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Functions of Blood
1. Transport of gases, nutrients and waste products
2. Transport of processed molecules
3. Transport of regulatory molecules
Blood 4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Protection against foreign substances
7. Clot formation

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Blood Composition of Blood 1

Connective tissue
liquid matrix or plasma
cells and cell fragments or formed elements

4-5 Liters (female)

5-6 Liters (male)
8% of body weight
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Composition of Blood 1 Plasma Proteins

Plasma: Albumin:
• 55% of total blood • 58% of plasma proteins

• pale, yellow liquid that surrounds cells • helps maintain water balance (osmosis)

• 91% water, 7% dissolved proteins, and 2% other

Globulins:
• 38% of plasma proteins
• helps immune system (antibodies); clotting factors
Fibrinogen:
• 4% of plasma proteins
• Converted to fibrin, a threadlike protein w/c forms blood clot
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Composition of Blood 2 Hematopoiesis 1

Hematopoiesis is the process that produces

formed elements.
In the fetus, hematopoiesis occurs in several
tissues, including the liver, thymus, spleen,
lymph nodes, and red bone marrow.
After birth, hematopoiesis is confined primarily
to red bone marrow, but some white blood cells
are produced in lymphatic tissues.

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Erythrocytes Hemoglobin – 4 protein chains and 4 heme groups

Red blood cells (RBC) Main component of erythrocytes
Disk-shaped with thick
edges
Transports O2

Nucleus is lost during Each globin protein is attached to a heme

development molecule
Live for 120 days Each heme contains one iron atom
Function: O2 binds to iron
98.5%
transport O2 to tissues Oxyhemoglobin: 1.5%
transport CO2 • hemoglobin with an O2 attached
Figure 11.3
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Hemoglobin 2 Carbon Monoxide vs Oxygen

HEMOGLOBIN CARBON
MONOXIDE
OXYGEN

Figure 11.4 Figure 11.4

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Transport of Carbon Dioxide Red Blood Cell Production

70% in the form of bicarbonate ions

Carbonic anhydrase
CO2 binds to globin
23% in Hb or other blood proteins
7% in plasma

Figure 11.4 Figure 11.5

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Hemoglobin Breakdown Leukocytes

White blood cells (WBC)
Lack hemoglobin
Larger than erythrocytes
Contain a nucleus
Functions:
• fight infections
• remove dead cells and debris by phagocytosis

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Platelets Blood Loss

Platelets are minute fragments of cells, each
consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm
surrounded by a cell membrane.
They are produced in the red bone marrow from
large cells called megakaryocytes.
Small fragments break off from the megakaryocytes
and enter the blood as platelets.
Platelets play an important role in preventing blood
loss.

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Preventing Blood Loss Blood Clotting

1. Vascular spasm: Blood can be transformed from a liquid to a gel
• Immediate but temporary constriction of blood Clot:
vessel • network of thread-like proteins called fibrin that trap
blood cells and fluid
2. Platelet plugs:
• depends on clotting factors
• can seal up small breaks in blood vessels Clotting factors:
3. Blood clotting (coagulation) • proteins in plasma
• only activated following injury
• made in liver
• require vitamin K for synthesis & Calcium
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Clot Formation Control Blood Grouping

Clots need to be controlled so they don’t spread Injury or surgery can lead to a blood transfusion
throughout the body Transfusion reactions (Agglutination & Hemolysis):
Anticoagulants: • clumping of blood cells (bad)
• prevent clots from forming Antigens:
• Example - heparin and antithrombin • molecules on surface of erythrocytes
Antibodies:
Injury causes enough clotting factors to be
• proteins in plasma
activated that anticoagulants can’t work in that
particular area of the body Blood groups:
• named according to antigen (ABO & Rh)
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Blood Donor and Recipient
ABO Blood Groups
According to ABO Blood Types
O are universal donors because they have no
antigens
Type A can receive A and O blood
Type B can receive B and O blood
Type AB can receive A, B, AB blood (universal
recepients)
Type O can only receive O blood

Figure 11.12
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Diagnostic Blood Tests Diagnostic Blood Tests 2

Complete blood count: Prothrombin time:

• provides information such as RBC count, • time it takes for blood to begin clotting (9 to 12 sec.)
hemoglobin, hematocrit, and WBC count
White blood cell count:
Hematocrit:
• total number of white blood cells
• % of total blood volume composed of RBC
Hemoglobin:
• determines amount of hemoglobin
• indicate anemia
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White Blood Cell Disorders

Leukopenia:
• low white blood cell count
• caused by radiation, chemotherapy drugs, tumors,
viral infections
Leukocytosis:
Heart
• high white blood cell count
• caused by infections and leukemia

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Functions of the Heart Heart Characteristics

