Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Review article

An overview of regenerative braking systems

Ahmed T. Hamada, Mehmet F. Orhan *
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, American University of Sharjah, PO Box: 26666, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The rapid growth of the automotive sector has been associated with numerous benefits; however, it has also
Regenerative braking systems brought about significant environmental deterioration of our planet. Consequently, attention on minimizing the
Energy storage systems impacts of this industry have led to the development of kinetic energy recovery systems known as regenerative
Energy recovery systems
braking systems (RBS). RBSs facilitate kinetic energy recuperation through vehicle braking processes, thus
Control strategy
Energy efficiency
avoiding the usual dissipation of energy (heat) due to friction-based brake pads. This literature review aims to
Energy management provide a concise and holistic discussion of RBS fundamentals: history, competing technologies, types, charac­
Electric vehicles teristics and limitations, applications, vehicle dynamics, and RBS evaluation factors.
Hybrid electric vehicles
Vehicle dynamics

electrical power generation [4], and energy management techniques

1. Introduction
The world is undergoing rapid population growth which corresponds
to increased demands for automobiles. In fact, the International Energy
Agency (IEA, 2009b) estimated a 1.6 % average annual increase in the
demand of global transport energy within the time period of 2007–2030
[1]. Despite the many advantages this industry has brought to the world,
it has served as a main contributor to environmental deterioration.
Given current global concern especially regarding severe climate
change, numerous countries have imposed laws and regulations that
govern the operations of such industries. Furthermore, nations world­
wide are directing their attention towards exploring new energy sources
and developing new energy-saving technologies that can be incorpo­
rated by the automotive industry. Some of these efforts are concentrated
on advancements related to efficient combustion processes and
enhanced control methodologies for alternative cost efficient fuels [2],
vehicle drive-line management and optimization [3], hybridization of
internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) vehicles by resorting to
and control strategies in electrified vehicles [5–7]. The goal of these
advancements is to reduce harmful emissions and restrict rapid de­
pletions of non-renewable energy sources to yield a greener environ­
ment. Nevertheless, despite the countless studies conducted over the
years, complete control over energy management and recovery remains
unattainable. The reason this goal has not yet been attainable is mainly
due to the inability to retain an automobile's complete kinetic energy;
much of this energy manifests as heat and dissipates. This heat dissi­
pation takes place mostly in vehicles employing conventional braking
systems. In fact, such vehicles can result in traction energy losses that
reach peak values of around 50 % [8].
The introduction and development of efficient regenerative braking
systems (RBSs) highlight the automobile industry's attempt to develop a
vehicle that recuperates the energy that dissipates during braking
[9,10]. The purpose of this technology is to recover a portion of the
kinetic energy wasted during the car's braking process [11] and reuse it
for charging an onboard energy storage system (ESS) or for extra
vehicular propulsion during drive cycles as represented in Fig. 1 [12].

Abbreviations: ABS, antilock braking systems; BESS, battery energy storage system; BEV, battery electric vehicle; CDBS, constant deceleration braking strategy;
CVT, continuous variable transmission; ECE, Economic Commission for Europe; EMF, electromotive force; ERB, electric regenerative braking; ERS, energy recovery
system; ESS, energy storage system; ETC, electric turbo compound; EV, electric vehicle; FESS, flywheel energy storage system; FLC, fuzzy logic controllers; HESS,
hybrid energy storage system; HEV, hybrid electric vehicle; ICEV, internal combustion engine vehicle; IEA, International Energy Agency; KERS, kinetic energy re­
covery system; MGU, motor/generator unit; MRC, model reference controllers; NEDC, new European driving cycle; NNC, neural network controllers; PIDC, pro­
portional-integral-differential-controllers; RBS, regenerative braking system; RB, rule-based; RSA, regenerative shock absorbers; SMESS, superconducting magnetic
energy storage system; SMC, sliding mode controllers; SOC, state of charge; TC, threshold controllers; TEG, thermoelectric generator; TER, thermal energy recovery;
WLTC, worldwide harmonized light vehicles test cycles.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: b00073588@alumni.aus.edu (A.T. Hamada), morhan@aus.edu (M.F. Orhan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105033
Received 21 April 2022; Received in revised form 31 May 2022; Accepted 1 June 2022
Available online 11 June 2022
2352-152X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

Nomenclature Subscripts
air aerodynamic
A area, m2 acc acceleration
a acceleration, m/s2 bat_in battery input
Cd drag coefficient bat_out battery output
Edrive total driving energy, J C cornering/curving
Ef rolling resistance energy consumption, J ch charging
Ei gradient resistance energy consumption, J dis discharging
Eo brake energy consumption, J fd drive unit
Ew aerodynamic drag energy consumption, J g gearbox
F force, N gen generator
Fy, f front axle lateral force, N incl inclination
Fy, r rear axle lateral force, N LS longitudinal slip
f rolling resistance coefficient m motor
g gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2 mot_in motor input
Ibat current of battery, A mot_out motor output
m mass, kg r rolling
P power, W regen regenerated
Pdrive total driving power, W T traction
si slip ratio
Ubat voltage of battery, V Greek symbols
u real-time velocity, m/s θ inclination angle
vr relative velocity, m/s μ friction coefficient
vx horizontal velocity, m/s δ, σr regenerative braking efficiency
ρ density, kg/m3

Economic benefits such as efficient fuel consumption and savings and
improved gas mileage accompany this technology. Furthermore,
numerous environmental benefits are also associated with RBS inte­
gration: these include extensive reductions of carbon and other fuel-
based emissions as well as a reduced reliance on non-renewable en­
ergy resources which contribute to air pollution and severe climate
changes.
There are various RBSs and they are usually characterized by the
type of ESS they employ and the control strategy that governs their mode
of operation. For instance, RBSs can include different forms of batteries
(e.g., conventional lead-acid or Li-ion batteries) as their main ESS with a
motor/generator unit (MGU) linked to them for electro-mechanical
conversions. These systems fall under the electric regenerative braking
(ERB) classification. Supercapacitors/ultracapacitors have also paved
their way into ERBs as a result of their high power density, extended life
cycle, and satisfactory charging and discharging performances [13]. In
many studies, supercapacitors have been incorporated as a secondary
ESS alongside the integrated battery as they reduce battery intervention
during regenerative braking [14]. Apart from ERBs, there are various
other RBSs that use mechanical ESSs such as springs, flywheels, or hy­
draulic systems. In many cases, a combination of two or more energy
storage systems is operated in tandem to enhance energy storage
capacities and recuperation efficiencies; these are known as hybrid en­
ergy storage systems (HESSs). There are many energy recovery systems
(ERSs) because none of these systems is deemed perfect in terms of
energy recuperation and efficiency: all possess flaws that require further
research and development to overcome.
Also noteworthy is the fact that an RBS's functionality is dependent
upon the operations of a series of interconnected components. Conse­
quently, the improvement of an RBS requires the enhancement of the
other components that comprise its system. The fabrication of RBSs from
scratch requires extensive knowledge in diverse engineering and scien­
tific backgrounds such as control engineering, mechanical engineering,
engineering economics, and electrical engineering – thus making its
implementation a rather difficult and demanding task. For this reason,
existing studies on RBSs are fragmented and mostly deal with the
development of a particular aspect/technology that can have an overall
impact on the operation of an RBS. Similarly, holistic reviews on RBSs
are uncommon as they require interdisciplinary knowledge. Most re­
views of RBSs assess the system from a single technological aspect (e.g.,
energy management systems or energy storage systems) but rarely
include them all. For instance, the earliest review on RBS was conducted
by Clegg [15] in 1996. This work was mainly focused on providing a
summarized description of the different forms of RBSs only in terms of

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram representing energy flow of a hybrid electric vehicle employing an RBS [12].

2
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
their employed energy storage systems. Fuhs [16] has also worked on a
relatively more recent RBS review where the work was mainly focused
on providing readers with a proper comprehension of vehicle dynamics
that need to be accounted for when developing a RBS. A review on RBS
by Sathishkumar et al. [17] was just recently published. This work,
however, only briefly highlighted the principle of RBSs and then pro­
ceeded to discuss a proposed novel approach of an energy management
system based on a control strategy that is later discussed in this review.
It becomes evident that there is a lack of comprehensive studies
being conducted on RBSs that can enable readers to develop a wide base
of fundamentals concerned with the technology's various aspects.
Consequently, this review aims to provide an overarching study on RBSs
while highlighting the most recent developments undergone by this
technology in order to facilitate the reader's proper comprehension of
the technology and hoping to provide them with what is required to
further address the challenges of this technology if needed. This is
achieved by beginning with an overview of the history of RBSs, their
competing technologies, and a description of various RBSs in terms of
their employed energy storage and management systems along with
comparisons highlighting the major differences of each. A detailed
description of the various characteristics and features associated with
the integration of RBSs into vehicular applications will follow. Addi­
tionally, this paper shall shed light on the various vehicular applications
that make use of RBSs. A further section will highlight the vehicle dy­
namics and concepts important for modelling the control system that
governs the operation of the RBS. To conclude this review paper, com­
mon evaluation factors used for assessing RBSs shall be presented and
discussed.
2. An overview of fundamentals
Even though the goal of an RBS is to recuperate as much kinetic
energy as possible during braking processes, it is also crucial for the
• Vehicle Mass
• Type of Control System
• Basic Movement Resistance
• Power of Traction Drive
• Auxillaries Power
Vehicle • Redistribution of Power Between Electric and Mechanical
Braking Systems
• Slope of the Road
• Quanitity of Stations, Traffic Lights, Pedestrians Crossings
• Quality of a Road
Route • Vehicle Density
Characteristics
• Stop Duration for Boarding and Landing
• Weather Conditions
Traffic • Density of Traffic Flow
Conditions
Fig. 2. Classification of factors impacting brake energy consumption and generation.
3
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
system to decelerate the vehicle safely and comfortably. Brake safety
and stability are major criteria in evaluating RBSs [18–20]. In fact,
governmental regulations have been set specifically for the safe imple­
mentation of braking processes, such as the rules imposed by the In­
ternational Braking Regulation of the Economic Commission for Europe
of the United Nations Organization No.13 Harmonized (UN/ECE R13H)
for Road Vehicles of category M1 (vehicles used for transportation of
passengers that comprise no more than eight seats in addition to the
driver's seat). Nevertheless, attaining efficient regenerative braking
while simultaneously ensuring adequate vehicle stability and control is a
rather difficult task [21]. This is because RBS operations are influenced
by multiple factors related to the vehicle, route characteristics and
traffic conditions as shown in Fig. 2.
2.1. History
The idea of recovering kinetic energy and converting it into potential
energy was first introduced during the 1800's. The 18th century featured
spring-type ERSs which were commonly integrated within horse-drawn
cabs [22,23]. Even then, the operation of early ERSs was based on an
interconnection of mechanical components. The first RBS was intro­
duced by the American inventor Frank J. Sprague's Electric Railway and
Motor Company in 1886. It was considered an ERB whereby the inte­
grated motors would turn themselves into electrical generators during
braking; as the wheels of the locomotive turned, current within the
generators was created and diverted through onboard resistors or sent
back to the supply line.
Sprague's introduction of RBSs ignited an extensive series of both
theoretical and experimental studies ever since 1917 (based on scho­
lastic databases) up to our current day. Early studies were mainly con­
cerned with the integration and enhancement of RBSs within the
locomotive industry [24–28]. The extensive efforts put into the devel­
opment of RBSs for this industry resulted in its widespread adoption. An
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
example of this was the early integration of RBSs into the railway sys­
tems of Baku-Tbilisi-Batumi in the early 1930s [22].
RBSs were later developed to include different energy storage com­
ponents within their structure. A 1953 development by the Swiss com­
pany, Oerlikon, integrated flywheels into gyro buses [29]. RBSs soon
started paving their way into the automotive industry and made their
very first appearance in an electric concept car known as Amitron,
manufactured by American Motors Company in 1967. This was the very
first car to use regenerative braking to recuperate energy and recharge
its battery upon deceleration. This same year, Electric Fuel Propulsion
Inc. launched an electric-based car known as MARS II and also relied on
RBSs for its power regeneration [30]. MARS II was considered the
electrical modified version of the Renault 10. This series of RBS de­
velopments along with the increased international environmental
awareness directed the attention of various automotive industries to the
implementation of this technology, hence leading to its commerciali­
zation on a global scale. Indeed, one of the major contributors to the
commercialization of RBSs into the automotive industry was Toyota's
Prius car [22]. All in all, because of their increased popularity and
numerous developments, RBSs have now become a crucial element of
almost all types of electric vehicles (EVs) as well as numerous ICEVs.
2.2. Competing technologies
Environmental concerns have triggered a sense of urgency for the
automobile industry to continuously explore and develop new meth­
odologies and technologies to incorporate within their production lines.
Therefore, given the technological advancements of this era, one would
expect a plethora of ERSs in addition to RBSs. This is indeed the case:
some ERSs serve a similar goal to that of RBSs. Fig. 3 provides a concise
look at the different types of energy recovered, their stored form, and the
types of technology that facilitate such process.
2.2.1. Exhaust-based energy recovery systems
From previous discussions on RBSs, we understand that RBSs are
dependent upon a vehicle's inertia and are therefore considered a form
of kinetic energy recovery system (KERS). One of the main contenders to
Thermal
(TERS)
Exhaust Gases
Kinetic
Vertical Oscillations
Kinetic
of the Body
ERS
Vehicle Inertia
Kinetic
(KERS)
Fig. 3. Classification of ERSs for automotive applications.
4
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
RBSs is the exhaust-based ERS. This type of ERS relies on either the
temperature or velocity of the exhaust gas emissions. During vehicular
operations, about two-thirds of the fuel energy is dissipated as heat due
to the internal combustion process within an engine [31]. The thermal
energy recovery (TER) process is used by exhaust-based ERSs and is
achieved by either of two technologies: thermoelectric generators
(TEGs) or Rankine cycle regeneration [32]. The TEGs are used to pro­
duce electrical energy using the wasted thermal heat from exhaust gases
[33,34]. This type of ERS has a few benefits, including a fuel-efficiency
enhancement of 11 % [35], fast engine warmup, and possible exhaust
downsizing. Nevertheless, in order for the system to operate efficiently,
a complex exhaust/coolant configuration, an oversized radiator, and
greater space are required – thus making the TEG rather unwieldy [32].
Furthermore, TEGs suffer from very low efficiencies that range from 4 to
5 % [34].
Rankine cycle TERs, on the other hand, convert thermal energy to
mechanical energy by boiling off the operating fluid, causing steam
generation which then drives a turbine. The turbine is then used for
electrical power generation and supplies power to the drivetrain of the
vehicle. Various studies concerning the Rankine cycle TERs have been
conducted with different configurations and operating fluids for
implementation [36–38]. This technology brings about 10–15 %
average gains in fuel consumption [39]. However, like TEGs, Rankine
cycle TERSs suffer from added complexities when it comes to installa­
tion. They require significant additional space due to the added in­
terchangers, condensers, evaporator, turbines, and piping that are all
connected with existing parts in the vehicle [28].
Exhaust-based ERSs are not limited to only TERSs; they can also use
the kinetic energy of exhaust gas emissions. A portion of the kinetic
energy is recovered by a turbine generator which then converts it into
electrical energy [40]. This technology is also commonly referred to as
electric turbo compound (ETC). When applied to spark ignition engines,
ETCs can bring about 3.8–5 % reductions in CO2 emissions [41]. In
addition, they have exhibited fuel efficiency improvements that reach
around 5 % [42]. Table 1 provides a summary of the merits and draw­
backs associated with each of the aforementioned waste heat recovery
methods.
Chemical Thermoelectric
Internal
Rankine Cycle
(Steam)
Electric Turbo
Chemical
Compound (ETC)
Regenerative Shock
Chemical
Absorber
Elastomer/Spring
Non Chemical Pneumatic/Hydraulic
Flywheel
Strong/Mild
Chemical
Alternator-Control
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

