MIN572: Advanced Manufacturing Processes

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha
Metal Forming

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
ec

or
fM

Ro
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
1
MIN572: Advanced Manufacturing Processes

g.
ng
Credit 4 : L-3, T-1, P-2/2

E
sa
Lecture sessions:

al
Ba

ri
• Tuesday: 10 am – 11 am

st
ik

du
m
• Thursday: 10 am – 11 am

In
ha
• Friday: 10 am – 11 am

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni
Practical session:

e
ha

ke
• Monday: 4 pm - 6 pm
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

Tutorial session: IIT

pt

• Thursday: 3 pm - 4 pm
De

Forming
2
 MIN572: Advanced Manufacturing Processes
Course structure

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
3
 g.
Grading:

ng
k

E
sa
• Assignments, Tutorial, quizzes (CWS)

al
Ba

ri
st
• Practical component (PRS)

ik

du
m

In
• ha
Midterm exam (MTE)

nd
.S

la
Dr

• End term exam (ETE)

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
4
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
Reference books

ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
IIT nd
Ro In
or du
ke st
e ri al
E ng
g.
Forming
5
 Reference books

g.
ng
k

E
sa
1. “Plasticity of Mechanical Engineers” by W.Jhonson and

al
Ba

ri
P.B.Meller, Van Nostrand.

st
ik

du
2. “Manufacturing Science” by A.Ghosh and A.K.Mallik.

In
ha

nd
.S
3. “Metal Forming Mechanics and Metallurgy” by W.F.Hosford

la
Dr

and R.M.Caddll.

ca
ni
4. “The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity” by R.Hill.

e
ha

ke
ec

or
5. Principles of industrial metalworking processes: G.W.ROWE
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
6
 Material processing

g.
ng
• Casting- Expendable and multiple use mold

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
• Forming- bulk forming, sheet forming, powder metal forming

ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
• Joining- welding, brazing, soldering and mechanical joining
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni
• Machining- Mechanical machining and nontraditional machining

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

• Rapid prototyping

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
7
 What is Forming?

g.
ng
• Forming is a mechanical process used in manufacturing industries wherein

E
sa
materials (mostly metals) undergo plastic deformations and acquire required

al
Ba

ri
st
shapes and sizes by application of suitable stresses such as compression,

ik

du
m
shear and tension.

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

• In the forming process, no material is removed; it is completely displaced and

ca
ni
deformed into the required shape.

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
• The weight of the material is same before and after forming operation.
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
8
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
IIT nd
Ro In
Forming Applications

or du
ke st
e ri al
E ng
g.
Forming
9
 Applications of Deep Drawn Products in Real life

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr
Aerospace components Household utensils Cans and package utensils

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Beverage cans Automobile components

Forming
 Forming Applications

g.
ng
Automotive assembly line for producing

E
sa
auto-body.

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni
Companies interested for sheet forming

e
ha

ke
products
ec

or
fM

Ro
• TATA motors, steels
.o

• Honda, Ford, Toyota

IIT
pt

• Audi, Benz, Hyundai

De

• Tesla

Forming 11
 Classification of metal forming processes
Compressive forming processes

g.
ng
Rolling

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
Open die forging

ni

e
Closed die forging
ha Extrusion

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
12
 Classification of metal forming processes
Tensile forming processes

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
Stretch forming Hydro forming
fM

Ro
(Erichsen cup test)
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
13
 Classification of metal forming processes
Combined Tensile and Compressive forming processes

g.
ng
Wire drawing Tube drawing

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

Cup drawing

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt

Deep drawn products

De

Forming
14
 Classification of metal forming processes

g.
Forming by bending

ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
15
 Classification of metal forming processes
Forming by shearing

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
16
 Deformation

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Deformation

Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha
Elastic / Temporary Plastic / Permanent

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni
Truly Elastic Anelastic

e
ha

ke
deformation
ec
deformation

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
17
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
IIT nd
Tensile test

