosen motivational theory.
What motivational suggestions would your team make to your professor or the
college administrators to increase the likelihood of student performance, that is,
successful graduation or increased study?
4. Analyzing Your Organization (Cumulative Project). Discuss with your manager the
various motivational theories outlined in this chapter. Interview the manager to
determine his or her beliefs regarding the validity of each of these theories. How
might these beliefs affect organizational effectiveness? Be prepared to present your
findings either orally in class or as a paper.
5. An Application of Motivation—MBO. Instructor notes: The goal here is to help
students apply MBO. The emphasis should be on creating measurable realistic
objectives. You may wish to use this as part of your grading for the course by
holding the students accountable for their objectives at the end of the term.
Review the principles of MBO with the class. Carefully describe the nature of
effective outcomes. The criteria for effective objectives are that they should be
specific, challenging, and measurable. Generalized outcomes, with no means of
measuring their accomplishment, should not be accepted.
As writing effective objectives is quite often a difficult task for both students and
managers, it is strongly recommended that the first objective is written as a class
activity. Typically, the students’ first version of an objective is “Get an A in the
course.” Be gentle as you point out why this is not an effective objective.
Suggested Assignment