Table 1 incorporate, a multitude of experimental and theoretical research

Concise summary of the various benefits associated with the different types of studies have been conducted with the aim of attaining enhanced energy
exhaust-based energy recovery systems, where TEG–thermoelectric generators, recovery efficiencies, optimal vehicle control and stability, and
ORC–Organic Rankine Cycle and ETC–electric turbo compound. enhanced vehicular operation (e.g., extended driving ranges and effi­
Method Merit Drawbacks cient fuel consumption). Section 2.3 shall provide an exhaustive
TEG • Mechanical parts are immobile • High operating costs comparative study that highlights the various classifications associated
• Highly reliable • Temperature control is with RBSs.
• Operates quietly complex Section 2.2 is further summarized into Table 2 [32] and Table 3,
• Light weight • Energy conversion whereby Table 2 outlines a comparative study between the competing
Compacted overall size efficiencies are low
technologies and Table 3 sheds light on the various advantages and
•
ETC • Operates best with diesel engines • Significant backpressures
• Acquires low mass flow capacity induced disadvantages accompanying those recovery systems.
• Bolt-on unit added to powertrain • Electric generator limitations
• Pumping power is required
ORC • Operates well under low and • Suffers from low efficiencies 2.3. Types
medium temperature • Consumes large spaces
• Adequate fuel consumption • Inaccurate responses to The EU has set firm and clear targets regarding vehicular CO2
reduction transient inputs emissions and has demanded that all manufactured cars and vans as of
• Cost ineffective
2020–2024 emit only 95 g CO2/km and 147 g CO2/km, respectively. In
addition, the EU envisions 15 % CO2 reductions starting from 2025 and
2.2.2. Vertical oscillations energy recovery systems attaining 37.5 % reductions by 2030 relative to 2021 CO2 performance
In addition to the aforementioned ERSs and technologies, vertical indicators [47].
oscillation-based ERSs are another common contender to RBSs. These To abide by such regulations, the automotive industry needs to
systems operate by recuperating part of the kinetic energy associated diversify and develop its technology portfolio. Indeed, the introduction
with the vertical oscillations of the vehicle due to road irregularities of RBSs serves as one of the numerous efforts spent in attaining these
with the help of regenerative shock absorbers (RSA) [43]. This ERSs environmental goals. RBSs have undergone significant studies and
results in vehicle efficiency enhancements that range from 2 to 10 % development which have yielded its various forms and configurations.
[44,45]. Most studies on this type of ERS are concerned with the In other words, RBSs have attained a significant degree of diversification
introduction of novel forms and configurations of RSAs. However, this in terms of the employed ESS and the integrated energy management
technology is specific to road conditions. In other words, driving on system/control for the sake of enhancing the energy efficiency of their
rough surfaces would rather be advantageous for such an ERS because of systems and restricting emissions.
the vehicle's frequent oscillations. Moreover, vehicle weight/type plays Therefore, it is imperative to have a clear understanding of the
a major factor in determining the efficiency of the system. Nevertheless, various types of ESSs associated with this technology as well as the in­
oscillation-based ERSs are relatively easier to integrate within a vehicle tegrated control strategies that govern the RBS's operation. Subse­
compared to their exhaust-based ERS counterpart. However, the oper­ quently, this section of the paper shall first focus on the types of ESSs
ation of these systems requires retrofitting multiple RSAs as well as that are associated with RBS fabrications while providing comparative
frequent maintenances/replacements; this, therefore, raises concerns studies on them. The ESS-based classification will then be followed by
regarding their economic viability. another control/energy management-based classification which shall
highlight different types of control strategies that are designed to govern
2.2.3. Kinetic energy recovery systems/regenerative braking systems safe and efficient RBS operation.
A vehicle's kinetic energy is the most common source of energy.
Nevertheless, friction-brakes cause significant portions of this energy to 2.3.1. ESS-based classifications
be lost to the surroundings in an inevitable mechanical-heat energy One of the main components of an RBS is the ESS through which all
conversion as represented in Fig. 4 [46]. The KERSs operate by recu­ recuperated energy is returned. One of the main limitations of the RBS is
perating part of the vehicle's kinetic energy mainly during braking op­ the inability to store all the recuperated energy due to property-related
erations, which explains why they are referred to as RBSs. Without the limitations of the ESS (e.g., maximum charging/discharging power of a
integration of KERS/RBS, most of a vehicle's kinetic energy would be battery). Such limitations along with the pressures imposed by laws and
dissipated as heat during braking of conventional friction-based brakes. regulations have led the automotive industry to focus attention on
Due to the various components and configurations that this system can experimenting with numerous ESSs such as battery energy storage sys­
tems (BESSs), superconducting magnetic energy storage systems

Fig. 4. Traction Energy consumption of electric road vehicles based on EPA test procedures for city, highway and combined driving conditions [46].

5
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

Table 2
Comparison of ERSs. Efficiency gain: (1) under 10 %, (2) 10–25 %, (3) over 25 %. Weight and space: (1) no significant space or weight added, (2) moderate extra space
required or weight added (typically 40 kg), (3) considerable space required or weight added (440 kg). Energy recovery: (1) only under deceleration, (2) depending on
road surface, (3) continuously (adapted from [32]).
Technique Type of energy Parameters

Source Storage Release Efficiency gain Space and weight Energy recovery Hybrid capability

Thermo electric TERS Thermal Chemical Electric 2 2 3 No

Rankine cycle TERS Thermal Mechanical (steam) Electric-mechanical 2 2 2 Yes
Electric turbo compound (ETC) Kinetic Chemical Electric 1 2 3 No
KERS from vertical oscillations Kinetic Chemical Electric 1 1 2 No
Elastomer or spring KERS Kinetic Mechanical (elastic) Mechanical 2 3 1 Yes
Pneumatic/hydraulic KERS Kinetic Mechanical (pressure) Mechanical-electric 3 3 1 Yes
Flywheel KERS Kinetic Mechanical (rotation) Mechanical 3 3 1 Yes
Strong electric KERS Kinetic Chemical Mechanical-electric 3 3 1 Yes

gravimetric and volumetric power densities; gravimetric and volumetric

Table 3
energy densities; ratio of discharged energy to charged energy “energy
Main advantages and disadvantages for ERSs.
efficiency;” cycle lifetime; and of course, their overall costs. Fig. 5 pre­
Technique Advantages Disadvantages sents a comparative overview of the different types of BESSs in terms of
Thermoelectric • Energy regeneration is • Engine performance is specific power and energy [48]. Lead-acid batteries are most common
TERS continuous restricted for vehicular applications because they are considered the cheapest
• Exhaust system can be • Cannot be hybridized
BESS. However, these batteries suffer from low energy densities and
compacted
• Engine warmup takes increased weights. In addition, their low life cycle and dynamic charge
less time acceptance [49] make them poor BESS candidates for RBSs.
Electric turbo • Energy regeneration is • Efficiency gains not The nickel-cadmium battery, on the other hand, is a slightly better
compound (ETC) continuous significant but more costly alternative to lead-acid batteries in terms of energy
• Takes up less space • Cannot be hybridized
densities and is significantly superior in terms of power densities as
• Relatively lighter • Requires cooling
Rankine cycle TERS • Energy regeneration is • Complex to design suggested by Fig. 5. However, such batteries raise several ecological
continuous • Energy is not stored concerns as a result of the environmental toxicity associated with the
• Possibility for permanently cadmium element [50]. Given the strict international regulations for
hybridization
environmental protection as well as the high costs and relatively low
Vertical oscillations • Does not consume • Efficiency improvements
KERS much space are low
energy densities, implementing such ESSs in future automotive appli­
• Added weight is not • Optimum for off-road cations is improbable. To overcome the concerns imposed by nickel-
significant conditions cadmium batteries, nickel-metal hydride batteries were developed as a
• No hybrid capability safer alternative. Nickel-metal hydride possesses almost double the en­
• Shock absorbers can wear
ergy density of its nickel-cadmium counterpart [48]; however, it suffers
Pneumatic/ • Significant efficiency • Can be noisy
hydraulic KERS enhancements • Heavy limitations such as high acquisition costs, increased self-discharge, and
• Can be hybridized • Consumes space significant heat generation resulting in heightened temperatures and
• Relatively cheaper ERS • Energy recovery for short noticeable hydrogen losses.
periods
Sodium-nickel chloride batteries are another type of BESS that are
Elastomer/spring • No energy conversion • Complex
KERS losses (purely • Heavy
made using liquid sodium along with a ceramic electrolyte as a sepa­
mechanical) • Requires continuous rator. These ESSs require high operating temperatures of around 300 ◦ C,
• Can be hybridized variable transmissions which serves as their main disadvantage as they require special isola­
• Energy recovery takes place tion. If the temperature is brought down to ambient temperature, ther­
for short periods of time
momechanical stresses are induced on the ceramic electrolyte. The
Flywheel KERS • Significant efficiency • Costly to retrofit/modify
enhancements • Energy cannot be stored performance of these ESSs is limited due to their power capabilities and
• Can be hybridized permanently their self-discharge of 10–15 % to maintain their high operating tem­
• Well established for • Energy can be recovered for perature [48]. As a result, this type of ESS is typically used in vehicular
motorsport applications only short periods of time applications that require high daily mileages to maintain operational
Strong electric • Highly efficient mature • Heavy and costly
KERS technology • Numerous energy
temperatures. Nevertheless, compared to the available BESS counter­
• Can be hybridized transformation processes parts, sodium-nickel chloride is not widely integrated into vehicular
that induce losses applications and is mostly associated with stationary applications. Even
• Energy recovery during so, there are several studies exploring the ability of hybridizing it with
short periods of time
other BESSs [51,52] to commercialize and induce a widespread imple­
mentation of this ESS within the automotive sector.
(SMESSs), flywheel energy storage systems (FESSs), hydraulic/pneu­ Lithium-ion batteries, on the other hand, constitute a family of
matic energy storage systems, and spring-based energy storage systems rechargeable batteries that are fabricated in multiple configurations
to test the feasibility of integrating these systems as a main ESS within based on different material combinations. They outrank all previously
vehicular applications. mentioned BESSs in terms of both energy and power densities, low self-
discharge rates, less memory effect (they lose charge capacities at a
2.3.1.1. Battery energy storage systems. Almost all vehicles, whether IC slower rate when repeatedly charged after being only partially dis­
or electric-based or even both (hybrid), rely on batteries for energy charged), and operational life cycles [53]. Their enhanced performances
storage. This type of ESS comes in various forms including Lead–Acid, have led them to become an increasingly common alternative to the
Ni–Cd, Ni–Zn, Ni– MH, Na–S, NaNiCl2 and Li-ion [48]. There are conventional lead-acid batteries. Significant numbers of EVs such as the
several major characteristics on which these ESSs are tested: their Renault Twizy, Hyundai Ioniq, Nissan Leaf, Volkswagen E-Golf, and the
Tesla Model S [54] are 100 % powered by lithium-ion batteries

6
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
Fig. 5. Ragone plot of various battery technologies with specification at cell level for automotive applications.
SuperCap: supercapacitor; Pb: lead; Li-ion: lithium-ion; NiCd: nickel–cadmium; NiMH: nickel–metal hydride; NaNiCl2: sodium–nickel chloride [48].
Nevertheless, there are a few concerns associated with the integration of
such batteries into vehicular applications. Lithium-ion batteries are
expensive; however, with the ever-growing production of electric-based
vehicles, the widespread usage and commercialization of these batteries
are proportionally growing which, in turn, should result in a drop in
prices. Furthermore, lithium-ion batteries can suffer from overcharging
condition as they cannot limit the incurring charging current when
beyond capacity, thus damaging the battery. Similarly, if the charging
voltage is too low or the battery is extremely discharged, the battery
performance is negatively influenced and a reduction of electrolytes
takes place, thus producing combustible gases [55]. Temperature is
another factor that impedes the performance of lithium-ion batteries.
When temperatures rise above optimal operational temperatures, the
aging process accelerates and the battery starts to disintegrate [56]. At
significantly elevated temperatures, the electrolytes decompose and
produce combustible gases [57]. Temperatures below 0 ◦ C degrade the
performance of lithium-ion batteries [58]; therefore, a thermal man­
agement system is required for continuous regulation of these batteries.
To enhance the energy density of BESSs, atmospheric oxygen is uti­
lized as an essential component within a battery where it serves as the
cathode's active material, thus allowing the anode to be a pure metal
that can undergo oxidization processes. Due to the ready availability of
oxygen within the atmosphere, the only component that must be stored
within the battery is the anode/pure metal, thereby reducing overall
weight of the ESS and, in turn, increasing the energy density. Between
the anode and the porous membrane is an electrolyte aiding the
migration of the anode ions to the membrane and serving as the medium
of contact with the atmosphere [48]. Despite the BESS's significant en­
ergy density enhancements, there are concerns regarding its safety and
limitations in terms of number of operational life cycles. Because the
atmosphere is not solely oxygen, other atmospheric constituents such as
nitrogen, CO2 and water vapor cause unwanted reactions with the bat­
tery's active materials, thus leading to poor reactional reversibility and
affecting charge performance [59].
Supercapacitors/ultracapacitors are ESSs that feature significantly
quick charge/discharge at high currents rates within short periods of
time – 10 to 100 higher gravimetric power densities than other con­
ventional BESSs [60]. For instance, supercapacitors can undergo
discharge processes for as long as 1–10 s compared to lithium-ions that
could take around 10–60 min [14]. Other major features of super­
capacitors are their durability and ability to withstand long life cycles.
They have reached life cycles that range between 500,000–1,000,000
cycles because their storage mechanisms are independent of reversible
chemical reactions [61,62]. As a result of their enhanced cyclic stabil­
ities, supercapacitors are considered a current pulse system that can
7
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
receive/deliver high current and specific power within 1 min intervals,
thus fulfilling the high power requirements associated with recovering
braking energy [63]. There are supercapacitors – such as those manu­
factured by Jurong – with capacitances that reach around 140,000F and
rated voltages of 1.6 V [4]. Moreover, supercapacitors feature wider
operational temperature ranges of − 40–100 ◦ C [62] compared to the
range of − 20–60 ◦ C of conventional BESSs [64]. Nevertheless, like any
other ESS, supercapacitors suffer several drawbacks. One main draw­
back is their low energy densities compared to other BESSs [13,48,65].
Their energy densities are approximately 10 % of conventional BESSs
[60]. As a result, supercapacitors are usually hybridized with other
BESSs to construct a system with both high energy and power densities.
Summarizing the above descriptions of BESSs employing RBSs,
Table 4 compares the energy densities, power densities, life-cycles, en­
ergy efficiencies, and production costs associated with each ESS while
highlighting the various configurations for each family of batteries
[48,65–68].
2.3.1.2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage systems. SMESSs are
devices that can store energy within magnetic fields at temperatures
below a certain critical temperature without any conversion losses and
instantly release it whenever needed, thus making them suitable can­
didates for shorter duration energy storage applications [4,69]. The
characteristics that distinguish SMESSs from many of their ESS coun­
terparts are their high-power density (1000–4000 W/L), high storage
efficiency (<95 %), rapid response (>10 ms), long-life expectancy (30+
years), minimum-delay discharging time (<5 min), and super­
conducting fault current limiters (self-triggering current limiting char­
acteristics) [69–72]. Such characteristics make the SMESS a promising
candidate for recycling regenerative energy in transportation power
systems [4,73]. The main structure of a SMESS includes a super­
conducting coil, an AC-DC converter, and a DC-DC converter. The AC-
DC converter helps rectify the alternate current into direct current for
storage. Due to the lack of conversion losses and storage within magnetic
fields of the coil, the charged current does not decay. When energy
release to the capacitor is required, the current is discharged through the
DC-DC converter making its way to the AC-DC converter for rectification
to alternating current.
The superconducting coil is the heart of SMESS. It is essentially a
pure inductor that can allow DC current to flow through it without any
ohmic resistances, thus explaining why it can sustain high energy/power
densities for significantly long periods of time. Its superconductivity
property is attained through the employment of high-temperature su­
perconductor tapes. These tapes are classified into two kinds, namely:
1st generation and 2nd generation tapes. 1st generation tapes like
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

Table 4
Comparative energy specifications associated with various BESSs [48,65–68].
Energy storage type Specific energy (Wh/ Energy density (Wh/ Specific power (W/ Life Energy efficiency Production cost
kg) L) kg) cycle (%) ($/kWh)