Ro In
or du
ke st
e ri al
E ng
g.
Forming
18
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
IIT nd
Tensile test

Ro In
or du
ke st
e ri al
E ng
g.
Forming
19
 Stress-strain response

g.
ng
Plastic region

E
Elastic

sa

al
region

Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha
A’

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt

Typical stress-strain curve for mild steel

De

Forming
20
 Plastic deformation

g.
ng
Elastic deformation Plastic deformation

E
sa
Reversible Not revisable

al
Ba

ri
Depends on initial and final states of Depends on loading path

st
stress and strain

ik

du
m
Stress is proportional to strain Stress and strain are non proportional

In
ha

nd
No strain hardening effects Strain hardening exists
.S

la
Dr

ca
Elastic region <<< Plastic region

ni

e
ha

ke
So elastic region can be neglected
ec

or
fM

Ro
Plastic
.o

region IIT
pt
De

Forming
21
 Stress-strain response

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
Typical stress-strain curves for different
.o

materials IIT
pt
De

Forming
22
 Stress-strain response

g.
Difference in calculation of yield strength of the material

ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
Ductile material Brittle material
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
23
 Stress-strain calculations

g.
A0

ng
k

E
sa
F

al
Ba

ri
ΔL

st
L0

ik

du
m

In
ha
F

nd
.S
Engineering stress = S =

la
Dr
A0

ca
ni
ΔL

e
ha
Engineering strain = e =

ke
ec
L0

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
24
 Concept of True Stress-strain

g.
Considering no material loss (constant volume before and after deformation)

ng
k

E
A . L = A0 . L0

sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m
F

In
ha
True stress = σ =

nd
A
.S

la
Dr

ca
σ = S (1 + e)

ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

True strain ε = ln(1+e)

IIT
pt
De

Forming
25
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m

If e value is very small then,

ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
k
ε
ca
la
nd
e
IIT
Comparison

Ro In
or du
ke st
e ri al
E ng
g.
Forming
26
 Flow stress

g.
• The stress required to sustain a given amount of plastic

ng
deformation (plastic strain) is called flow stress.

E
sa

al
• The true stress-strain relation in the plastic region is

Ba

ri
st
given by power law relationship which is known as

ik

du
m
Hollomon power hardening law

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

σ = K εn

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
Here K is the strength coefficient and n is the power hardening exponent.
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
27
 Experimental determination of n

g.
ng
σ = K εn lnσ = lnK + n lnε

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
lnσ

st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
lnε
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec
• Typical value of n is 0-0.5 for conventional materials

or
fM

Ro
• For metal forming we required uniform deformation as longer as possible
.o

IIT
pt

• True strain in the uniform deformation zone εu

De

Forming
28
 Incompressibility

g.
ng
Initial volume of the billet

E
sa

al
Ba
Volume change during metal forming

ri
st
ik

du
ln(V/V0) = ln(L w t / L0 w0 t0)

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

Volume remain constant during metal forming

ca
ln(V/V0)= 0

ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
εl + εw + εt = 0
.o

IIT
pt

It is also known as volume constancy condition

De

Forming
29
 Anisotropy

g.
ng
Mechanical properties are different along different directions

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
Anisotropy of the material is defined by the ratio R which is known as

ik

du
m

In
Lankford anisotropy parameter (R)
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr
R = εw / εt

ca
ni

e
ha
For isotropic material, R = 1.

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
εw = εt
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
32
 Anisotropy

g.
ng
k

E
sa
ΔR = (R0 - 2 R45 + R90) / 2

al
Planar anisotropy

Ba

ri
st
ik

du
ഥ = (R0 + 2 R45 + R90) / 4
Average normal anisotropy 𝑹

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

For isotropic material, R0 = R45 = R90 = 1.