1. Generates blood pressure Size:
size of a fist and weighs
2. Routes blood less than 1 lb.
3. Ensures one-way blood flow Location:
between lungs in
4. Regulates blood supply thoracic cavity
Orientation:
apex directed to left
and anteriorly
base directed to right
and posteriorly Figure 12.3
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Heart Characteristics Pericardia - coverings

Pericardium:
• Three coverings double-layered sac that anchors and protects heart
• A septum
• Four chambers
• Eleven openings
• Four sets of pericardium

functioning valves

Figure 12.3 Figure 12.4

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Heart Chambers The Atria

Four Chambers: Superior chambers
• left atrium (LA) Holding chambers
• right atrium (RA) Small, thin walled
• left ventricle (LV) Contract minimally to push blood into ventricles
• right ventricle (RV)
Interatrial septum:
Coronary sulcus - separates the atria from the • separates right and left atria
ventricles.

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Ventricles Atrioventricular Heart Valves

Inferior chambers Valves between the atria and ventricles
Pumping chambers Tricuspid valve:
Thick, strong walled • AV valve between RA and RV

Contract forcefully to propel blood out of heart • 3 cusps

Interventricular septum: Bicuspid valve (mitral):

• separates right and left ventricles • AV valve between LA and LV
• 2 cusps

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Valvular Control Semilunar Heart Valves

papillary muscles – cone-shaped muscular The semilunar valves have three half-moon
pillars in ventricle shaped cusps, and are valves between the
chordae tendineae – thin strong connective pulmonary trunk and aorta.
tissue strings, attached is the papillary muscle Pulmonary valve:
and cusps of AV valves
• between RV and pulmonary
trunk
Aortic valve:
• between LV and aorta

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Cardiac Skeleton 1 Cardiac Skeleton 2

This connective tissue plate serves as electrical

insulation between the atria and the ventricles
and provides a rigid attachment site for cardiac
muscle.

Figure 12.9
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Heart Wall Conduction System of Heart 1

Epicardium: Contraction of the atria and ventricles is

• surface of heart (outside)
Myocardium:
• thick, middle layer
composed of cardiac
muscle
Endocardium:
• smooth, inner surface
Figure 12.12
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coordinated by specialized cardiac muscle cells
in the heart wall that form the conduction
system of the heart.
All the cells of the conduction system can
produce spontaneous action potentials.
The conduction system of the heart includes the
sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node,
atrioventricular bundle, right and left bundle
branches, and Purkinje fibers.
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Conduction System of Heart
Sinoatrial node (SA node):
• in RA
• where action potential originates
• functions as pacemaker
• large number of Ca2+ channels
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Conduction System of Heart
Atrioventricular bundle:
• action potentials from AV node travel to AV bundle
• AV bundle divides into a left and right bundle branches
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Action Potential Path through Heart
1. SA node
2. AV node (atrioventricular)
3. AV bundle
4. Right and Left Bundle branches
5. Purkinje fibers
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2 Conduction System of Heart 3
Atrioventricular node (AV node):
• located in the lower portion of the right atrium
• action potentials from SA node sent to this node
• action potentials spread slowly through it
• slow rate of action potential conduction allows the
atria to complete their contraction before action
potentials are delivered to the ventricles
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4 Conduction System of Heart 5
Purkinje Fibers
• at the tips of the left and right bundle branches, are
Purkinje fibers
• Purkinje fibers pass to the apex of the heart and then
extend to the cardiac muscle of the ventricle walls
• action potentials are rapidly delivered to all the cardiac
muscle of the ventricles
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Electrocardiogram (EKG)
ECG (EKG)
• record of electrical events in heart
• diagnoses cardiac abnormalities
• uses electrodes
• contains P wave, QRS complex, T wave
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Electrocardiogram

Figure 12.16 Figure 12.16

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Cardiac Cycle 1 Cardiac Cycle 2

The cardiac cycle is a summative description of Atrial systole:

all the events that occur during one single • contraction of atria
heartbeat.
Ventricular systole:
The heart is a two sided pump, with the atria • contraction of ventricles
being primers for pumps and the ventricles
being the actual pumps. Atrial diastole:
• relaxation of atria
Ventricular diastole:
• relaxation of ventricles
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Heart Sounds Regulation of Heart Function 1

Heart sounds are produced due to the closure of Stroke Volume:

heart valves. • volume of blood pumped per ventricle per contraction
A stethoscope is used to hear heart sounds • 70 milliliters/beat
The first heart sound makes a ‘lubb’ sound.
Heart Rate:
The second heart sound makes a ‘dupp’ sound.
• number of heart beats in 1 min.
The first heart sound is due to the closure of the
• 72 beats/min.
atrioventricular valves.
The second heart sound is due to the closure of
the semilunar valves.
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Regulation of Heart Function 2