Lead acid battery

Lead acid 35 100 180 1000 >80 60
Advance lead acid 45 – 250 1500 – 200
Valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) 50 – 150+ 700+ – 150
Metal foil lead acid 30 0 900 500+ – –

Lithium battery
Lithium-ion sulphide (FeS) 150 – 300 1000+ 80 110
Lithium-iron phosphate (LiFePO4) 120 220 2000–4500 >2000 – 350
Lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) 130–225 200–250 260–250 >1200 – 150
Lithium-ion 118–250 200–400 200–430 2000 >95 150
Lithium-titanate (LiTiO/NiMnO2) 80–100 – 4000 18,000 – 2000

Metal-air battery
Aluminum-air 220 – 60 – – –
Zinc-air 460 1400 80–140 200 60 90–120
Zinc-refuelable 460 – – – – –
Lithium-air 1800 – – – – –

Nickel battery
Nickel-iron 50–60 60 100–150 2000 75 150–200
Nickel-zinc 75 140 170–260 300 76 100–200
Nickel-cadmium (Ni–Cd) 50–80 300 200 2000 75 250–300
Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) 70–95 180–220 200–300 <3000 70 200–250

ZEBRA battery
Sodium-sulfur 150–240 – 150–230 800+ 80 250–450
Sodium-nickel chloride 90–120 160 155 1200+ 80 230–345

Ultracapacitor
Electric double-layer capacitor 5–7 – 1–2 M 40 years >95 –
(EDLC)
Pseudo-capacitors 10–15 – 1–2 M 40 years >95 –
Hybrid capacitors 10–15 – 1–2 M 40 years >95 –

bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide have higher critical currents,
however, they are difficult to use because they rapidly degrade upon
being exposed to high magnetic fields, thus making it unsuitable for high
power applications. 2nd generation tapes like yttrium barium copper
oxide, on the other hand, exhibit high critical current characteristics
even when exposed to high magnetic fields. Apart from the type of
employed super conductor, the arrangement of the coil also plays a
major role in determining its performance. The most common arrange­
ments are solenoid and toroid. Depending on the application in which
the superconducting magnet is being employed, the arrangement is
selected. For instance, when SMESS are chosen for micro and medium
scales, solenoid coils are selected owing to the fact that they can with­
stand only low mechanical stresses and high stray magnetic fields [74].
Toroid arrangements, on the other hand, are selected for large scale
SMESS because of their low stray magnetic fields and their ability of
withstanding relatively higher mechanical stresses as compared to so­
lenoid arrangements. In addition shorter lengths of the coil are required,
this consuming less space and reducing acquisition costs [74].
Several research studies concerning the integration of SMESS into
vehicular applications can be noticed in literature. For instance, Mor­
andi et al. [75] have investigated the feasibility of employing a SMESS
for RBS within hybrid and electric vehicles. They have designed a 220 kJ
SMESS made of bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide with a 42
identical coil toroidal arrangement, critical current of 500A and a
maximum tensile stress of 99.8 MPa. The SMESS is cooled with an on­
board liquid-hydrogen tank such as that used in BMW (160 1). Their
results have exhibited the SMESS's ability of charging itself upon the
vehicle's braking operation with the aid of the regenerated energy, and
have also exhibited its discharge capabilities and its ability of providing
the vehicle with the required energy to accelerate to around 30 km/h. Li
et al. [76] have conducted an experimental study on a novel super­
conducting energy conversion/storage device. They have used a (Bi,
Pb)2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10 coil with 90 turns, a limiting current of 180 A and a
double-pancake shape. They have conducted 3 tests to examine the
energy conversion efficiency, electrical loss of the superconducting coil
and the capacity of the coil. The electrical conversion efficiency ob­
tained was >91 %, which is significantly higher than most existing en­
ergy conversion devices. Their results have also shown that the current
within coil was only attenuated by 1.5 % in 30 min, consequently
meaning that the device is also suitable for energy storage for durations
that range from few minutes to a couple of hours. The authors argued the
potential feasibility of integrating such devised system in vehicles
employing RBSs, specifically in urban rail transportation. To further
facilitate the integration of SMESS within vehicular applications, studies
concerned with the development of control and energy management
strategies that govern the technology's operation have been conducted.
Yang et al. [77] have developed a nonlinear robust fractional-order
control based on rule-based strategy to optimally assign the power de­
mand of an electrical vehicle appropriately to its hybridized ESS (battery
and SMESS). Their controller ensures that the SMESS only operates
when the traction power demand is greater than that of a predefined
threshold value. In this case, the battery provides a constant power and
the SMESS compensates for any remaining traction power. In addition,
regenerated energy is used to first charge the SMESS before the battery
gets charged in an attempt of reducing charge cycles on battery and
prolonging its life. The controller also ensures that the SMESS charging
current induced during energy regeneration is greater than half of its
maximum attainable current to ensure high efficiency charging,

8
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
otherwise it shall be charged with the aid of the vehicle's battery. Their
controller compared to others (fuzzy logic controller, PID and sliding
mode controller) achieved the lowest control costs and tracking errors.
The main disadvantage hindering the widespread integration of
SMESSs within vehicular applications is the high capital costs [78]. This
is because a well-functioning SMESS requires a quench protection sys­
tem in case of a superconductor quench and a proper cooling system to
ensure that the superconducting coil is within operative temperature
ranges [4]. For this reason, the available pool of literature concerned
with this technological field is focused on developing high-temperature
SMESS. To address this problem, thermal management system studies
concerning SMESSs are investigating and developing various high
temperature superconducting materials [79]. The development of such
materials could in turn eliminate the need for sophisticated thermal
managements systems, thus reducing capital costs and increasing the
feasibility of integrating SMESSs in vehicular applications.
2.3.1.3. Flywheel energy storage systems. FESSs are mechanical devices
that store kinetic energy upon accelerating the rotor/flywheel to very
high rotational speeds and maintain this energy, known as rotational
energy. When the FESS is coupled to another kinetic energy-fed system,
and flywheel energy release is demanded, the flywheel's rotational speed
starts to reduce as a consequence of the conservation of energy principle.
Ever since the endorsement made by the FIA, in October 2009 about the
flywheel technology and its promising energy storage potential that can
reduce dependence on batteries, the technology has undergone
tremendous research and development efforts. FESSs within vehicles are
mostly integrated alongside a MGU and a power conversion unit. The
motor helps convert electrical energy into mechanical energy; its rate
depends upon the electrical input of the motor. During charging, the
motor's rotor is accelerated to high speeds which corresponds to higher
flywheel rotational speeds, thereby storing more rotational energy.
During discharge, the MGU switches to generator mode which helps
convert mechanical energy (rotational energy) into electrical energy
which is then fed back into a main ESS within the vehicle. FESSs have
already been commonly integrated in numerous high-end vehicles such
as the Porsche 911 GT3 R which equipped a William Hybrid Power
electrical flywheel powertrain and the Audi R18 E-Tron Quattro which
employed a mechanical powertrain flywheel system. There are several
transmission systems associated with incorporation of flywheels as ESSs.
For instance, there are hydrostatic transmissions, electrical trans­
missions, traction transmissions, transmission based on planetary gear
set, and power split continuous variable transmissions (CVT) [80]. FESSs
mostly use bi-directional continuous variable transmissions that enable
the vehicle to transfer kinetic energy along the powertrain of the car
until it reaches the flywheel, thus resembling the FESSs' charging mode.
In terms of RBSs, this process usually occurs during braking. However,
when the vehicle accelerates, instead of depending solely on an internal
combustion engine (ICE) or an ESS for propulsion, part of the propulsion
is achieved by recovering the stored rotational energy of the flywheel
through the vehicle's transmission up to the wheels, which approximates
a discharging process.
These ESSs are appreciated for their high specific power, high spe­
cific energy, long cycle life, high energy efficiency, quick recharge, low
cost, and environmental friendliness [80]. With a 227 kg rotor and
20,000 rpm, nominal and peak powers of 350 kW and 5 MW can be
achieved, respectively. Thus providing a nominal power density of 1.26
kW/kg and a peak of 18 kW/kg [81]. In addition, unlike most of the
previously-mentioned ESSs, the performance of FESSs is not altered by
temperature [61], thus making their state of charge (SOC) easily
determined. FESSs can use up around 97 % of their stored energy. When
this is done by a battery, this process is referred to as deep discharging
and can significantly deteriorate its lifetime. Consequently, FESSs are
little affected by aging and its cycle lifetimes can reach up to 1,000,000
cycles [82]. Furthermore, when FESSs are employed with RBSs, the
9
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
efficiency of brake regeneration is enhanced because of limited energy
conversions, unlike the energy-conversion losses in BESSs. Additionally,
they acquire fast time responses which means that they can store higher
regenerated energy in shorter times thus making them a suitable energy
storage candidate within vehicular applications compared to BESSs in
terms of their attainable power densities. FESSs can potentially cover
about 70 % of a vehicle's kinetic energy and can result in fuel con­
sumption reductions that range from 20 to 30 % [14,32].
Numerous studies concerned with the development of FESS within
vehicular applications have been conducted. For instance, Erhan and
Özdemir [82] have proposed a purely electric power transmission with
integrated FESS prototype to store the kinetic energy of the vehicle
during braking. In this transmission the energy is transferred to/from
the FESS using an MGU. The system mainly consists of a converter unit,
flywheel mechanism combining shaft, rotor, cover and MGU. They have
investigated two prototypes of FESSs: a compact FESS and a larger FESS.
The compact system consisted of a flywheel with 9673 J energy storage
capacity and a 4.8 kW MGU capacity, whereas, the large system con­
sisted of a flywheel with 18,600 J energy storage capacity and 7.2 kW
MGU capacity. Their system results indicate the system's capability of
attaining 56 % minimum energy recovery. Rastegarzadeh et al. [83]
have designed an optimized FESS for light metro trains with RBSs in an
attempt of reducing energy consumption. They have made use of a 3-
layer composite flywheel ESS and experimented with integrating >1
flywheel system into a single vehicle. Their results have shown that
using 3 flywheels within a single vehicle can bring about a 35.1 % in
energy consumption reduction. Similarly, Rupp et al. [84] have also
analyzed the introduction of flywheel energy storage systems into light
transit trains. Employing a single FESS with an energy capacity of 2.9
kWh and 725 kW power capacity in each vehicle can bring about 31.21
% energy savings and 11.09 % predicted cost savings, thus confirming
the feasibility of integrating FESS within light rail transit applications.
The major problem with FESSs, however, is that long periods of
energy storage are usually infeasible because of losses due to fluid dy­
namic frictions. One way of overcoming this obstacle is to employ FESSs
within vacuum chambers that use magnetic bearings. When imple­
mented, this process can elevate flywheel mechanical efficiencies up to
97 % [65]. To fully exploit the operational potential of FESSs, it is also
desirable to construct low density and high tensile strength flywheels
that can withstand higher rotational speeds and store higher rotational
energies. For this purpose, current research trends are focused on
introducing lightweight composite materials into FESS fabrication like
in [14,85,86]. Such efforts contribute to increases in system capital
costs. In addition to system costs, the implementation of flywheels
within vehicular applications raises concerns regarding operational
safety. Nevertheless, FESS advantages in terms of energy and power
density, life cycle and efficiency outweigh these concerns.
2.3.1.4. Pneumatic and hydraulic energy storage systems. Hydraulic ESS
are commonly integrated within vehicles with regenerative braking
capabilities as a means of storing energy. They are ESS that are essen­
tially known for their high-power density, high energy recovery rate
characteristics, and high charging and discharging rates [87,88]. Vehi­
cles employing hydraulic ESSs have been investigated by researchers
ever since the 1990s. Nevertheless, it was not until 2006 that the tech­
nology started to gain widespread attention and started to become
commercially available. In June 2006, the first commercial hybrid hy­
draulic vehicle was developed by the Eaton Corp. and the U.S. Envi­
ronmental Protection Agency and was utilized as a United Parcel Service
(UPS) delivery truck [89]. Other commercial hydraulic ESS include a
hybrid air system with hydro-pneumatic accumulators developed by
PSA, the Spicer Powerboost integrated hydraulic hybrid system pro­
posed by Dana incorporated and the hydrostatic regenerative braking
proposed by Bosch Rexroth. In general, these systems operate by storing
part of the vehicle's kinetic energy during deceleration within hydraulic
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
(low pressure and high-pressure) accumulators. Hydraulic ESSs are
mostly coupled with another ESS (mostly batteries) and electric-based
components (e.g., MGU and a hydraulic motor) to facilitate energy
conversions. The operation of the entire system is governed by the ve­
hicle's control unit. Fig. 6 represents a simplified schematic representing
the energy flow of a hydraulic-based RBSs [89]. During braking pro­
cesses, the hydraulic motor/pump operates as a pump. The vehicle's
kinetic energy drives the pump to rotate and move the operational fluid
from the low-pressure accumulator to a high-pressure accumulator,
which compresses the inner gas (e.g., nitrogen) [87]. At the same time,
the hydraulic motor turns into a generator transferring vehicle's me­
chanical energy (kinetic energy) into both hydraulic and electrical en­
ergy. During acceleration, however, the compressed gas within the
accumulator expands, causing the stored hydraulic energy to drive the
hydraulic motor which helps transmit energy to the wheels. This type of
ESS is usually used in conjunction with the main ESS that supplies an
electrical motor with energy that operates a hydraulic pump to actuate
the hydraulic motor to meet the vehicle's power demands.
Numerous studies have indicated that the incorporation of such
systems within automotive lines have brought about significant fuel
economy enhancements and high energy regeneration rates. For
instance, Sun et al. [90] introduced a novel parallel hybrid vehicle
configuration that consists of a hydraulic/electric synergy system
operationally governed by a logic-threshold control system that is
designed to achieve acceptable vehicle performance while simulta­
neously maximizing engine fuel economy and maintaining the battery's
state of charge within its operational range. Their devised system has
been able to achieve 39.76 % enhancements in fuel economy. Similarly,
Zhou et al. [91] constructed a novel hydraulic hybrid vehicle structure
with in-wheel motors. They have designed a vehicle power system
controller that makes use of rule-based control strategy to govern the
vehicle's operation. Their developed hydraulic hybrid vehicle's fuel
consumption decreased from 15 L to 10.61 L per 100 km compared to
the conventional vehicle, thus improving fuel economy by 29.27 %.
Seeking enhanced energy regeneration efficiencies, Leon et al. [92]
designed a hybrid-electric hydraulic propulsion system for an electric
passenger bus. Their devised system acts as an energy recovery system
that is used to transform kinetic energy into hydraulic energy during
breaking by moving the hydraulic fluid from a low pressure reservoir to
hydraulic accumulator. The implementation of their proposed system
helped save around 39 % of the battery's charge when tested against a
real bus driving cycle. Also, He et al. [93] developed a battery-powered
hydrostatic vehicle with an energy recovery system that that uses
secondary-regulating hydrostatic technology. During braking, part of
Fig. 6. Energy flow of a hydraulic-based RBS [89].
10
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
the vehicle's kinetic energy is used to pressurize oil within hydraulic
accumulators which is then later utilized to assist in powering the
vehicle alongside an integrated battery. Their overall system was able to
achieve 31.75 % energy efficiencies when both the battery the vehicle is
operated in a combined-battery energy accumulation mode.
Despite this ESS's various advantages, it has several limitations/
challenges. For instance, its pressure accumulators suffer low energy
densities [88] compared to previously discussed ESSs. Furthermore, the
system's increased dependence on various interconnections between
multiple components from different domains (e.g., electrical and me­
chanical) introduces significant energy losses throughout the system,
especially those introduced by the integrated pumps and motors.
Consequently, this increased utilization of diverse system components
not only increases the risk of system failure if a component (e.g., pump/
motor) fails, but also increases its initial and maintenance costs. For this
reason, studies such as [94–97] concerned with the development of
hydraulic ESS are now attempting to conduct hydraulic pump/motor
sizing before integrating it within the vehicular application in order to
retain high operative efficiencies, enhanced energy regeneration and
improve vehicle dynamics while minimizing overall cost and weight.
2.3.1.5. Spring energy storage systems. ESSs based on coil springs have
also undergone operational investigations to determine the feasibility of
their integration within RBSs. Spring-based ESSs operate by storing the
vehicle's kinetic energy during braking as potential energy by elastically
deforming a metallic or an elastomer spring. When required, this stored
energy is then re-converted from potential to kinetic energy, thus
returning the spring back to its initial form. However, employing these
within vehicular applications requires a proper and adequate power
regulator/transmission system for smooth and efficient operations. For
this reason, spring-based ESSs are commonly used along with a
continuous variable transmission (CVT). Previous simulations modelling
a spring KERS integrated within CVT configuration have shown that
such systems are capable of storing 30 kJ and achieving a potential fuel
economy efficiency enhancement of 15 % [98]. Elastomeric energy re­
covery systems were first patented by the inventor, John D. Gill, in 1982
[99]. The design shown in Fig. 7 includes spring-based storage elements
as the sole regenerative braking ESS. This design makes use of a tubular
elastomeric energy storage device. The device is disposed concentrically
about a shaft and secured to the shaft on one end, whereas the other end
is free to rotate and can be torsionally stressed to store energy upon
braking and released from a fixed reference during vehicle start-up. This
patented design made use of CVT to govern the energy the transfer to/
from the storage device. The main advantage of this system is its high
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
Fig. 7. An illustration of the configuration of the patented elastomer energy recovery system along with a representation of the multiple energy storage phases of the
elastomer unit [99].
efficiency due to the lack of mechanical to electrical power conversions.
The technological advancements of our current era, however, have
significantly evolved the way such systems are employed. Like many of
the aforementioned ESSs, the design of spring/elastomer-based ESSs is
now commonly integrated with other main ESSs, usually batteries. As a
result, the overall system operation requires an electrical control unit
and energy recovery module that govern and control energy regenera­
tion across the entire system based on different braking modes.
To meet this need, Qi et al. [100] recently proposed a novel me­
chanical and electrical dual-pathway for braking energy regeneration.
The mechanical energy regeneration system is based on coil springs
whereas the electrical energy regeneration system is based on the tan­
dem operation of an ultracapacitor as an ESS and an MGU. Both energy
regeneration systems are controlled using a coordinated control system
that monitors vehicle and road conditions and detects drivers' braking
demands to determine the ESS that is best suited for the braking oper­
ation. The coil spring unit proposed in this paper is composed of a
transmission mechanism, control mechanism, and energy storage
mechanism as shown in Figs. 8 and 9 [100]. The transmission mecha­
nism contains multiple interconnected gears, the control mechanism
consists of an electromagnetic clutch, pawl component, and switch, and
the energy storage system is composed of a group of coil springs. During
braking or starting up, the wheel transmits its motion to the primary
gear where this motion is further transferred by the drivelines to the
shaft via the interconnected gears and pinions. The employed switch
determines the direction in which the drivelines transmit the rotary
motion. This switch is controlled by an electromagnetic clutch. During
braking, the switch engages the left section of the driving line trans­
mitting the vehicle's kinetic energy to the spring coils for storage as
Fig. 8. Configuration of the proposed coil-based energy recovery system [100].
11
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
elastic potential energy. When vehicle is ready to start up, the switch
engages the right section of the driving line and the stored elastic po­
tential energy is released to the drive shaft and then transmitted to the
driving lines all the way to the primary gear and the vehicle's wheel
enabling it to gain extra torque. The simulations testing the operation of
the devised system yielded 21.2 kJ from regenerative braking, thus
achieving energy regeneration efficiencies of 53 % when three coil
springs were completely deformed.
The main problem associated with integrating such ESSs within
vehicular applications is the ability of retrofitting it along with the ve­
hicle's powertrain. This is because they can take up significant amounts
of space and a considerable amount of weight. Consequently, there is a
lack in the available pool of literature on springs/elastomers as braking
energy storage devices are not as common as its other ESS counterparts.
Available literature concerned with spring devices like in [101–103] are
focused on developing light-weight composites springs with high spe­
cific strengths that are able to store as much elastic strain energy as
possible while minimizing weight and space. Such developed compos­
ites have not been widely employed by the automobile industry partly
due to the fact that there is a lack of fundamental understanding of the
performance of composite springs due to its complex behavior [101].
However, it is expected that once proper apprehension of the afore­
mentioned developments are attained and their retrofitting feasibility
have been justified, spring-based ESS shall ignite a widespread attention
within the realm of automobiles.
To summarize all aforementioned discussion about the different ESS
classifications, Table 5 provides a comparative overview of the various
ESS in terms of their storage efficiencies, cost per unit capacity, power
density, energy density and cycle life based on information retrieved
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
Fig. 9. Visual illustration of the coil-based ESS's operating principle [100].
Table 5
Comparison of energy storage systems [61,72,107,108].
Battery Superconducting Flywheels
magnets
Energy storage <90 % <95 % <85 %
efficiency
Cost per unit 300–2500 300–72,000 1000–14,000
capacity
$/kWh
Power density 250–340 W/ 500–2000 W/kg 400–1500 W/kg
kg
Energy density 100–250 Wh/ 2.5–15 Wh/kg 10–50 Wh/kg
kg
Cycle life 1000–10,000 500,000 500,000–1,000,000
from various pools of literature. The table makes it evident that both
superconducting magnetic and flywheel ESSs possess relatively higher
power density ranges, thus hinting at their ability of quick charge/
discharge power capabilities compared to conventional ESS (e.g., bat­
teries). Nevertheless, their energy density characteristics are signifi­
cantly lower than those attained by battery ESS consequently meaning
that they are limited in terms of their energy storage capacities which
can also limit their range of application in which they're employed.
Apart from alleviating some of the load off the vehicles' employed bat­
teries, this also acts as another main reason as to why most proposed ESS
are in the form of hybridized systems. The available data on hydraulic
and spring ESS are not sufficient enough to fit the context of the table,
especially spring based ESS. Nevertheless, based on the available data,
the energy storage efficiencies within hydraulic accumulators can peak
at 97 % [104]. In addition, previously discussed studies such as [90]
have indicated that the maximum amount of energy regenerated within
the accumulator of an optimized hydraulic ESS for a heavy hybrid hy­
draulic vehicle has reached 1.212 kWh. Other studies such as [105]
devised a hydraulic ESS for a hybrid off-highway working vehicle with
nominal power capacities of 26 kW. It is approximated the cost of hy­
draulic ESS would lie between 6400$ and 7500$ [106]. As evident, the
power output of such systems are quite significant. Nevertheless, their
applications are mainly limited to heavy duty vehicles owing to the size
and weight of such ESS. Spring ESS, on the other hand, is relatively much
less investigated as an ESS within regenerative braking. They are much
more studied within vertical oscillations energy recovery systems (e.g.
vehicle suspension systems). The most recent study [100], however,
have shown that such systems can be acquire power densities of 12.25
W/kg and store regenerated energies amounting to 21.2 kJ. Compared
to its counterpart ESSs, its characteristics are not superior, thus justi­
fying the scarcity in integration within vehicular applications.
2.3.2. Energy management-based classifications
Many vehicles employ electric-based RBSs in which batteries are the
12
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
main ESS. It is important to note that RBSs are not a vehicle's sole
braking system. In fact, almost all vehicles employing RBSs are equipped
with the conventional friction-based brakes due to RBS limitations that
shall be addressed throughout this review. In addition, electric RBSs can
also be hybridized with other secondary ESSs alongside the main ESS.
This hybridization raises concerns regarding how to allocate and divert
appropriate portions of the vehicle's kinetic energy to the employed ESS
and other electrical components. Hence, there is an urgent need to
devise energy management systems and control units that monitor
vehicular conditions, road conditions and brake force demands to
determine the optimal type of ESS for the regenerative braking process
and the required brake blend between friction-based braking and
regenerative braking to attain maximum energy regeneration and
vehicle control/stability.
2.3.2.1. Brake force distribution strategies. As suggested above, when
discussing the various control strategies developed and implemented
within RBSs, an imperative parameter in the design of the RBS control
strategies must be mentioned: brake-force distribution. Brake force
distribution requires consideration from two areas: the first is concerned
with the total brake force distribution between the front and rear wheel
axles and the second with brake force distribution between the RBS and
the friction-based braking system. In general, brake force distribution
plays an important role in determining the effectiveness of an RBS. This
can be understood through the example of the electric-based RBS which
includes an MGU that has rated power capacities. When the driver de­
mands severe braking that is beyond the capability of the braking motor,
the efficiencies of the employed RBS decrease and extended braking
ranges are incurred. Therefore, it is essential to develop a braking
strategy that ensures both optimal operation of the RBS while also
maintaining/enhancing vehicle stability and driver comfort. Fig. 10 lists
the various brake-force distributions associated with RBSs.
The two most important strategies for brake force distribution
amongst the vehicle's front and rear wheels axles are the ideal braking
force distributions (commonly referred to as the I-curve) and the eco­
nomic commission for ECE-based brake force distributions, both of
which are represented in Fig. 11 [109]. The ECE force distribution is a
regulation – constituted by the United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe – that governs the brake force distribution of a dual-shaft
vehicle to ensure braking safety and directional stability [110]. Unfor­
tunately, a control strategy that strictly follows the ECE regulatory
boundary curve limits the maximum regenerative braking torque that
can be obtained from the wheels of the vehicle. On the other hand, the
ideal curve helps attain the maximum braking performance, good brake
stability and short braking distances. It does so by ensuring that wheel
locks at the front and rear axles of the vehicles occur simultaneously,
which results in higher directional stability and better vehicle adhesion
conditions [111].
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