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

High ΔR indicates more anisotropy exists in the sheet metal

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
33
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
m
4
fM
ec ik
ha Ba
sa
5

ni k
ca
la
IIT nd
Work

In
hardening
Strain hardening

Ro du
or st
ke ri
e al
E ng
g.
Forming
34
 Strain hardening (Cont.)

g.
1. Increase in load bearing capacity due to strain hardening

ng
k

E
2. Decrease in load bearing capacity due to decrease in cross-sectional area

sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
Zone I Zone II

ni

e
ha

ke
eu
ec

or
fM

Ro
Zone I : Uniform deformation
.o

IIT
pt

Zone II : Non-uniform / Post-uniform deformation

De

Forming
35
 Typical strain hardening behavior

g.
ng
k

E
σ

sa
σ

al
Ba
Y

ri
st
ε

ik
ε

du
m

In
ha
Perfectly elastic
Rigid perfectly plastic

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
σ ha 𝜃
σ

ke
Y
ec
Y

or
fM

Ro
ε ε
.o

Elastic, perfectly plastic Rigid linear hardening

IIT
pt
De

Forming
36
 Instability

g.
ng
dF=0

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
F=σA

ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni
dσ/ dε = σ

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Instability criterion / Considere’s maximum force criterion

Ro
.o

IIT
Prove that uniform strain is equal strain hardening exponent (n)
pt
De

Forming
37
 Work done during plastic deformation

g.
A bar of cross-section area ‘a’ and length l0, and elongated to l.

ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
Work done
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
38
 Effect of temperature
Cold forming: Forming at a temperature below the re-crystalline temperature of the

g.
ng
metal.

E
sa
Hot forming: Forming at a temperature above the re-crystalline temperature of the

al
Ba

ri
metal.

st
ik
New strain-free crystals forms at the recrystallization temperature

du
m

In
Tre-crystallization= 1/3 rd to ½ Tmelting
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
39
 Effect of temperature

g.
ng
Advantages of Cold forming

E
sa

al
Ba
• Good surface finish of the product.

ri
st
ik
• High dimensional accuracy

du
m

In
ha
• Material develops anisotropy during cold forming process which helps to increase

nd
.S
formability sometimes. Such as during drawing.

la
Dr

Disadvantages of Cold forming

ca
ni
• High forming load. High end capacity equipment are required which increases the

e
ha

ke
cost of the machine
ec

or
fM

• Ductility of the material reduces with strain hardening

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
40
 Effect of temperature

g.
ng
Advantages of Hot forming

E
sa

al
• Material becomes softer therefore the yield strength decreases. This reduces the cot

Ba

ri
of the equipment.

st
ik

du
• Ductility of the material increases which help to induce large deformations

In
•
ha
Structure becomes more homogeneous resulting better mechanical properties.

nd
.S

la
Dr

Disadvantages of Hot forming

ca
• Low surface quality due to oxidation of the surface layer
ni

e
ha

ke
• Low dimensional accuracy
ec

or
fM

• Forming tools also heated up which increases the rapid wear of the tools.

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
41
 Effect of temperature

g.
ng
k

E
Warm forming: It has been introduced to take the advantage of both the hot and cold

sa

al
forming

Ba

ri
st
ik
Forming at a temperature above the room temperature but below the re-crystalline

du
m
temperature of the metal.

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

• Since yield strength decreases the load on the equipment also lessen. Adv. Of CF

ca
ni
• Since temperature not high much, surface finish is better. Adv. Of HF

e
ha

ke
• Tool wear is less for reduced temperature. Adv. Of CF
ec

or
fM

Ro
• Equipment cost less expensive due to softness of the material. Adv. Of HF
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
42
 Effect of temperature

g.
ng
Cryo-forming is a potential technique to improve a strength and hardness of the

E
sa
material. It is a very effective and reliable process to get desired mechanical properties.

al
Ba

ri
st
A popular technique for cryo-forming is cryo-rolling

ik

du
m

In
ha
Process: In cryo-rolling we dipped the material in liquid nitrogen (-1900c) and hold it for

nd
.S
a 30 minute or one hour (depends on our requirement) and then doing a rolling process

la
Dr

between two rollers.