HEART DISEASE – BROKEN HEART SYNDROME

Cardiac Output: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy

• volume of blood pumped by a ventricle in 1 min.
• 5 Liters/min.
Cardiac output equals stroke volume multiplied
times heart rate
CO = SV x HR

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Heart Disease Heart Procedures

Coronary Artery Disease Angioplasty:
• due to decrease blood supply to the heart • procedure opens blocked blood vessels
• coronary arteries are narrowed for some reason Stent:
Myocardial Infarction (heart attack) • structures inserted to keep vessels open
• due to closure of one or more coronary arteries Bypass:
• area(s) of cardiac muscle lacking adequate blood • procedure reroutes blood away from blocked arteries
supply die, and scars (infarct)

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Blood Vessels
Blood vessels outside the heart are divided into
two classes:
1. The pulmonary vessels, which transport
blood from the right ventricle of the heart
Blood Vessels through the lungs and back to the left atrium
2. The systemic vessels, which transport blood
from the left ventricle of the heart through all
parts of the body and back to the right atrium

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Blood Vessel Functions Vessel Structures

1. Carry blood Arteries:
2. Exchange nutrients, waste products, gases • carry blood away from heart
within tissues • thick with a lot of elastic
3. Transport substances Veins:
4. Regulate blood pressure • carry blood toward heart

5. Direct blood flow to tissues • think with less elastic

Capillaries:
• exchange occurs between blood and tissue fluids
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Blood Flow Blood Vessel Walls

Blood flows from arteries into arterioles Tunica intima:
Arterioles into capillaries • innermost layer
• simple squamous
Capillaries into venules
Tunica media:
Venules to small veins
• middle layer
Veins return to heart • smooth muscle with elastic and collagen
Tunica adventitia:
• outermost layer
• connective tissue
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Artery and Vein Types of Arteries

Figure 13.2
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images
Elastic arteries:
• largest in diameter
• thickest walls
• Example - aorta and pulmonary trunk
Muscular arteries:
• medium to small size
• thick in diameter
• contain smooth muscle cells
• can control blood flow to body regions
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Arteries Capillaries
Blood flows from arterioles into capillaries
Capillaries branch to form networks
Blood flow is regulated by smooth muscle cells,
precapillary sphincters

Figure 13.1a,b
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Capillary Network Capillary Structure

Figure 13.3 Figure 13.1d

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Types of Veins Valves

Blood flows from capillaries into venules
Blood flows from venules into small veins
All 3 tunics are present in small veins
Medium sized veins:
• collect blood from small veins and deliver to large
veins
Large veins:
• contain valves
Figure 13.4
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Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the measure of force blood
exerts against blood vessel walls.
Systolic pressure: contraction of heart
Diastolic pressure: relaxation of heart
Average Blood Pressure: 120/80
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Body Locations to Evaluate Pulses
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Mean Arterial Pressure
An adequate blood pressure is required to
maintain blood flow through the blood vessels of
the body.
Several regulatory mechanisms ensure that
blood pressure remains adequate for this task.
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is a calculated
value that reflects an average arterial pressure in
various vessels of the body.
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Pulse Pressure
Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic
and diastolic blood pressures.
• Example - 120 for systolic / 80 for diastolic; pulse
pressure is 40 mm Hg
• pulse pressure points can be felt near large arteries
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Hormonal Control of Blood Flow
The sympathetic division also regulates
hormonal control of blood flow through the
release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from
the adrenal medulla.
In most blood vessels, these hormones cause
constriction, which reduces blood flow.
In some tissues, such as skeletal muscle and
cardiac muscle, these hormones cause the blood
vessels to dilate, increasing blood flow.
Figure 13.23
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1 Mean Arterial Pressure 2
The body’s MAP is equal to the cardiac output
(CO) times the peripheral resistance (PR).
Cardiac output is equal to the heart rate (HR)
times the stroke volume (SV).
Peripheral resistance is the resistance to blood
flow in all the blood vessels.
MAP = CO × PR
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Mean Arterial Pressure 3 Aging and Blood Vessels

The MAP changes in response to changes in HR, Arteriosclerosis:
SV, or PR. • makes arteries less elastic
The mean arterial pressure changes over our Atherosclerosis:
lifetime.
• type of arteriosclerosis
MAP is about 70 mm Hg at birth.
• from deposit of materials in artery walls (plaque)
It is maintained at about 95 mm Hg from
Factors that contribute to atherosclerosis:
adolescence to middle age, and may reach 110
mm Hg in a healthy older person. • lack of exercise, smoking, obesity, diet high in
cholesterol and trans fats, some genetics
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Atherosclerotic Plaque

Figure 13.34
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