Also imperative is a discussion of the brake force distribution stra­

tegies that determine the type of braking system used in the braking
Max. energy process. There are many studies on novel brake force distributions that
brake force aim to attain maximum regenerative brake forces to recover as much
distribution energy as possible [109,112–114]. Nevertheless, the two most used
brake force distribution strategies are the serial and parallel regenera­
Series brake
Braking force tive brake force distributions. Fig. 12 [115] and Fig. 13 [116] provide a
force
distribution schematic representation of both distribution curves and a schematic
based on comparison of both distributions with the ideal distribution curve,
distribution
velocity
respectively. Incorporating these brake force distributions within
Types of Brake vehicle control strategies enables the vehicle's control unit to determine
Force which type of braking system to use based on the driver's braking
Distributions demand.
To clarify what these distributions signify, the parallel distribution,
Parallel brake Ideal braking for instance, indicates that both the employed RBS and friction-based
force force brakes are simultaneously working during the vehicle's braking opera­
distribution distribution tions. Serial brake force distributions, on the other hand, supply initial
braking operations of the vehicle until the brake power required to
further decelerate exceeds the rated capacity of the MGU, which results
Braking force in the immediate operation of the vehicle's friction-based brake pads.
based on ECE Reflecting on both strategies, one can deduce that the parallel brake
force distribution strategy is easier to achieve and requires no external
hardware to be appended [115] because both braking systems are in
simultaneous operation. Nevertheless, this strategy is limited in terms of
Fig. 10. Schematic of the different types of brake force distribution strategies braking energy regeneration. This is because control strategies that
employed within RBSs.

Fig. 11. Representation of the ideal (I-curve) and ECE-based brake force dis­
tribution curves [109].

Fig. 13. Schematic comparison of the serial and parallel brake force distribu­
tions compared to the ideal curve [116].

Fig. 12. Schematic representation of non-regenerative, parallel braking and serial braking conditions [115].

13
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
employ this distribution are constrained by mathematical formulations
that allocate defined brake force distribution amongst both axles of the
vehicle. Serial distributions, however, attain higher regenerative effi­
ciencies because the regenerative braking force is applied to its limit
depending on the maximum power limit of the motor and brake request
of the driver [115]. Fig. 14 provides a clear graphical representation of
the energy regenerated through serial and parallel strategies for an EV
and compares them to the non-regenerative case [117]. However,
devising an appropriate brake assembly and control strategy that can
fulfill serial regenerative braking requires extensive sensors and brake
apparatus, all adding to the overall cost and complexity of employing
this strategy.
2.3.2.2. Control strategies. As previously mentioned, designing and
developing control strategies play a significant role in the development
of the overall RBS. This has led to ample research in this area, from
devising novel control systems and enhancing existing control systems
to conducting comparative studies between competing control systems
based on simulation and experimental results. During braking opera­
tions, several factors/parameters have an impact on the process. These
parameters can include wheel slip ratios, adhesion coefficients between
the road and the wheels of the vehicle, rolling resistances, aerodynamic
resistances, road gradient, rated motor torque/power capacities, and
battery's state of charge (SOC). Consequently, control systems are
developed to monitor and consider all these parameters to attain
vehicular stability and safe braking operations. A brake controller
composition is schematically represented in Fig. 15 [118]. The figure
provides an illustration of how controller systems allocate brake torque
distributions based on driver input and the EV's system conditions.
Brake system controllers are broadly classified as either conventional
brake controllers or intelligent brake controllers. Both classifications of
controllers are commonly integrated within RBS due to their effective
contributions in energy management and regeneration. However, the
main difference between both classifications is that conventional brake
controllers do not take into consideration the vehicle's driving envi­
ronment (e.g. the road surface under the tire) [118]. Examples of con­
ventional brake controllers include proportional-integral-differential
controllers (PIDC) along with their variations, threshold controllers
(TC), and sliding mode controllers (SMC). Intelligent braking control­
lers, unlike conventional brake controllers, account for various variable
parameters such as volatile road surfaces, road slopes, and aero­
dynamics conditions [118]. These controllers are also referred to as
high-supervisory control systems because they rely on event/time-based
conditions. These are usually found in the form of fuzzy logic controllers
(FLC), neural network controllers (NNC), and model reference control­
lers (MRC). Figs. 16 and 17 highlight each of the aforementioned clas­
sifications and their associated controllers.
Conventional braking controllers aid both gradual and urgent
braking operations of the vehicle. Based on the brake demand and the
existence of tire slippage or lockage, the controller employs an appro­
priate braking system (RBS or friction-based braking). To ensure the
operational feasibility of regenerative braking, continuous monitoring
Fig. 14. Motor energy regeneration by the serial and parallel braking strategies and compared to a non-regenerative base [117].
14
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
Fig. 15. Generalized composition of a braking system: ribbon arrows signify
energy flow, solid arrows signify sensor and control signals, TA–Torque Allo­
cator, FB–Friction Brake, EB–Electrical Brake, BBS–Blended Braking System,
EV–Electric Vehicle.
of tire speeds and the ESS's SOC is imperative. PIDCs are the most
common types of conventional braking controllers. Tuning a PIDC for
vehicular application can take place in two ways: offline and online
tuning [118]. Offline tuning considers a governing mathematical model
of the vehicle and its driving conditions, time constants, and gains.
Common offline tuning methods include the (1) Ziegler-Nichols method:
a method that accounts for the amount of time delay between an output
step-change and the first indication of variable change within the sys­
tem's response, as well as, the maximum rate at which the response
changes with respect to the output step change into a set of predefined
tuning equations to obtain required proportional, integral and deriva­
tive gains. (2) Cohen-Coon method: a similar tuning method to that of
Ziegler-Nichols, however the gains obtained by this method are greater
than those obtained by Ziegler-Nichols. This method is regarded as the
second most popular tuning method after Ziegler-Nichols method and is
relatively more flexible. (3) Chien-Hrones-Reswick: a method originally
developed from the Ziegler-Nichols's method. It can tune responses for
set point regulations and disturbance rejections while taking into ac­
count the system's overshoot and response speed. However, employing
offline PIDC require planning for numerous uncertainties and varying
data, thus making online PIDC tuning a better candidate. This enables
online correction of PIDC settings and provides the controller with
greater flexibility and adaptation to real-time obstacles. Nevertheless,
transportation management with the aid of PIDC tuning is mainly
limited due to several reasons. For instance, PIDC tuning under
nonlinear driving conditions is restricted due to the fact that the optimal
PID settings obtained for an initial driving condition are no longer
deemed suitable to provide an adequate response when subjected to
another varied condition. Their effectiveness are mainly sustained as
long as the driving condition deviations are minute. Numerous novel
PIDCs have been introduced in recent studies. For instance, Li et al.
experimented with a feed-forward based PIDC to regulate the hydraulic
pressure amongst wheel cylinders [119]. Sandilya et al. employed a
PIDC to transition from pulse width modulation (PWM) technique to
inverter to maintain constant braking torque [120]. Similarly, Junzhi
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

Conventional Brake
Controllers

Proportional-Integral-
Differential Controllers Threshold Controllers Sliding Mode
(PIDC) and variations (TC) Controllers (SMC)
(e.g. PI and PD)

Fig. 16. Classification of conventional brakes.