ca
ni
After checking the micro-structure of the material then we can get a ultra-fine grain

e
ha

ke
which have a more strength and hardness compared to cold rolling process
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
43
 Effect of temperature

g.
Advantages

ng
k

E
sa
• By cryo-rolling we can achieve a ultra-fine grain structure which improves a strength

al
Ba
compared to cold rolling process

ri
st
• If subsequently we are doing a annealing process after cryo-rolling then we can get a

ik

du
desirable ductility

In
ha
• cryo-rolling require a less plastic deformation compared to severe plastic deformation

nd
.S
process. From Severe plastic deformation process, we can also achieve a ultra fine

la
Dr

grain structure, but it require a large plastic deformation.

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec
Disadvantage

or
fM

Ro
By doing Only cryo-rolling, we can not get a proper ductility. Subsequent annealing
.o

process is require, but it is a preferable

IIT
pt
De

Forming
44
 Effect of temperature

g.
ng
Example of SPD processes for achieving ultra-fin grain structure

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
• equal channel angular pressing (ECAP)

st
ik
accumulative roll-bonding (ARB)

du
•

m
• high pressure torsion (HPT)

In
•
ha
repetitive corrugation and straightening (RCS)

nd
.S
• cyclic extrusion compression (CEC),

la
Dr

• severe torsion straining (STS)

ca
• cyclic closed-die forging (CCDF)
ni

e
• ha
super short multi-pass rolling (SSMR)

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
45
 Effect of strain rate

g.
Forming load / stress-strain diagram is affected by the deformation rate

ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
𝑣

ik

du
εሶ = v = crosshead speed

m
𝑙

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
If crosshead velocity increases then strain rate of the material increases

ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
46
 Effect of strain rate

g.
ng
With increase in strain rate the YS and UTS increases and ductility decreases

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
Power Law

ik

du
m

In
ha
𝝈 = 𝑪. 𝜺ሶ 𝒎

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni
m: strain rate sensitivity index

e
ha

ke
ec
C : Strength constant

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
47
 Effect of strain rate

g.
ng
Method to determine m-value of a material
σ1 = 𝐶 εሶ 1𝑚

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
σ2 = 𝐶 εሶ 𝑚

st
2

ik

du
m

In
𝑚

ha
σ1 εሶ 1

nd
=
.S
σ2 εሶ 2

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha 𝝈
𝐥𝐧 𝝈𝟏

ke
ec

or
𝟐
𝒎=
fM

𝜺ሶ 𝟏

Ro
𝐥𝐧 ሶ
.o

m: strain rate sensitivity index

IIT 𝜺𝟐
pt
De

C : Strength constant

Forming
48
 Effect of strain rate

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
• If m is less, material is not sensitive

ik

du
m
• If m is more, material is sensitive to

In
ha strain rates

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
• If m is high, the elongation is also more before fracture because strain is
fM

Ro
.o

transmitting to uniform region from neck region.

IIT
pt

• m value is also depends upon the temperature.

De

Forming
49
 Combined power law

g.
ng
Hollomon Power hardening law σ = K εn

E
sa

al
Power law

Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
Combined power law

ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
If the material has no strain rate sensitivity then m=0, so the combined power

ni

e
ha

ke
law reduces to Hollomon hardening law
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
50
 Bauschinger effect

g.
ng
2

E
1

sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha
3

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni
4

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt

This effect is called as Bauschinger Effect (BE)

De

Forming
51
 Stress state at a point

g.
Metal forming process involves complex stress and strain states.

ng
k

E
sa

al
• State of stress at a point comprises

Ba

ri
the stress vectors or components of

st
ik
stress vectors acting on three

du
m
mutually perpendicular planes

In
ha
passing through that point.

