Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251

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Cement and Concrete Composites

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconcomp

Study on the electromagnetic field aligning steel fibres in UHPC reinforced

beams: Effect, mechanism and flexural behavior
Yongming Xiong a, b, Ming Yang a, *, Yuyang Zhang a, Heng Shi a, Jiankai Zhao a, Yan Yuan a
a
School of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, PR China
b
Key Laboratory for Safety Control of Bridge Engineering, Ministry of Education, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, 410114, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Electromagnetic field aligning steel fibre technology mainly focuses on the properties of ultra-high performance
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) concrete (UHPC) without considering the interference of reinforcement. In this study, an electromagnetic field
Electromagnetic coil was used to align steel fibres in UHPC reinforced beams, which verified the feasibility of this method for rein­
UHPC reinforced beam
forced structures. The results indicated that the steel fibres could be magnetised automatically parallel to the
Fibre orientation
Flexural behavior
direction of the magnetic line. The computed tomography (CT) image shows that the distribution of the steel
fibres is uniform, and their orientation in the matrix is clear. The interference effects of the reinforcement were
concentrated at the end, and the fibres in the beam span were parallel to the beam length. This approach can
significantly improve the flexural capacity of the beams, and the increase in amplitude is positively correlated
with the fibre content. In addition, the aligned steel fibre UHPC beams exhibited good plastic deformation and
excellent energy dissipation capacities.

1. Introduction
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) is widely recognised as a
cementitious composite with exceptional properties such as exceptional
strength, superior ductility, and exceptional durability [1,2]. Nonethe­
less, the prohibitive unit cost of its basic materials has prevented its
widespread adoption, necessitating a focus on material performance
enhancement and cost reduction strategies [3,4]. Fibre is the key factor
for improving mechanical properties and substantially increasing
toughness and ductility [5–7]. However, an exceedingly high fibre vol­
ume content increases raw material costs and introduces difficulties
such as clumping and decreased fluidity [8,9].
Therefore, optimising the bonding strength, efficiency coefficient,
and spatial arrangement of fibres, is a crucial strategy for improving the
properties of UHPC [10]. For example, Wille et al. developed UHPC with
a high bond strength between the fibre and matrix, which can achieve
strong tensile properties using a very low steel fibre content [11]. Meng
et al. developed a rheology control method to improve the steel fibre
distribution and flexural performance of UHPC by adjusting the flow
conditions of fresh UHPC [12]. The study revealed random fibre distri­
bution in conventional steel fibre reinforced cementing composites
(SFRCs), with clustering and segregation defects and a low orientation
efficiency coefficient (30%) [13]. The primary method for improving the
material properties of a cementitious matrix is to align the fibres while
keeping the material composition and dosage constant.
Currently, fibre alignment methods mainly include flow guidance
and applied electromagnetic fields [12–15]. Stähli P. et al. used the
flow-properties of the fresh (self-compacting) concrete to change the
fiber distribution and orientation, which is regarded as the first time in
aligning the fibers [15]. Many scholars have subsequently studied
UHPC’s mechanical properties through flow and casting methods,
drawing interesting conclusions [16–20]. Zhang et al. improved a UHPC
casting device to align steel fibres, resulting in significant enhancements
in the mechanical properties [21]. Kang et al. analysed the influence of
different flow fields on fibre orientation and explained the orientation
mechanism during casting [22]. Roy M. et al. evaluated the effect of
fibre volume fraction and fibre orientation on the pullout behaviour of
steel reinforcement bar embedded UHPC, in which the fibre orientation
was controlled by casting methods [23]. Overall, these studies demon­
strate innovative techniques for improving the fibre alignment in UHPC
and enhancing its mechanical properties. It has been observed that the
flow of UHPC naturally decays during the flow process due to energy
conservation law, resulting in an inevitable instability in the efficiency
of fibre orientation [24]. This instability poses a challenge to achieving

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mingyang@seu.edu.cn (M. Yang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2023.105251
Received 3 March 2023; Received in revised form 6 August 2023; Accepted 12 August 2023
Available online 15 August 2023
0958-9465/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Xiong et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251