High Supervisory
Control

Rule-based Optimization
approach Approach

Deterministic
Fuzzy rule- Global Real-time
rule-based
based method Optimization Optimization
method

1. State machine- 1. Fuzzy 1. Dynamic 1. Optimal

based strategy predictive programming predictive
strategy (DP) control
2. Thermostat
(on/off) control 2. Conventional 2. Linear 2. Equivalent
strategy fuzzy stratrgy programming fuel consumption
2. Fuzzy 3. Control theory minimization
3. Modified
adaptive strategy approach (ECMS)
power follower
(based-line) 4. Adaptive 3. Robust control
strategy fuzzy rule based approach
4. Power 5. Optimal 4. Decoupling
follower control control
(baseline) control 6. Stochastic DP
strategy
7. Genetic
algorithm

Fig. 17. Available control strategies applied in electric vehicles.

et al. utilized a PIDC to calculate the pulse width modulation signals for
the valves used in controlling the hydraulic pressure of their braking
system [121].
To ensure safe braking operations of electric vehicles/hybrid-electric
vehicles (EVs/HEVs), RBSs are equipped along with anti-lock braking
systems (ABSs). This is because the operational efficiency of RBSs suffers
under severe braking conditions due to limitations imposed by the ESS
and the MGU. ABSs minimize the risks associated with severe deceler­
ation/braking operations by ensuring that the wheels of the vehicles do
not lock up. In case a wheel lockup is detected, the system causes the
friction pads to alternately increase and decrease braking pressure
against the wheels instead of constantly applying brake pressure. As a
result of these limitations, RBSs are excluded from severe braking op­
erations. In fact, when considering severe deceleration, TCs and SMCs
are the most convenient types of conventional brake controllers [118].
TCs operate by introducing a threshold function which enables a satis­
factory trajectory tracking performance that accounts for torque satu­
ration. These controllers receive information regarding the wheel
condition of the vehicle with the help of wheel speed observers that are
designed to detect wheel lockups, stops and even skidding. Based on the
predetermined threshold parameters, the controller is then designed to
conduct a set of defined rules (e.g. anti-lock braking operations).
Generally, the designs of many TCs do not include energy recovery ca­
pabilities. Nevertheless, to attempt enhancing energy regeneration over
a wider range of braking conditions, several studies have introduced TCs
that enable energy regeneration under ABS operation. For instance,
Zhang and Cai [110] have developed a RBS control strategy based on
logic threshold control algorithms that are designed to effectively
distribute the required braking torque amongst the mechanical and
electrical brakes. The threshold parameters employed by this study were
based on the required braking intensity of the vehicle. When braking
intensities fell below a predefined lower threshold limit, the vehicle
enters a pure electric braking mode. When the intensity lies between the
lower and upper limits of the predefined brake intensity thresholds,
composite braking (electric and mechanical takes place). Any further
increase beyond the upper threshold, results in the electric motors

15
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
working at their full braking capacity and any additional braking is
sufficed by the mechanical brakes. Similarly, Yang et al. [122] proposed
a coordinated control strategy for tandem ABS and RBS operation. Their
proposed strategy is based on logic threshold control where the
threshold parameters are the battery's SOC and the braking vehicle
speed. When the SOC is lower than an upper threshold limit, the braking
vehicle speed is greater than a predefined lower limit for vehicle speed
and wheel lock is detected, both regenerative braking and anti-lock
braking systems are triggered. Vignati and Sabbioni [123] have also
developed a forced-based control algorithm based on threshold logics
for ABS operations. The controller regulates the brake torque distribu­
tion amongst electric in wheel motors based on a wheel adherence
threshold. When there is a sudden wheel-road adherence change that
exceeds a predefined threshold value, the control strategy picks up this
information and allocates the required brake response amongst the in-
wheel brake motors.
SMCs, on the other hand, are controllers based on algorithms that are
inherently robust to uncertainties, non-linearities, external disturbances
and the changing dynamics of a vehicle [118]. This type of control is a
class of variable structure systems that consist of independent structures
of different properties which can be navigated across with the aid of a
switching logic. It helps decrease the complexity of high-order systems
to first-order state variables [124]. When a system is displaced along a
certain sliding line/surface, a slide mode is triggered and takes place
close to a switching surface when the state vector of the system is
directed towards it [125]. Wang et al. [126] developed an adaptive
sliding mode controller that was utilized to control their employed HESS
(battery as the main ESS and supercapacitor as the secondary ESS).
Owing to the controller's robustness to system uncertainties and external
load disturbances, the authors employed SMC to mitigate the possible
generation of overcurrent shocks during switching modes which can
potentially deteriorate the charge/discharge capacities of their
employed ESS. Additionally, they have utilized a hysteresis control
system alongside their SMC to help stabilize the incurred currents at
different switching modes. Similarly, Snoussi et al. [127] have also
utilized SMC to implement an energy management strategy that ensures
proper distribution of charging/discharging powers to their employed
HESS. Currently, numerous literature are investigating different SMC-
based variations. For instance, two common investigated algorithms
associated with SMC are the Lyapunov-based SMC and the reaching-law-
based SMC [128]. Lyapunov-based SMC are variants that make use of an
artificially constructed Lyapunov type function that is indirectly utilized
in determining a control law that can ensure the entire control system's
stability. Reaching-law-based SMC, on the other hand, relies on defining
a desired evolution of the sliding variable that ensures its stability. This
evolution is then implemented to design the required control signal, thus
eliminating the need for Lyapunov based stability. Such variations are
further explored in [128–130]. Numerous studies have been conducted
on the integration of SMCs within anti-locking and RBSs. For instance,
Subramaniyam and Subramanian proposed a SMC scheme to use
regenerative braking for wheel slip regulation in heavy commercial road
vehicles [131]. They extended their research study to further investigate
the effect of different variations of SMCs (e.g. integral SMC) on regen­
erative braking efficiencies [132], where this type of control makes use
of an integral sliding surface technique that can minimize the tracking
error due to the presence of an integral term during the sliding phase. In
other words, the system state can be forced to more accurately move
towards a sliding surface specified by the designer. Similarly, other
novel variations of SMCs such as the sliding mode controller with super-
twisting have been developed to avoid battery overcharge and enhance
its SOC [133]. This super-twisting algorithm is similar to a second order
sliding mode controller where it provides finite time and exact conver­
gences when subjected to bounded perturbations.
High supervisory control systems/intelligent control systems
comprise a major classification of control systems that are known for
dealing with non-liner and non-stationary plants [134]. Their
16
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
involvement within the automobile sector can be attributed to two
major reasons: their ability to determine road surface conditions, and
their effectiveness at distributing the braking torque optimally between
both axles of the vehicle while ensuring a satisfactory distribution be­
tween friction and regenerative braking, thus resulting in maximized
energy regeneration [118]. The main differences between conventional
brake controllers and high supervisory brake controllers are highlighted
in Fig. 18 [118].
Regenerative/energy braking is dependent on the operation of ABS.
For instance, if a braking situation requires ABS intervention, then RBS
operation is halted and the controller resorts to friction brakes. An RBS
using an intelligent controller, however, is not limited to ABS inter­
vention. In other words, during urgent braking and ABS intervention,
the controller's torque allocator distributes total brake force between
regenerative and friction braking to attain maximum energy recovery in
broad braking operation ranges. In both cases, however, RBS operation
is limited to the SOC of the ESS: if the ESS reaches its maximum charging
capabilities, the energy regeneration processes must be halted to avoid
damage to the ESS. Nowadays, safety related systems apart from ABSs
like electronic brake distribution systems and electronic stability sys­
tems are also being commonly integrated alongside RBSs and ABSs.
Consequently, this results in an over-actuated system of electrical and
mechanical actuators that require an adequate control strategy that can
facilitate the tandem operation of these systems to ensure sufficient and
safe braking operations. For this reason, Pugi et al. [135], have devel­
oped a flexible brake blending and torque vectoring approach that ac­
counts for the mixed and blended applications of the aforementioned
brake-safety related systems. They have developed a simulation meth­
odology that makes use of a brake blending controller alongside an
effective stability controller (electronic stability program) that are
designed to (1) provide the required blend of friction and electric
braking during constant braking maneuvers, (2) provide required ABS
modulation patterns during extreme braking conditions, and (3)
enhance vehicle lateral stability during a double lane change maneuver.
Their work has demonstrated the brake blending controller's capability
of allocating required torques between friction and electric brakes
during both constant braking and double lane change maneuvers in a
fashion that is best suited for maximized energy regeneration. In addi­
tion to this, their electronic stability program employs their aforemen­
tioned torque vectoring process to enhance the vehicle's lateral stability
during lane changing maneuvers enabling the vehicle to conduct the
maneuver at relatively higher speeds with maximized energy regener­
ation and a relatively higher degree of stability.
High supervisory control systems are further broken down into two
major classifications: the rule-based (RB) control and the optimization
approach control. The RB approach is highly reliant on engineering
knowledge, mathematical models, vehicle load leveling strategies, user-
input driving cycles, and even intuition and heuristics [65]. Based on
received information, signals are sent to the vehicle's drivetrain to
govern its mode of operation. The goal is to achieve optimal energy
efficiency, performance, fuel economy, and emissions for a given drive
cycle. The RB classification is further subcategorized into deterministic
rule-based methods and fuzzy-based methods. The deterministic rule-
based method operates on predefined sets of rules which are then
compared to lookup tables by the controller to ensure that the set rules
are being followed. Consequently, information consisting of state name,
conditions, and actions are input into the controller based on the change
in driver demand, component constraints and the available energy [136]
in order to carry out the next set of rule-based decisions. The most
common type of deterministic rule-based controllers is the thermostat
(on/off) control strategies. These control strategies are often used to
sustain the charge of ESSs by turning on/off the thermostat based on
both the SOC and the torque demands of the vehicle. The process of
turning on/off such sources is usually conducted with the help of power
follower (baseline) control. This type of control constantly monitors the
vehicle's power demand and the SOC of the employed ESS. Vehicles such
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
Fig. 18. Comparative schematic between (a) conventional and (b) intelligent braking algorithms. ABS–Anti-Lock Braking Systems, SOC–State of Charge of ESS,
FB–Friction Braking, EB–Energy Braking, and TA–Torque Allocator [118].
as the Toyota Prius make use of such a control strategy. Nevertheless,
this strategy fails to effectively account for the various power train
component efficiencies and the policies regarding fuel consumption/
emissions minimization. Mirabadi and Najafi [137] have designed a
thermostat on/off controller for light weight trains with hybridized ESS
(battery and flywheel) and a RBS. Their thermostat algorithm was based
on monitoring the SOC of the employed batteries and flywheel. When
the SOC falls a below a predefined value, the controller operates a diesel
generator to charge the ESS alongside the employed RBS. Studies of the
aforementioned controllers can be found in literature such as a
comparative study in performance between thermostat and fuzzy logic
control systems [137]. Another study [138] compares fuel consumption
and gas emission between thermostat and power follower control stra­
tegies for a series HEV. The developed investigated controllers monitor
the SOC of the ESS and turn the engine on when a lower limit of SOC is
attained and off when the upper limit of the SOC is achieved. According
to the conducted study, however, it was shown that the thermostat
controller exhibited higher emissions but lower fuel consumption
compared to the power follower strategy. The authors of the study
concluded that the implemented strategies do not guarantee optimum
fuel consumption nor emissions, thus validating the aforementioned
comment about the inability of such controllers to effectively account
for fuel consumption/emissions minimizations.
Fuzzy rule-based approaches, however, use real-time parameters and
suboptimal power splits – which are considered non-linear data – in
order to yield optimal outputs [65]. These controllers are based on fuzzy
logic and numerical value-based rules, where fuzzy logic is a multi­
valued logic that deals with approximate reasoning instead of precise
reasoning. Fuzzy control strategies are known for their good adapt­
ability, robustness, real-time performance, and ability to simulate
human thinking [139]. In addition, these strategies are effective at
dealing with non-linear high order and dead-time systems. They can be
subdivided into conventional fuzzy strategy, fuzzy adaptive strategy,
and fuzzy predictive strategy. Conventional fuzzy strategies include
various methodologies that can be resorted to in devise a fuzzy logic
control: two fuzzy logic controllers (e.g. drivers intention predictor
controller and power balance controller) [140], and load leveling-based
17
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
controllers [141]. Fuzzy adaptive strategies rely on the weight of a
governing equation which defines the relative importance of the defined
parameter. These defined parameters can include road conditions, tire
adherence, driving situation and driving patterns to ultimately deter­
mine the most effective torque distribution between the motor and the
engine. Fuzzy predictive strategies help devise a futuristic state along a
planned route based on the driving history of a vehicle. This type of
strategy is fails to account for possible real-time variations within the
driving condition of the vehicle [65]. In other words, the control strat­
egy would not be able to adapt its output response in case any unfore­
seen obstacle arises. In general, fuzzy logic controllers, suffer a major
drawback which is mainly owed to the fact that they are highly reliant
on decision-making processes that are governed by human skills and
expertise, thus making it difficult to adopt a universal reliable control
strategy. Nevertheless, fuzzy logic controllers have been widely studied
within the field of RBSs because of their performance. For instance, a
control strategy based on fuzzy algorithms was proposed in order to
govern the braking system of an electric-vehicle and determine the
desired braking force distribution [142]. In another study, a variation of
fuzzy logic controllers were devised to simultaneously track ideal slip
rate and achieve ideal energy recovery efficiency under complex road
conditions [143]. A similar study featured a fuzzy logic controller based
on mathematical dynamic models of the vehicle that consider state
variables affecting RBS performance to allocate the appropriate brake
torque distribution to the electric motor and friction-based brakes [109].
The second major classification of high supervisory controllers is the
optimization approach control. Optimization controls warrant signifi­
cant attention given that most engineering problems require achieving
multiple objectives, of which many are negatively correlated to each
other. Certainly, attaining an optimal point within a given set of
objective functions and constraints can be complex and tedious. Thus,
optimization controls based on analytical methods are capable of per­
forming rigorous computations and can help, in the case of automobiles,
minimize cost functions and simultaneously ensure adequate perfor­
mance and emissions. Optimization approach controls can be divided
into global optimization and real-time optimization control methods.
Global optimization controls rely on futuristic and past power demand
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

data to minimize cost functions through efficient fuel consumption and Table 6
emission given a particular drive cycle [65]. For this reason, global The advantages and disadvantages of commonly used energy management
optimization control methods for design and comparison purposes are systems.
useful when coupled with RB control approaches. Numerous optimiza­ Energy Advantages Disadvantages Ref.
tion strategies come under the category of global optimization, namely: management
linear programming, control theory approach, optimal control, dynamic system