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
52
 Stress state at a point

g.
ng
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧

E
sa
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧

al
Ba
𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧

ri
st
ik

du
m
Here i = the plane of which stress is acting and j =

In
dz

ha
direction on which the stress is acting

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
dy

ni

e
dx ha

ke
ec
Diagonal element of the matrix is NORMAL STRESS COMPONENTS

or
fM

Ro
All other element of the matric is SHEAR STRESS COMPONENTS
.o

IIT
pt

So there are NINE unknown terms as of now.

De

Forming
53
 Stress state at a point

g.
Now, doing couple balance

ng
k

E
sa

al
𝝈𝒛𝒚 = 𝝈𝒚𝒛

Ba

ri
𝝈𝒙𝒚 = 𝝈𝒚𝒙

st
ik

du
𝝈𝒛𝒙 = 𝝈𝒙𝒛

In
ha
dz
So the final stress matrix will be

nd
.S
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧

la
Dr

𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧

ca
𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑧

ni
dy

e
ha

ke
dx
So there are SIX unknown terms for a stress matrix
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
54
 Principal Stresses

g.
Let us denote the principal stresses by 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 . The forces are acting as shown in

ng
Fig. In this case the stress tensors are reduced to as

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
𝜎1 0 0
ha

nd
𝜎= 0 𝜎2 0
.S

la
Dr

0 0 𝜎3

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
55
 Yield conditions

g.
ng
During uniaxial tensile test we may write the yield condition as given below. The material

E
sa
is in plastic state if and only if

al
Ba

ri
𝝈𝟏𝟏 − 𝝈𝟎 ≥ 𝟎

st
Where, 𝜎0 is the yield strength of the material in tension or compression.

ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr
However, in generalized cases, the yield condition in multi-axial stress state can be written

ca
in some function of stresses as given below

ni
𝑭 𝝈𝒊𝒋 = 𝟎

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
56
 Yield conditions

g.
Yield condition is a material property, therefore, the yield function for homogeneous and

ng
isotropic materials should in fact be a function of invariants of stresses.

E
sa

al
Secondly, the hydrostatic pressure does not make a metal yield. It only produces elastic

Ba

ri
volume change. Therefore, the hydrostatic stress component is

st
ik

du
m
1 1

In
𝜎𝑝 = 𝜎𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33

ha
3 3

nd
.S
In terms of principal stress components, it can be written as

la
Dr

1 1

ca
𝜎𝑝 = 𝜎𝑖 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3

ni
3 3

e
ha

ke
ec

or
Therefore, we convert the stresses at a point as a sum of two factors as given below
fM

Ro
𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13
.o

𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎21 IIT

𝜎22 𝜎23
pt

𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33

De

Forming
57
 Yield conditions

g.
ng
𝜎11 − 𝜎𝑝 𝜎12 𝜎13 𝜎𝑝 0 0

E
𝜎21 𝜎22 − 𝜎𝑝 𝜎23

sa
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = + 0 𝜎𝑝 0

al
𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33 − 𝜎𝑝

Ba
0 0 𝜎𝑝

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha
Deviatoric component hydrostatic component

nd
.S

la
Dr

Hence the stress state at a point can be re written as

ca
ni

e
′ha
𝜎11 ′
𝜎12 ′
𝜎13 𝜎𝑝 0 0

ke
ec
′ ′ ′
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎21 𝜎22 𝜎23 + 0 𝜎𝑝 0

or
fM

′ ′ ′

Ro
𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33 0 0 𝜎𝑝
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
58
 Yield conditions

g.
The deviatoric part of stress tensor is responsible for the change in shape of the body,

ng
hence, the yield function of components of this part of stress state. The deviatoric

E
sa
components shown in dashed values, are as follows

al
Ba

ri
′
1 1
𝜎11 = 𝜎11 − 𝜎𝑝 = 𝜎11 − 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 = 2𝜎11 − 𝜎22 − 𝜎33

st
3 3

ik

du
m

In
ha
′
1 1
𝜎22 = 𝜎22 − 𝜎𝑝 = 𝜎22 − 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 = 2𝜎22 − 𝜎33 − 𝜎11

nd
.S
3 3

la
Dr

ca
′
1 1
𝜎33 = 𝜎33 − 𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎33 − 𝜎11 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎33 = 2𝜎33 − 𝜎11 − 𝜎22

ni
3 3

e
ha

ke
′ ′
ec
𝜎12 = 𝜎12 = 𝜎21 = 𝜎21

or
fM

Ro
′ ′
𝜎23 = 𝜎23 = 𝜎32 = 𝜎32
.o

IIT
pt

′ ′
𝜎31 = 𝜎31 = 𝜎13 = 𝜎13
De

Forming
59
 Tresca yield criterion

g.
ng
Maximum of 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 , 𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 , 𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 = 𝑪𝟐

E
sa
For uniaxial tensile tests, 𝜎1 = 𝑌 , 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 0 Clearly, 𝑪𝟏 = 𝒀

al
Ba

ri
st
For torsion tests (pure shear), 𝜎1 = 𝐾 , 𝜎2 = −𝐾, 𝜎3 = 0 Clearly, 𝑪𝟏 = 𝟐𝑲

ik

du
m

In
ha
So FINAL TRESCA YIELD model equation

nd
.S

la
Dr

Maximum of 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 , 𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 , 𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 = 𝒀 = 𝟐𝑲

ca
ni

e
ha 𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒀

ke
ec

or
Hence, under Tresca criteria
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
yield strength of material under SHEAR = 0.5 x yield strength of material under TENSION
pt
De

Forming
60
 von Mises yield criterion

g.
ng
von Mises YIELD model equation

E
sa

al
Ba
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝟔𝝈𝟐𝟏𝟐 + 𝟔𝝈𝟐𝟐𝟑 + 𝟔𝝈𝟐𝟑𝟏 = 𝟐𝒀𝟐 = 𝟔𝑲𝟐

ri
𝝈𝟏𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑𝟑 + 𝝈𝟑𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏𝟏

st
ik

du
m

In
In the principal stress it can be written as
ha

nd
.S
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 𝟐 = 𝟐𝒀𝟐 = 𝟔𝑲𝟐

la
Dr

ca
𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟕𝒀

ni

e
ha

ke
Hence, under von Mises criteria
ec

or
fM

Ro
yield strength of material under SHEAR = 0.577 x yield strength of material under TENSION
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
61
 Graphical representation of yield criterion

g.
2D yield locus

ng
k

E
sa
Revisiting the von-Mises yield equation,

al
Ba
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2 = 2𝑌 2

ri
st
ik

du
Now for plane stress condition, 𝜎3 = 0

In
ha

nd
.S
At that condition the equation reduces to

la
Dr

ca
2𝜎12 + 2𝜎12 − 2𝜎1 𝜎2 = 2𝑌 2

ni

e
ha

ke
𝜎1 2 𝜎2 2 𝜎1 𝜎2
ec
+ − =1

or
𝑌 𝑌 𝑌 𝑌
fM

Ro
Clearly, this is an equation of an ellipse
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
62
 Yield criterion for anisotropic materials

g.
Hill48 anisotropic yield model

ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
In 1948, Dr. R. Hill suggested first ever yield model for anisotropic materials. This is inspired

st
ik

du
by von Mises yield model. This anisotropy yield model is popularly known as Hill48 anisotropic

In
yield model.

ha

nd
.S

la
+ 𝟐𝑳𝝈𝟐𝟐𝟑 + 𝟐𝑴𝝈𝟐𝟑𝟏 + 𝟐𝑵𝝈𝟐𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏
Dr
𝑭 𝝈𝟐𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑𝟑 𝟐 + 𝑮 𝝈𝟑𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑯 𝝈𝟏𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐𝟐 𝟐

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
63
 Yield criterion for anisotropic materials

g.
Hill48 anisotropic yield model

ng
Here, F, G, H, L, M and N are the anisotropic constants and these are the material parameters. If, X,