programming, stochastic dynamic programming, genetic algorithm and Fuzzy logic • Effectively models • Complex [147–149]
adaptive fuzzy rule based. Linear programming strategies are based on control uncertainties implementation
• High computational
piecewise-linear approximations that attempt to approximate the vehi­
efficiencies
cle's drivetrain and efficiency as a linear program, which might not • Computes complex
necessarily be applicable when the drivetrain is rather complex. The structure
control theory approach is a more superior analytical strategy that finds applications
an optimal global solution using two decisions. The feasibility of finding Neural networks • Responsive to newly • Complex and [150]
incoming requires training
an optimum analytical solution highly relies on the complexity of the information procedures
drive train which can become rather challenging. Dynamic program­ Sliding mode • Robust to • Mathematical [125]
ming is a strategy that can find the optimum solution that minimizes a controllers uncertainties implementation is
cost function, while simultaneously accounting for multiple input • Robust to complex
parametric
complex constraints. It divides the decision process into subproblems
variations
and then attempts to attain optimal solutions for each subproblem to Global • Provides optimal • Low computational [151]
eventually form a global solution. Compared to other algorithms of optimization solutions efficiencies
similar characteristics, the computational timings of dynamic pro­ approaches • Does not take into
gramming strategies are relatively low [125]. Similarly, stochastic dy­ account real-time
scenarios
namic programming is also based on finding an optimal solution that can
Dynamic • Global optimality is • Requires full cycle [125]
minimize the cost function, however, it is based on real-time imple­ programming achieved information
mentations. Genetic algorithm is an approach that accounts for complex • Dimensionality
problems with that constitute of nonlinear formulations as well as dis­ problems
Thermostat (on/ • Robust • Does not account for [152,153]
continuities and allows for several parallel computations to occur
off) control • Relatively easy to powertrain
simultaneously to ultimately provide Pareto solutions. The optimal implement and component
control approach is a similar strategy to that of the control theory control efficiencies directly
approach in the sense that is also constitutes of an analytical charac­ • Enables quick starts
teristic by nature. Finally, the adaptive fuzzy rule is a combination of and shutdowns of
energy sources
fuzzy logic and an optimization method. Within the realm of RBS, such
based on their state
strategies have been commonly employed as part of the implemented of charge
control strategy. For instance, a regenerative hybrid-power system was Equivalent • Commonly used to • Low computational [154]
modelled by integrating a rule-based controller along with a global consumption minimize fuel efficiencies
minimization consumption of
optimization approach control [144]. The fuel consumption of a hy­
strategy system within real-
draulic RBS for heavy goods vehicle was evaluated with the help of time
global optimization control [145]. Similarly, an eleven-mode velocity • Controls battery
coupling with a single electric machine HEV using global optimization SOC
algorithms was proposed to improve the vehicle's fuel economy [112]. Local • Can adapt to real • Low computational
optimization time applications efficiencies
Real-time optimization, on the other hand, is based on current data
approaches • Does not provide
system variables used in evaluating instantaneous cost function values. optimum solutions
This class includes equivalent fuel consumption minimization strategy, Linear • Easy to implement • Not applicable for [155]
decoupling control strategy, robust control approach and optimal pre­ controllers multi-objective
(PI, etc.) controls
dictive control. Equivalent fuel consumption minimization strategy is a
robust control that is suitable for complex structures and is used to limit
the fuel consumption to ultimately reduce a local cost function. Despite 3. Characteristics and limitations
achieving nearly optimal performance, however, it does not account for
charge sustaining problems [65]. Optimal predictive control is used to Automobiles with RBSs have various advantages compared to those
monitor the driver's driving pattern and information in order to yield a without, and RBSs have more benefits than the energy recovery systems
real-time predictive control law that can achieve economical fuel con­ discussed earlier. This explains their integration in almost all of today's
sumption. Robust control strategy makes use of the vehicle's power and electric-based vehicles. Nevertheless, they also suffer from inherent
torque input profiles to determine an optimum and minimized fuel drawbacks that limit their operational efficiency and require further
consumption control law. Decoupling control uses real-time optimiza­ research to overcome them. This section shall shed light on the various
tion to help sustain the power demand and the ESS's SOC within an advantages and disadvantages associated with RBSs.
optimum range. Studies commonly employing real-time optimization as
part of the energy management system mainly attempt to optimize the
required brake force distribution between friction and electric braking 3.1. Improved fuel economy
in a manner that yield maximum energy regeneration. For instance, a
study on real-time optimization explored an optimal braking force dis­ The purpose behind the introduction of RBSs is to recover a vehicle's
tribution strategy for brake-by-wire system based on slip ratio and real- kinetic energy during braking, energy which would otherwise be dissi­
time optimization [113]. Similarly, real time optimization has also been pated as heat. Recovering even a portion of a vehicle's kinetic energy and
used to enhance brake force distributions between mechanical and redirecting it towards the ESS would make more energy available for the
electric-based brakes [146]. Table 6 provides insight into the advantages vehicle to consume. This would mean that vehicular operations (e.g.,
and disadvantages of the commonly employed energy management vehicle ignition/start, driving trips, powering vehicle's electronic sys­
systems. tem) could make use of the recovered energy instead of resorting to

18
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
increased fuel ignition (in the case of an HEV) or consuming a battery's
stored energy (in the case of a pure EV). The impact of RBSs on fuel
economy has been demonstrated through several studies. Pipitone and
Vitale observed that implementing electric-based RBSs within an inter­
nal combustion vehicle using supercapacitors as an ESS can result in
maximum fuel savings of 1.58 L/100 km based on the ECE-15 drive cycle
and 2.48 L/100 km based on the Artemis urban driving cycle [156].
Zhang et al. reported a 9 % increase in fuel economy in a hybrid-electric
bus employing fuel cells as an ESS and an RBS [157]. In addition, the
work of Yu et al. indicates that RBSs attain the best fuel economy (4.08
%) compared to thermoelectric generators (1.67 %) and energy regen­
erative suspensions (0.9 %) in incorporating all three energy regenera­
tion systems to formulate a single comprehensive energy system [158].
3.2. Enhanced emission reductions
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, 4.6
metric tons of CO2 is produced annually by a typical passenger vehicle.
To this end, RBSs are widely incorporated within vehicular applications
due to their commendable effect of reducing such emissions. Improved
fuel economies have a direct correlation to enhanced emission re­
ductions. Once an HEV or ICEV operates using recuperated energy, there
is no need to burn the same volume of fuel that would otherwise be
required. A study conducted by Clarke et al. [159] demonstrates how the
implementation of an RBS within a Skoda Fabia resulted in emissions
being reduced from 140 g/km of CO2 to 108 g/km when operating in
extra urban mode and 144.8 g/km to 67 g/km when operating in urban
driving mode. Similarly, Rakov et al. investigated the effect that braking
energy recovery systems has on pollutant emissions and discovered that
its implementations resulted in 6.3 % reductions in fuel consumption
and pollutant emissions under the worldwide harmonized light vehicles
test cycles (WLTC) driving cycle [160].
3.3. Enhanced vehicle performance
Most studies concerning RBSs revolve around boosting energy
regeneration efficiencies and reducing fuel consumption and exhaust-
based emissions. However, the advantages of such systems extend
beyond what has already been discussed: apart from the aforementioned
pros, enhanced vehicle performance is another major advantage asso­
ciated with the implementation of certain forms of RBSs. Enhanced
vehicle performance is usually linked to increased vehicle horsepower
and torque capacities. Accordingly, the RBS range of applications has
been extended to automotive racing sectors, specifically the Formula 1
sector. The ability to recover portion of a Formula 1 car's kinetic energy
during braking and reusing the recovered energy as a short-term power
booster post-deceleration encouraged this integration. The maximum
amount of energy that can be stored by a KERS, as per the FIA regula­
tions, is 400 kJ. This results in an increase in power of about 10 % to the
engine for almost 7 s per lap [161]. This enables drivers to reach top
speeds sooner after emerging from a corner or overtake opponents
swiftly in straight track sections. Most RBSs in Formula 1 cars rely on
flywheels rather than electric-based ESSs as the main ESS due to safety
reasons and complications associated with retrofitting the system within
the vehicle. Worldwide companies like Ferrari, McLaren Mercedes and
BMW make use of these energy recovery systems within their Formula 1
vehicles [136].
3.4. Reduction in engine wear
Energy regeneration suggests wasted energy can now be utilized, and
in the case of vehicles (e.g., conventional vehicles/HEVs) employing ICE
as either a main or secondary power plant, fuel combustion processes as
a means of energy regeneration can be reduced. When the ESS's SOC and
energy regenerated through braking operation are sufficient to power
the vehicle, the control unit implements an engine on/off strategy that
19
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
causes that ICE to act as an idle component, thus relying solely on the
vehicles' ESS and regenerative power. This is also commonly referred to
as engine decoupling. However, when the SOC is low and not enough
energy regeneration has occurred, the vehicle relies on the operation of
ICE. As a result of engine decoupling, the operation of ICE is limited,
thus engine wear due to friction between alternating pistons and cyl­
inder walls is also limited, which increases the lifespan of the engine and
reduces any possible implications associated with engine wear. Conse­
quently, this results in requiring fewer engine checkups/maintenance,
thus reducing overall expenditure.
3.5. Reduction in brake wear
Since the applications of RBSs are associated with electric-based
vehicles, most RBS designs, regardless of the type of ESS within them,
are integrated with an electrically-driven system. A crucial component
of such systems is the MGU. The MGU performs energy regeneration and
conducts much of the vehicle's braking operation. The increased dura­
bility of the brakes is due to decelerating the vehicle through operation
of MGU instead of relying solely on friction-based brake pads. In addi­
tion, reduction in friction-based braking has indirect positive impacts on
environmental conditions. This is because brake wear produces solid
particles that serve as environmental contaminants with numerous
drawbacks.
3.6. Enhanced vehicular operative ranges
The combination of enhanced fuel economies, regeneration effi­
ciencies, the prolonged life of ESSs (those recharged through RBSs, such
as batteries), and reduction in engine and break wear contribute to the
higher operative life of the vehicle. This means that vehicles can now
undertake longer trips/runs on a single battery charge and/or fuel tank
and have a longer life expectancy. These benefits are supported in
various studies concerning the employment of RBSs within vehicular
applications. In one study [117], employing serial and parallel RBSs
attained enhancements of 12.58 % and 9.83 %, respectively, in terms of
range extensions under the new European driving cycle (NEDC).
Another study achieved 24.63 % and 18.29 % vehicle range enhance­
ments under serial and parallel RBSs, respectively [113].
3.7. Possible increase of overall weight
Weight is an important factor that is strongly correlated to fuel/en­
ergy consumption and pollutant emissions: the heavier the vehicle, the
more fuel/energy required to set it in motion, and the higher the
emissions. Accordingly, the design of an automobile includes weight
restrictions, and, of course, retrofitting any system within a vehicle must
satisfy these weight restrictions. Because the incorporation of RBSs
within vehicles requires the integration of numerous components, it
becomes challenging to stay within desirable weight limits of the
vehicle. The additional weights that these components add to the overall
weight of the vehicle are dependent on the type of RBS employed. The
simplest electric-based RBS includes the incorporation of an MGU,
power inverters/rectifiers and their motors, power converters, sensors,
and an ESS. These days, efforts are also concentrated on hybridizing the
main ESSs with a secondary ESS. This hybridization also demands
additional components to ensure effective operation. Fig. 19 provides a
clear schematic representation of the structure of a hybridized electric-
based RBS with the various components associated with its construction
[162]. The implementation of a flywheel as a secondary mechanical ESS
serves as a perfect example. Its integration requires incorporating
additional power transmission systems (e.g., CVT) to transfer the energy
to the MGU and possibly additional power converters as well.
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
Fig. 19. Schematic representation of the various components associated with the structure of an electric-based RBSs hybridized with an ultracapacitor as a secondary
ESS [162].
3.8. Complex integration
The operations of RBSs are based on an interconnection of numerous
components that are in tandem operations to achieve energy regenera­
tion through safe braking processes. The vehicle's control unit monitors
and controls the tandem operations of these interconnected components
and helps ensure the satisfaction of this goal. The more sophisticated the
control system, and the higher its adaptability to non-linear and
continuous variation of vehicle parameters/conditions (e.g., high su­
pervisory controls), the more demanding and complex its design
becomes.
3.9. Limited braking and energy regeneration
As a vehicle cannot be completely decelerated through RBS opera­
tions, friction-based brake operations are mandatory, which means that
energy regeneration inefficiencies are inevitable. Since most vehicles
rely on batteries or other electric-based ESSs (e.g., supercapacitors) as a
main ESS, the incorporation of MGUs is crucial, since they serve as a
medium of mechanical-electrical conversions between the wheels of the
vehicle and the ESS. Even though the feasibility of an RBS relies on the
incorporation of an MGU, its maximum regenerative capacities are
limited by it. This limitation is attributed to the power/torque capacities
of the employed motor, commonly referred to as the stall torque/power.
Exceeding the stall torque of the motor means that the motor is no longer
able to accommodate the vehicle with additional brake torques and
begins losing its operational efficiency. Fig. 20 provides a graphical
representation as to how regenerative braking torque is limited as a
result of the rate power capacities of motors [163].
The demanded torque is well beyond the ability of the motor. For this
reason, the brake force distribution relies on the mechanical brakes to
facilitate the deceleration of the vehicle. In addition, maximum energy
regeneration favors high motor rotational speeds which facilitates ve­
hicles decelerating from high initial speeds. This is because the back
electromotive force (EMF) is high enough to charge the ESS. However, at
lower speeds, the back EMF does not accommodate ESS charging op­
erations and requires the incorporation of additional power converter
components such as buck-boost converters.
20
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
Fig. 20. Brake force distributions between regenerative braking and mechan­
ical braking (friction braking) [163].
Limitations of RBSs are not only restricted to the operational capa­
bilities of motors: ESS properties also play a major role in determining
energy regeneration efficiencies. For instance, RBS operations also rely
on energy storage capacities (SOC) as well as the maximum permissible
charging current that they can withstand. When the SOC of a battery is
low (<10 %), its inner resistance is dramatically increased, thus the
incoming charging current from the MGU is unsuitable for charging. As a
result, the proportion of brake force assigned to regenerative braking is
reduced. However, when SOCs are within 10 %–90 %, the battery can
withstand the large current coming from the MGU; therefore, regener­
ative braking is favored. When SOC is above 90 %, any incoming
charging currents can damage the storage system; thus, regenerative
braking is once again restricted and mechanical braking is preferred.
Table 7 provides a comparative overview on how regenerative brake
forces vary with brake force demands, SOC, and vehicle speed [164].
The table depicts how regenerative brake forces present an increasing
trend with a decrease in brake force demands. Similarly, as the SOC of
the ESS decreases, the regenerative brake force for a given brake force
demand increases. Nevertheless, for a given brake force demand and
SOC, the lower the vehicle speed, the lower the contribution of regen­
erative brake force to the total distribution.
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

Table 7 for instance, need to be well maintained and regulated in terms of their
A comparative table that relates the rate of regenerative brake force (Mf) to total maximum allowable charging capacity, temperature, SOC, and state of
brake force based on the SOC and speed of the vehicle, where MF1—10 % of health (a parameter concerned with the maximum permissible charging
total brake force is regenerative brake forces, MF2—20 %, MF3—30 %, …, currents that the ESS can withstand). Inefficient control of these pa­
MF10—100 % [164]. rameters can inhibit the operation of RBS, damage the ESS, and pose
Braking force Battery Vehicle Regenerative braking safety threats to the vehicles and commuters. Many Formula 1 teams
demand SOC speed force initially implemented electric-based RBSs; however, they faced in­
High High High Mf1 cidents that included the ESS catching fire and electric shocks. As a
Middle Mf1 result, they have shifted to mechanical-based RBSs with flywheels as the
Low Mf0
main ESS, as previously mentioned. Nevertheless, these ESSs are not
Middle High Mf2
Middle Mf2 completely fault-free: the incorporated flywheels need to rotate at very
Low Mf1 high speeds to store as much kinetic energy as possible. If the flywheel is
Low High Mf3 not well-confined/well-fitted within its assigned space, serious damage
Middle Mf3 can occur upon its collision with any vehicular component.
Low Mf2
Middle High High Mf5
Middle Mf3 4. Market and applications
Low Mf3
Middle High Mf7 RBSs have been a topic of interest ever since the 1970's. Neverthe­
Middle Mf5
less, they were mostly associated with the railway industry and did not
Low Mf4
Low High Mf8 widely capture the interest of the automotive market. Rather, the
Middle Mf8 automotive market had mainly directed its attention and development
Low Mf4 efforts towards conventional automotive fields (e.g., engine efficiencies
Low High High Mf6 and vehicle aerodynamics) to attain better fuel economies and clear
Middle Mf5
emissions [32]. Only recently has the automotive industry realized their
Low Mf4
Middle High Mf10 potential in terms of enhancing fuel efficiencies, reducing green-house
Medium Mf10 emissions, extending drive ranges, and extending vehicle life cycle.
Low Mf9 RBSs have been successfully integrated into the major types of vehicles:
Low High Mf10
ICEV, HEV, and EV as those shown in Fig. 21. Even though there are
Medium Mf10
Low Mf9
various studies addressing the development of solely mechanical-based
RBSs (e.g., elastomer/spring-based RBSs, hydro-pneumatic RBSs or
flywheel-based RBSs), the most common form of RBS in the automotive
3.10. Safety concerns industry is electrical-based, as previously shown in Fig. 19. Given the
increasing market trend of EVs and HEVs as represented Fig. 22 [165],
Even though the incorporation of high energy density storage sys­ RBSs have increasingly become part of their operations.
tems is desired for efficient energy regeneration by the RBS, their
incorporation prompts concern regarding safety levels. Electrical ESSs,

Vehicles

ICEV HEV EV

1) Battery Electric
1) ICE 1) Mild-HEV Vehicles (BEV)
2) Micro-HEV 2) Full-HEV 2) Fuel Cell Electric
2.1) Extended range Vehicle (FCEV)
Electric Vehicles
(EREV)
2.2) Parallel Hybrid
Electric Vehicle
2.3) Series Hybrid
Electric Vehicles
2.4) Complex Hybrid
Electric Vehicle
2.5) Plug-in Hybrid
Electric Vehicle
(PHEV)

Fig. 21. Classification of the different types of vehicles.