E
sa
Y and Z are the yield strength of the material w.r.t the principal direction of the anisotropy then the

al
Ba

ri
following equations can be derived.

st
ik
𝟏

du
𝑮 + 𝑯 = 𝑿𝟐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜎11 = 𝑋, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0

In
𝟏

ha
𝑭 + 𝑯 = 𝟐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜎22 = 𝑌, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0

nd
𝒀
.S
𝟏

la
Dr
𝑭 + 𝑮 = 𝟐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜎33 = 𝑍, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0
𝒁

ca
ni
From these set of equation F, G, H values can be found out. Such as

e
ha

ke
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
ec

or
𝟐𝑭 = 𝟐 + 𝟐 − 𝟐
𝒀 𝒁 𝑿
fM

Ro
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
.o

𝟐𝑮 = 𝟐 + 𝟐 − 𝟐
𝑿 IIT
𝒁 𝒀
pt

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝑯 = 𝟐 + 𝟐 − 𝟐
De

𝑿 𝒀 𝒁

Forming
64
 Yield criterion for anisotropic materials

g.
Hill48 anisotropic yield model

ng
Similarly, if we assume that R, S, T are the yield strength of the material in pure shear condition

E
sa
w.r.t. the principal anisotropy direction then we can get

al
Ba

ri
𝟏

st
𝟐𝑳 = 𝑹𝟐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜎23 = 𝑅, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0

ik

du
𝟏

m
𝟐𝑴 = 𝟐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜎31 = 𝑆, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0

In
ha
𝑺

nd
𝟏
.S
𝟐𝑵 = 𝟐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜎12 = 𝑇, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0

la
𝑻
Dr

ca
If anisotropy effect is completely neglected, then the material becomes isotropic and the condition

ni
for isotropy will become as

e
ha

ke
𝟏 𝟑
ec
𝟑𝑭 = 𝟑𝑮 = 𝟑𝑯 = 𝑳 = 𝑴 = 𝑵 = 𝟐𝑲𝟐 = 𝟐𝒀𝟐

or
fM

Ro
In that condition, the Hill48 anisotropic yield model reduces to von Mises isotropic yield model
.o

IIT
𝝈𝟏𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐𝟐 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑𝟑 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏𝟏 𝟐 + 𝟔𝝈𝟐𝟏𝟐 + 𝟔𝝈𝟐𝟐𝟑 + 𝟔𝝈𝟐𝟑𝟏 = 𝟐𝒀𝟐 = 𝟔𝑲𝟐
pt
De

Forming
65
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
IIT nd
Ro In
or du
ke st
e ri al
E ng
g.
Graphical representation of yield criterion

Forming
66
 Graphical representation of yield criterion

g.
ng
• Stress state comparison

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
67
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
IIT nd
Ro In
or du
ke st
e ri al
E ng
g.
Graphical representation of yield criterion

Forming
68
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
IIT nd
Ro In
Isotropic Hardening

or du
ke st
e ri al
E ng
g.
Forming
69
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
IIT nd
Ro In
Isotropic Hardening

or du
ke st
e ri al
E ng
g.
Forming
70
 Kinematic Hardening

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
• This criterion explains Bauschinger effect
pt
De

Forming
71
 Kinematic Hardening

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
Reverse loading with isotropic hardening
pt
De

Forming
72
 Kinematic Hardening

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt

Reverse loading with kinematic hardening

De

Forming
73
 Mixed/Combined Hardening

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt

Reverse loading with Mixed hardening

De

Forming
74
 Methods for solving metal forming problem

g.
ng
k

E
sa
• Slab method

al
Ba

ri
• Slip line field theory

st
ik

du
• Upper bound method

In
ha
• Lower bound method

nd
.S

la
• Finite element method
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Forming
75
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
IIT nd
In
Thank you!

Ro du
or st
ke ri
e al
E ng
g.
Forming
76