21
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
Fig. 22. Evolution of light-duty vehicles based on technology [165].
4.1. Market
4.1.1. ICEV
ICEVs – internal combustion engine vehicles – rely on the combus­
tion of fuels to transform chemical energy into heat and kinetic energy to
facilitate the propulsion of vehicles. ICEVs can be further subcategorized
into conventional ICEVs relying solely on combustion processes and
micro-HEVs that rely on ICEs cascaded with an electric motor to aid its
propulsion. Compared to the former, micro-HEVs serve as a cleaner and
more energy efficient alternative. Micro-HEVs incorporate motors with
low operating voltages of 12–48 V and are designed with an on-off ICE
state: the ICE switches off when stopping, coasting, or braking to cut
down on fuel consumption. The power contributed by the micro-HEV
motors usually manages only to restart an ICE from an off state
without much contribution towards propelling the car. However, in
2020, Kubota launched a micro-hybrid prototype named V3307 that
consists of a MGU, DC/DC power converter, and a 48 V lithium-ion
battery that operates in tandem with a 55.4 kW V3307 diesel engine;
Fig. 23. The various drivetrain architecture of HEV: (a) mild-HEV, (b) series full-HEV, (c) parallel full-HEV, (d) series-parallel full-HEV, (e) complex full-HEV, and (f)
parallel PHEV [65].
22
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
this system helps provide a 10 kW electric boost. The micro-HEV market
is dominated by international companies like BMW AG, Audi AG, Sub­
aru, General Motors and Daimler AG.
4.1.2. HEV
Even as most vehicles on today's roads are ICEVs, their popularity is
slowly declining because of their dependence on fuel combustion which
contributes to green-house emissions. In fact, the German Parliament
passed a resolution banning ICEV sales by 2030, and nine other coun­
tries have announced similar declarations to ban their sales between
2025 and 2050 [166]. The introduction and development of RBSs gave
rise to the HEV industry offering higher fuel economy and lower emis­
sions than the ICEV and longer drive ranges than the BEV. These merits
can be attributed to the vehicle's dependence on both an ICE and an
MGU that share the goal of propelling the vehicle. Note that the tran­
sition of one classification of vehicle to another (e.g., micro-HEV to
HEV) can also be expressed in terms of a hybridization factor/ratio
[167] expressed in Eq. (1), where the electric motor's power is divided
by the total power supplied by the electric motor (PEM) and the ICE
(PICE).
PEM
HF = (1)
PEM + PICE
There are 6 main drivetrain configurations of HEV, all of which are
schematically represented in Fig. 23 [65]. The mild-HEV, shown in
Fig. 23(a), is similar to the micro-HEV in terms of advantages. However,
the mild-HEV makes use of electric motors with relatively higher oper­
ative voltages 140–150 V and rated powers that range from 7 to 12 kW
[65]. Table 8 also provides a comparative overview of electric mobility
performances [168]. Despite the increase in the motor operating volt­
ages and rated power capacities, this powertrain configuration cannot
depend solely on electric means of propulsion and is codependent on the
operation of ICE. This is because both the electric motor and the ICE
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

Table 8
E-mobility performance class overview for passenger vehicles [168].
Mild hybrid Full hybrid/plug-in EV (Batt/RE/FC) Unit

12 V 48 V HV Mid Power Small car Medium car Sports car

Max. EM power Motor-based 4 12 20 60 100 60 100 180 kW

Max. EM speed Motor-based 50 150 150 200 300 200 300 500 Nm
DC voltage Max. (generator-based) 15 60 200 400 450 400 400 450/800 V
Min. (motor-based) 12 36 120 300 250 300 300 300/600 V
Max. current DC 333 330 167 200 400 200 333 550/280 A
AC 350 500 500 600 800 250 450 1000/500 A
Speed/crankshaft speed ratio or max. EM speed 3 1 1 1 1 10–15 k/min Bis 20 k/min
Power ratio max./duration 2 2 2 2 2.5 1.5 1.5 2

share the same drive shaft as shown in its corresponding figure.
Furthermore, the batteries of these vehicles are recharged either through
an implemented kinetic energy recovery system (e.g., RBS) [9,48] or
with the help of the ICE. Examples of today's mild-HEV cars include
Hyundai Tucson (2021), Land Rover Discovery (2021), BMW 3 Series
(2021), and Ford Puma (2021).
The powertrain limitation of mild-HEV, whereby the electric motor
cannot solely power the vehicle, has prompted automotive manufac­
tures to design a new powertrain configuration; this configuration en­
ables either the ICE or the electric motor to propel the vehicle
independently by splitting the power path of the drivetrain without
compromising the vehicle's performance. These vehicles cover all
functionalities of a mild-HEV to a greater extent: they provide higher
propulsive powers and regenerate more energy during braking due to
the higher ESS capacities and increased operating voltages of the motor.
The full-HEV can be broken down into several different powertrain
configurations as depicted in Fig. 23. The series full-HEV, for instance, is
based on a powertrain configuration similar to that shown in Fig. 23(b).
These vehicles rely solely on electric motors for vehicle propulsion and
only use the ICE and/or RBS to recharge the batteries when they are at a
low SOC. However, the overall vehicle efficiencies associated with this
configuration are the lowest amongst all other full-HEVs; these vehicles
favor city driving patterns that include several stops and runs.
The parallel full-HEV, on the other hand, relies on both the ICE and
the electric motor for propulsion since both are independently con­
nected to the vehicle's transmission line. The motor gains its propulsive
power through the energy regeneration process during vehicle decel­
eration. These vehicles attain relatively higher overall vehicle effi­
ciencies compared to their series-HEV counterparts. In addition, they are
effective in both city and highway driving conditions.
The series-parallel full-HEV combines the advantages of both series
and parallel full-HEV. The ICE in this classification of vehicles aids the
propulsion of the vehicle and helps recharge the ESS. It is coupled to a
generator and a power converter to create a pathway for energy to flow
to the battery. Nevertheless, the implementation of this powertrain
configuration suffers complexities.
The complex full-HEV shares a similar configuration to the series-
parallel full-HEV; the major difference is that both the ICE and electric
motors are connected to their own power converter units. Both the
complex full-HEV and series-parallel full-HEV are flexible in terms of
their implemented control strategy on the condition that the control
strategy is accurate and precise enough [65].
Another common form of HEV is the PHEV. The powertrain of this
class of vehicles is similar to the series-parallel full-HEV; however, the
PHEV includes the additional feature of charging the battery though
external means. External charging means that the vehicle can operate
longer and cover higher distances by relying solely on electricity. The
ICE further supports to this added benefit.
Studies concerning the integration of RBSs within HEV are abundant.
For instance, Duong et al. [169] developed and simulated an RBS model
to test its feasibility within HEV. The simulation was conducted on
Matlab Simulink and the vehicle parameters were based on a Toyota
Prius. Their implemented RBS has yielded fuel consumption reductions
that range from 14.4 to 61.6 %. Xu et al. [170] established a coordinated
control model for RBS and ABS, developing two braking modes – engine-
motor coordinated braking (EMCB) and dual-motor braking (DMB) –
and proposed a brake force distribution based on predictive control al­
gorithms to ensure optimal braking efficiency and guarantee brake slip
rate. Their EMCB mode has minimized fuel consumption rates during
braking by 30.1 %, while the DMB mode improved braking energy re­
covery efficiency by 16.78 %. Lv et al. [171] proposed a brake force
distribution which governs braking operation of both axles of an HEV,
and designed an FLC to determine the extent of regenerative braking
compared to conventional braking in the vehicle's rear wheel. Their
simulations demonstrated that the proposed regenerative braking con­
trol strategy can enhance energy recovery up to 28.29 %. Similarly, Lyu
et al. [172] constructed a brake force distribution strategy amongst
vehicle axles and developed an FLC to improve RB performance for a
dual-shaft four-wheel-drive HEV. The strategy enhanced energy recov­
ery of the HEV up to 39.7 %.
4.1.3. EV
EVs, on the other hand, rely solely on electric power sources to
operate the vehicle and have no ICE incorporated within their power­
train. This classification of vehicles can be further differentiated by their
type of drivetrain configuration/architecture. Fig. 24 [65] provides
schematic representations of all available drivetrain configurations
associated with EV. Both Fig. 24(a) and (b) share similar drivetrain
configurations with the exception that the former configuration includes
a clutch, thus resembling a more conventional vehicle drivetrain. The
configuration in Fig. 24(b), however, replaces the clutch with a single-
gear transmission which contributes to weight reduction in the vehi­
cle's mechanical transmission. Nevertheless, both configurations suffer
from low efficiencies compared to their counterparts in the remaining
configurations. The configuration in Fig. 24(c), on the other hand, in­
tegrates the vehicle's mechanical transmission (differential and fixed
gearing) with the electric motor within the driveline itself. Similarly,
Fig. 24(d) integrates the vehicle's mechanical transmission within the
driveline; however, instead of incorporating a differential that connects
the driveline as a whole, two electric motors along with fixed gearings
are linked to the independent drivelines of each wheel. This configura­
tion enables the independent drivelines to operate at different speeds
based on the motor's output. Although the Fig. 24(e) configuration is
similar to the Fig. 24(d) configuration, the fixed gears and electric mo­
tors are not placed on the vehicle's driveline but instead directly con­
nected to the wheels. The configuration in Fig. 24(f), however, does not
include fixed gearings but instead directly places the motor inside the
wheels of the vehicle. As a result, the configuration helps reduce overall
weight, thus making it suitable for city cruising. However, since the
motors are directly placed within the wheels, high traction forces are
required to initiate vehicle acceleration; because of this, the RBS yields
lower efficiencies due to losses incurred as heat when a large current
passes through the motor's winding to initiate required acceleration. In
contrast, mechanical losses due to gearings and differentials are
reduced.
Compared to a conventional ICEV, however, an EV lacks the quality

23
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

Fig. 24. Schematic representation of the various drivetrain configurations: (a) conventional driveline with clutch, (b) driveline with single-gear transmission without
clutch, (c) driveline with integrated fixed gearing and differential, (d) driveline with two separate motors and fixed gearing, (e) driveline with fixed gearing and
motor, (f) in-wheel drive [65].

of extended driving ranges; this makes it a more suitable candidate for
city driving. For this reason, configurations such as the in-wheel drive in
Fig. 24(f) are proposed to reduce operative parts to lessen overall weight
and increase the mileage covered on a complete battery charge. An
alternative approach is to incorporate larger batteries; however, this
approach is not economical because of the high initial costs incurred on
the vehicle. On the other hand, lower fuel and maintenance costs make
both the EV and HEV competitive alternatives to ICEV.
Various studies on the EV and HEV support their potential, particu­
larly due to the RBS developments. Recently, Dong et al. [173] proposed
an EV energy optimal braking strategy – a strategy that determines the
optimum vehicle velocity resulting in the highest energy regeneration
efficiencies for a given deceleration compared to a regular constant
deceleration braking strategy (CDBS). Their strategy yielded a regen­
eration energy efficiency of 68.18 % which signified an 11.42 %
enhancement compared to CDBS. Yang et al. [174] developed a double
fuzzy brake energy recovery controller that takes into account vehicle
speed, battery SOC, brake pedal opening, and the rate of change of brake
pedal opening. Their controller attained braking energy recovery rates
and effective energy recovery rates that reached 51 % and 13 %,
respectively. Chen et al. [175] constructed a cooperative control strat­
egy that ensures operation of RBS in case ABS operation with the help of
a novel pneumatic electro-mechanical brake-by-wire system. The strat­
egy and system yielded energy regeneration ratios of 33 %.
recuperated during braking to facilitate its actuation instead of having to
rely on the vehicle's ICE to actuate it through a series of mechanical
interconnections. Fig. 25 [106] provides a schematic representation of
their proposed solution. Their simulations results indicate that their
employed RBS regenerates electric powers with peak and mean values of
9800 W and 4600 W, respectively. Their hydraulic plant, on the other
hand, consumed peak and mean powers of 5000 W and 2500 W,
respectively, significantly less than those regenerated by their RBS.
Consequently, their RBS can also be used to operate any other energy
demanding auxiliaries if needed. In addition to this, their employed
battery can tolerate large power capacities amounting to 14 kW.
Bravo et al. [176] have devised a hydraulic-pneumatic hybrid pow­
ertrain, as shown in Fig. 26, for integration within heavy duty vehicles
that transpose both highways and urban areas frequently. The imple­
mented hydraulic system is used to recover portion of the braking

4.2. Applications

The energy recuperated during braking is not necessarily limited to

just powering the vehicle, but can also be utilized to feed its numerous
energy demanding auxiliaries to serve different applications. For
instance, Pugi et al. [106] have developed an onboard hydraulic actu­
ation system that was integrated within an Isuzu truck equipped with a
hydraulic tooling for garbage collection. This system utilizes energy Fig. 25. Simplified schematic of Pugi et al.'s proposed solution [106].

24
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
Fig. 26. Parallel hydraulic-pneumatic hybrid: (1) ICE, (2) gear box, (3) clutch, (4) differential, (5) hydraulic pump/motor, (6) oil reservoir, (7) high pressure
accumulator, (8) control valve, (9) hydraulic motor and air compressor, (10) pressurized air reservoir [176].
energy which is then stored within a hydraulic accumulator and an air
reservoir. Energy stored within the hydraulic accumulator is used to
assist the vehicle's ICE in propelling the vehicle, whereas, energy stored
within the air reservoir is used to power the vehicle's auxiliaries in a
power-assist mode. They have investigated the energy regeneration
capability of their system under two main conditions: (1) a full stop, to
mimic urban driving conditions, and (2) a downward slope, to mimic
typical highway driving. Their results have shown that their proposed
system was able to store 69 % of the available energy during full stop
and 14 % during downward slope conditions. In addition to this, the
hydraulic and pneumatic storage efficiencies under full stop conditions
were 58 % and 11 %, respectively. For downward slope conditions, on
the other hand, the hydraulic and pneumatic storage efficiencies were 4
% and 10 %.
Zhang and Tong [177], on the other hand, have developed a hier­
archical model predictive control strategy that utilizes an EV's regen­
erated energy to power its air-conditioning system as shown in Fig. 27.
Their model is based on constructing state-space equations that accounts
for the power flow and air-conditioning dynamics of the vehicle, which
is then optimized to minimize energy consumption and reducing battery
aging. Their strategy is composed of two layers; where the higher layer
makes used of a model predictive controller which optimally plans the
vehicle's speed to regenerate as much energy possible with minimal
losses. The lower layer, however, completely utilizes the regenerated
energy from the upper layer to thermally manage the vehicle's cabin.
Their employed strategy has been able to reduce both the vehicle's
Fig. 27. Schematic representation of the EV's thermal and power flow [177].
25
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
energy consumption and its battery cycling aging by 3.38 % and 29.15
%, respectively. Similarly, in Kumar's work [178], a 3 kW air-
conditioning compressor was operated using the energy recuperated
during the vehicle's braking operations. Results have shown that, the
recovery capacities of the RBS were in fact enhanced by around 8 %
when coupled to the air-conditioning compressor and the battery power
consumption was reduced by 3.2 %.
5. Importance of understanding vehicle dynamics for RBSs
To devise an RBS that attains maximum energy regeneration while
ensuring safe braking operations, a clear understanding of vehicle dy­
namics and its associated impacts on braking operations is needed. This
is because the aforementioned energy management systems rely on
mathematical formulations that describe the behavior of the vehicles
and enable them to execute commands for braking and energy regen­
eration processes. Perhaps the most important equation governing the
remaining explanations related to vehicle dynamics is expressed in Eq.
(2):
Ptot = Pacc + Pincl + Pair + PR + PC + PLS (2)
where Ptot is the total power generated by the vehicle's powertrain/
traction system and is available at the wheels.
This total power is consumed by the various resistances that counter
the motion of the vehicle's acceleration. Such resistances include
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
inclination resistances Pincl, aerodynamic resistances Pair, rolling re­
sistances PR, cornering/curving resistances PC, and longitudinal slip
losses during traction or braking PLS. After deducting all these power
losses due to resistances from the total power, the equation is left with
the accelerating power Pacc used to accelerate the vehicle. Depending on
the type of vehicle (e.g., EV/HEV), Pacc, can be further distributed
amongst the incorporated motor and/or the vehicle ICE. This is where
the energy management system decides the optimal propulsion/braking
system after taking into consideration all other impactful vehicle pa­
rameters. However, this equation does not perfectly model power con­
sumption of the vehicle: the equation does not include power losses
related to the auxiliary power system or to the vehicle's powertrain since
their significance varies widely based on the type of vehicle. Accounting
for these power losses adds to the complexity of mathematically
modelling the vehicle. Nevertheless, their incorporation will contribute
to formulating a mathematical model that accurately describes vehicle
behavior.
5.1. Inclination resistances
Accounting for the resistances that impede a vehicle's acceleration is
imperative for devising a regenerative braking control system that de­
termines the brake force required to decelerate the car. One such
resistance is the inclination resistance. In devising a mathematical
relation that describes the inclination/declination resistances a vehicle
encounters during acceleration, it is necessary to first formulate a rela­
tion that describes the accelerative power a vehicle demands. A vehicle's
accelerative power can be described as shown in Eq. (3):
Pacc = Facc vx = max vx (3)
where Facc is the acceleration force, vx and ax are the longitudinal speed
and acceleration, and m is the total mass of the vehicle inclusive of all
components.
Having established a basic mathematical formulation for a vehicle's
accelerative power, the inclination resistance needs to be considered.
This is important because the control systems that govern RBS opera­
tions are designed to consider external vehicular conditions, with
driving slope being a major factor [110,173,179]. A generalized
deduction of the inclination resistance power is expressed in Eq. (4):
Pinc = Fincl vx = mgsin∅vx (4)
where θ is the inclination angle. However, if the vehicle is accelerating
down a slope, then Pincl will not be a power resistance loss and would, in
fact, contribute to the vehicle's overall acceleration.
5.2. Aerodynamic resistances
Another major factor that impedes a vehicle's acceleration is the
aerodynamic drag imposed by the surrounding atmosphere. Aero­
dynamic drag is one of the most influential resistances associated with
automobiles and must be taken into consideration. The power imposed
by this drag is depicted in Eq. (5):
1
Pair = Fair vx = ρCd Avr 2 vx (5)
2
where ρ is the density, Cd is the drag coefficient, A is the area, vr is the
relative velocity between the vehicle and the airstream, and A is the
frontal area of the vehicle.
5.3. Rolling resistances
Rolling resistances also impede a vehicle's accelerative motion. Its
calculation assumes that this resistance is the only source of declarative
force and the vehicle's wheels are freely rolling with no braking/trac­
tion: aerodynamic drags are not considered in determining rolling
26
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
resistances. The power of rolling resistance can be approximated as
shown in Eq. (6):
Pr = Fr vx = mgμr cos∅vx (6)
where μr the coefficient of rolling resistance. Energy consumption
through rolling resistances highly depend upon road conditions: road
irregularities that result in vehicle vibrations, wheel out-of-roundness,
and friction associated with wheel bearings [46].
5.4. Traction and braking losses
Traction and braking forces can result in several longitudinal wheel
slip scenarios. Wheel slip takes place when there is a velocity difference
between the wheel and the vehicle's forward speed, which consequently
impacts energy regeneration during braking and results in power losses.
To comprehend this form of resistance, a basic understanding of wheel
dynamics is required. Fig. 28 [16] provides a schematic representation
of the different forms of wheel slip that can occur as a result of either
braking or traction forces. Figure (a) is a representation of slip due to
braking, whereby the rubber in the wheel's treads is stretched. Figure (b)
represents slip due to traction as the tire treads have become com­
pressed. Figure (c) represents a 100 % slip case whereby the vehicle
moves unspecified distances when brake forces are applied. Similarly,
figure (d) represents 100 % slip case for traction forces; however in this
case, the wheels remain in place and do not the move the vehicle for­
ward. Because of varying slip conditions, longitudinal slip forces may
also vary.
Fig. 29 provides a graphical representation that links traction friction
coefficients to slip percentages [16]. It becomes evident that as slip
percentages increase beyond 20%, friction coefficients decrease, thus
reducing traction forces as shown through Eq. (7):
PT = FT vx = mgμT cos∅vx (7)
where μT is the traction friction coefficient. Peak traction force values
occur at a 20 % slip as shown in Fig. 29. Below that, the relationship
between traction friction coefficients and slip percentages can be
approximated as linear. When slip is 100 % the traction friction coeffi­
cient drops down to about 0.4–0.5.
With regards to braking forces, the brake friction coefficients/force
and slip percentages exhibit a very similar relationship to that shown in
Fig. 30. The figure also graphically describes how these trends can vary
with road conditions (dry, wet, and ice road). The figure makes it clear
that wet and icy road conditions cause peak friction forces that are
significantly lower than those in normal road conditions (dry road).
Subsequently, the resistances imposed by such frictions become signif­
icantly lower and result in unstable driving conditions. Power losses in
terms of traction and braking forces for each wheel can also be expressed
in a more generalized form through Eq. (8):
∑
PLS = Fxi si vxi (8)
where si is the slip ratio.
5.5. Cornering resistances
When vehicles are taking a turn, longitudinal tire forces are no longer
the only forces acting upon the wheel. The tilt angle of the wheel gives
rise to other forces known as lateral tire forces, shown in Fig. 31 [16].
The graphical representation in this figure describes how lateral tire
forces vary with tilt angles. The variations exhibit a similar trend to that
exhibited by the friction force coefficients and slip percentages. The
figure also describes how the lateral force behavior changes when
wheels are locked, which happens during severe braking conditions. The
significantly low lateral friction forces are the reason that severe braking
conditions are associated with directional instability.
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
Fig. 28. (a) Slip due to braking, (b) slip due to traction, (c) 100 % slip due to braking, (d) 100 % slip due to traction [16].
Fig. 29. Relationship between traction friction coefficient and longitudinal slip
percentages [16].
Power losses associated with cornering can be generally described
through the mathematic relationship shown in Eq. (9):
PC = Fc v x
Using a single-track model and the assumption of small angles [46], Eq.
(9) can be further be expressed in the form shown in Eq. (10):
PC = Fc vx = Fy,f αf vx + Fy,r αr vx
where Fy,f and Fy,r are the lateral forces generated at the front and rear
axles and αf and αr are the slip angles associated with each wheel axle.
To minimize the impacts of wheel slip on vehicle performance/mo­
tion, ABSs, described earlier, is now integrated with RBS to avoid wheel
lock. However, RBS operation is usually restricted when ABS is in
operation. For this reason, various studies [131,180–182] are investi­
gating the possibility of a coordinated control between ABS and RBS
whereby the devised control system takes vehicle slip ratios into
consideration.
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033
Fig. 30. Relationship of longitudinal brake friction forces and slip percentages
(9) for three different types of road conditions [16].
6. RBS evaluation factors
(10) Many studies use evaluation factors to test the operational feasibility
of their RBS model by comparing the amount of regenerated energy to
the total energy expenditure of the vehicle. However, the mathematics
behind the formulation of the evaluation factors varies from one study to
the other and is specific to the case being studied and its associated
assumptions. Nevertheless, this section aims to present several gener­
alized evaluation factors that have been previously implemented within
different studies to test RBS feasibility. In one such study, Lv et al. [117]
formulated a mathematically comprehensive evaluation factor that
calculated the contribution made by regenerative brakes to the total
energy utilization of an EV. The evaluation factor is as shown in Eq. (11):
ΔEdrive ηfd ηg ηgen ηch ηdis ηm ηg ηfd .Eregen
δ= × 100% = (11)
Edrive Edrive
27
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105033

Emot out = ηd ηg Eregen (19)

Qui and Wang [113] have also proposed two additional factors for
evaluating regenerative braking contribution. The first factor is referred
to as the contribution of regenerative braking energy transfer efficiency
during braking processes σr and is shown in Eq. (20).
Eregen
σr = × 100% = ηfd ηmb ηmt ηbat ηmd ηtd × 100% (20)
Eo

where ηfd is the efficiency of the final drive unit, ηmb is the average ef­
ficiency of the axle with regenerative braking, ηmt is the average effi­
ciency of the motor during transmission situations, ηtd is the average
efficiency of the transmission system, ηmd is the average efficiency of the
motor during driving situations, Eregen is the regenerative braking en­
ergy of the drive wheel, and Eo is the energy consumption of hydraulic
brake (friction brake) during braking.
Fig. 31. Variations of lateral wheel force with respect to slip angles [16]. To understand the calculation procedures behind the efficiency
values of Eregen and Eo, it is imperative to refer to Qui and Wang's work
where Eregen is the energy recovered by regenerative braking during [113]. This evaluation factor serves as an indicator for the variation of
driving, ηfd is the efficiency of the drive unit, ηg is the efficiency of the energy consumption per unit distance (kWh/100 km). Qui and Wang's
gearbox, ηgen is the efficiency of the generator, ηm is the efficiency of the second proposed evaluation factor describes the contribution ratio to
motor, ηch and ηdis are the charging and discharging efficiencies of the regenerative driving range σc. This parameter exhibits the variation of
battery, and Edrive is as shown in Eq. (12): driving ranges with the electrical energy of a vehicle with RBS (km/
∫ kWh). This evaluation factor is as shown in Eq. (21).
Edrive = Pdrive dt (12) Eo
a≥0 σc = σr . (21)
Edrive
and Pdrive is as shown in Eq. (13):
where Edrive is the energy consumption of a vehicle with RBS and is
CD Au2 du mathematically represented as shown in Eq. (22).
Pdrive = fmgu + + ξmgu. (13)
21.15 dt
Edrive = Ef + Ei + Ew + Eo (22)
where f is rolling resistance coefficient, CD is the coefficient of air
resistance, A is the frontal area, ξ is conversion coefficient of rotational where Ef is the energy required to overcome rolling resistance, Ei is the
mass of power train, u is the real-time velocity of the vehicle, a is the energy required to overcome gradient resistance, and Ew is the energy
vehicle's acceleration, and the integral limit of a ≥0 associated with Eq. required to overcome aerodynamic drag.
(12) indicates that the vehicle is in acceleration. Lv et al. have also Nevertheless, RBS evaluation factors are not only restricted to
formulated different variations of the same evaluation factor. For calculating the recuperated fraction of energy by RBS. There are other
instance, they have evaluated the contribution made by regenerative forms of parametric evaluations that can take into consideration the
braking to total energy utilization by considering the energy input and variation of mileage by a vehicle that employs an RBS compared to one
output of the employed BESS as a reference. As a result, this led to the that does not. Variations in overall fuel consumption can also be taken
formulation of Eq. (14): into consideration when studying the impacts of an RBS, which can also
lead to a cost analysis study based on the fuel consumption. Such eval­
ηch ηdis .Ebat uation factors are commonly used and can be found in several studies.
(14)
′ in
δ =
Ebat out For instance, Pipitone and Vitale [156] made use of multiple evaluation
factors to demonstrate the effectiveness of their RBS. They evaluated
where Ebat_in and Ebat_out are shown in Eqs. (15) and (16), respectively.
fuel consumption, fuel savings, economic savings, payback distances,
∫
payback times, and energy efficiencies. Bjornsson and Karlsson [183]
Ebat out = Ubat Ibat dt (15)
Ibat ≥0 demonstrated RBS effectiveness from an energy, fuel consumption, and
economic point of view. Reksowardojo et al. [184] exhibited RBS
∫
operational feasibility in terms of distances travelled, the battery's SOC,
Ebat = Ubat Ibat dt (16)
and total energy consumption. Another major parameter upon which the
in
Ibat <0
operation of an RBS is evaluated is its contribution to environmental
where Ubat and Ibat are the voltage and current at the battery input/ safety; this is done by measuring carbon emissions before and after RBS
output port. I < 0 indicates that the battery is in charging process and I integration [119,144].
≥ 0 indicates that the battery is in discharging process. Finally, they
have produced a third form of the same evaluation factor; however, its 7. Concluding remarks
measurement point is now at the electric motor. This form can be seen in
Eq. (17). The RBS is a technology which has been fabricated with a multitude
ηgen ηch ηdis ηm .Emot of other technologies all working together in tandem. An RBS is reliant
(17)
in
δ′′ =
Emot on the development of many other interconnected components that
out
make up the overall system. It is also regarded as mature technology
where Emot_in and Emot_out are expressed in Eqs. (18) and (19), which has been not only developed sufficiently to be a common
respectively. component in today's electric-based vehicles but also been widely
researched. Therefore, this review has provided a holistic look at RBSs
1
Emot out = Edrive (18) and summarized key research findings. Consequently, readers will have
ηd ηg a basic understanding of RBS. In particular, readers interested in

28
A.T. Hamada and M.F. Orhan
devising their own system have been introduced to vehicle dynamics
and associated concepts as well as the various evaluation factors/pa­
rameters required to evaluate the performance and feasibility of an RBS.
The research compiled in this review indicate there are two major
factors that significantly affect RBS operations: the type of ESS and the
energy management system. Despite the variety of RBSs, most RBS
studies indicate that electric RBSs (systems with batteries as ESS and a
coupled MGU) are the best form of RBS compared to its mechanical-
based counterparts (spring/elastomer RBSs, pure hydro/pneumatic
RBSs, and pure flywheel RBSs). Even when mechanical-based RBSs are
used, they are hybridized with a battery and an MGU. Furthermore, the
same studies have concluded that lithium-ion batteries are the best ESS
contender amongst its counterparts due to their high energy and power
densities.
Studies on ESS hybridization have shown that ultracapacitors are the
most common secondary ESSs. This is because ultracapacitors can
withstand high incurred charging currents from the vehicle's MGU, thus
reducing the load on the main ESS and enhancing its life cycle. With
regards to energy management systems, high supervisory control sys­
tems are the most common. This is because these control systems are
more susceptible to external vehicular conditions and can account for
high-order nonlinearities, enabling a more accurate modelling repre­
sentation of the vehicle being studied and eventually resulting in better
regenerative braking performance. Of the various control systems,
fuzzy-based control systems are most used in modelling energy man­
agement systems. This is mainly attributed to their flexible adaptability,
real-time performance, and ability to simulate human thinking.
Indeed, RBSs have offered numerous benefits such as improved fuel
economy, enhanced emission reductions, enhanced vehicle perfor­
mance, improved vehicle mileage, and reductions in both engine and
brake wear. Nevertheless, the energy regeneration efficiency of RBSs,
specifically electric-RBSs, remains limited due to the characteristics of
the employed motor and BESS. Due to the motor's power capacities, the
amount of energy regenerated through braking can be limited, thus
reducing regeneration efficiencies. In addition, even with the currently
employed motor technologies, the regenerated electric current is, at
times, too much for the BESS to handle, thus affecting its overall per­
formance. As a result, numerous studies have investigated the feasibility
of integrating different forms of MGUs and ESSs to improve the overall
performance of the RBS.
Nonetheless, the development of RBSs has come a long way since
their introduction in the 19th century. Their significant development
can be attributed to growing global environmental concerns that have
finally captured the world's attention. To further facilitate the com­
mercial feasibility of RBSs, more attention from the academic commu­
nity is required to overcome technological challenges and optimize this
system to its maximum capability.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Department of Mechanical En­
gineering, American University of Sharjah, for granting access to all
required research facilities and databases.
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