consistent and precise fibre alignment using flow guidance methods. silicone oil. In addition, the mechanical properties of the aligned steel
Furthermore, this approach is not feasible for reinforcement structures fibre reinforced UHPC beams were investigated using four-point bend
with a large number of densely laid steel rebars, where the flow guid­ experiments. Finally, Section 5 summarises the main results of the
ance method may not be applicable or practical. Therefore, alternative aforementioned studies and provides recommendations for future
approaches must be explored to achieve reliable and uniform fibre research, particularly for precast UHPC structures.
alignment in such complex reinforcement structures.
In 2017, Mu et al. proposed a novel method for aligning steel fibres 2. Design of electromagnetic coil
using an external electromagnetic field. This innovative approach offers
a new opportunity to achieve higher fibre alignment coefficients than 2.1. Assembly of the electromagnetic coil
traditional methods [14]. The principle is that the steel fibres are
magnetised in a magnetic field and forced to rotate until the fibre is An electromagnetic coil is a classical piece of equipment used to
aligned parallel to the direction of the magnetic lines. Steel fibre rotation produce a homogeneous electromagnetic field. Some reports have
is considered efficient if the magnetic field is sufficiently strong. Because indicated that this method can effectively improve the tensile perfor­
the magnetic flux density has a good linear relationship with the current mance of steel fibre reinforced cement matrix composites [31]. The
intensity, this method is simple and manoeuvrable [25]. Compared to relative spatial position of the electromagnetic coil in this study is shown
the flow guidance method, aligning steel fibres with an external elec­ in Fig. 1 (a), where the magnetic lines pass through the specimen and
tromagnetic field is more suitable for the traditional fabrication of force the steel fibres to align parallel to the magnetic line at any location.
concrete specimens. To generate a magnetic field that drives the steel fibres to rotate, an
This study focuses on the distribution of steel fibres and the me­ empirical formula is used to estimate the magnetic flux density B of the
chanical properties of UHPC materials. Very little research has been required electromagnetic coil [32]:
conducted on aligned steel fibres in reinforced UHPC structures, let
B = μ0 nI (1)
alone reports on the magnetic field applied to reinforced UHPC struc­
tures. The interference of steel (such as steel rebars and profile steel)
where B is the magnetic flux density, μ0 = 4π × 10− 7 H/m is the mag­
with the spatial magnetic field distribution is a key problem in the
netic permeability in vacuo, n is the number of turns in the copper
construction of engineering structures with electromagnetic fields. Most
winding, and I is the strength of the electric current.
structures are designed based on the coordinated work principle of
A unidirectional uniform magnetic field generating device was
reinforced concrete [26]. Steel rebars are essential for structures mainly developed, as shown in Fig. 1(b). The equipment consisted of a copper
because of material compatibility, including good cohesion, a high
wire and a power supply. The wire can withstand high temperatures of
elastic modulus, and the evident yield platform of steel [23,27]. These up to 120 ◦ C, and the power supply can convert 120 V alternating cur­
factors ensure cooperation between the steel bar and concrete, ductility
rent into 70 V direct current. The copper wire was wound around a 200
failure of the component, and other important characteristics. There­
mm diameter framework constructed using polymethyl methacrylate
fore, steel bars are irreplaceable in structures [28]. In the typical
manufacturing process of concrete structures, concrete is poured after
the reinforced skeleton is placed [29]. At this time, the steel skeleton
affects the magnetic field and fibre distribution in the space region of the
structure. However, no calculations or predictions of the magnetic field
distribution using electromagnetism have been made. Therefore, it is
important to study the internal steel bars of magnetised directional steel
fibre UHPC beams.
This study investigated the orientation of steel fibres in a freshly
mixed UHPC matrix and explored the feasibility of producing aligned
steel fibre reinforced UHPC beams using an electromagnetic field, with a
fixed steel rebar serving as the magnetic field interference source. First,
the electromagnetic coils were designed based on a combination of
experimental and numerical analyses. The effect of a magnetic field on
the system of steel rebar and steel fibres was studied by simulating a
UHPC slurry with transparent silicone oil. Subsequently, the finite
element method (COMSOL [30]) was verified using a silicone oil test,
and the interference of the steel reinforcement on the magnetic field was
studied. A reasonable pure bending length was determined through
finite element analysis of the magnetic field, and the fibre distribution in
the reinforced UHPC beams was accurately captured using CT images.
Finally, a series of four-point bending tests were conducted on eight
UHPC beams, each with different fibre volume fractions (0.5%, 1.0%,
1.5%, and 2.0%) and magnetic flux densities (0 mT and 40 mT). The
flexural mechanical properties are extensively discussed in terms of
flexural moment, moment-deflection relationship, and failure mode. In
addition, this study demonstrated the potential of this method for
enhancing the energy absorption capacity of beams by analysing the
failure responses under four-point bending conditions.
The remainder of this paper is organised as follows: Section 2 de­
scribes the design procedure and performance of the electromagnetic
coil used in all subsequent studies. Section 3 discusses the UHPC ma­
terials and beam test program. Section 4 discusses the magnetic field
distribution in UHPC. The prediction results (obtained by COMSOL) are
verified by an orientation test of multiple steel fibres in transparent Fig. 1. Details of the electromagnetic equipment.

2
Y. Xiong et al.
(PMMA), a material that does not interfere with magnetic fields.
To determine the required magnetic flux density B, a U-type magnet
with a known magnetic potential was used. As a result, the magnetic flux
density B was set to 40 mT. Initially, the number of turns n was calcu­
lated using Equation (1). However, owing to the distinct characteristics
of the helical coil compared with those of an ideal infinitely long single
layer coil, this initial calculation (n = 1100) failed to accurately reflect
the actual situation. After a thorough evaluation, it was determined that
a more suitable number of turns (n = 1000) was required. To determine
the magnetic field distribution, COMSOL software was used for finite
element analysis.
2.2. Distribution characteristics of electromagnetic field
A portable Gaussian meter (with a margin of error of plus or minus
2% points) was used to measure the magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 1. A
numerical analysis model was established using the COMSOL software.
The model ignores the permeability difference between the acrylic
plastic skeleton and air, and a large enough air area was established to
encompass the entire electromagnetic coil. For improved accuracy,
finite element meshes were encrypted in the electromagnetic coil. The
established electromagnetic finite element model and its meshing details
are shown in Fig. 2. The element size of the helical coil is 0.05 m, and the
outer air field’s is 0.15 m, while adaptive tetrahedral meshing was used
for modeling. The material constitutive model was provided by the
COMSOL library.
To solve for the magnetic field intensity under a constant current, the
magnetic vector potential A must satisfy the following equation:
( )
∇ × μ0 − 1 ∇ × A = J (2)
where, ∇ is divergence, for example, ∇a = ∂ax ∂ax ∂ax
∂z ;
⇀
∂x + ∂y +
current density.
The magnetic flux density B in the air is obtained from the magnetic
vector potential:
B=∇ × A
The magnetic field H is equal to:
H = μ− 1 B
where, μ0 = 1.257 × 10− 6 kg m/C2 . Four uniform coil models were used
to calculate the external current density, and each coil was composed of
250 turns of wire. The current was measured on the DC power supply
(I = 21.02A).
TA spatial magnetic field cloud image generated by the
Fig. 2. Finite element model and mesh characteristics of the electromag­
netic coil.
Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251
electromagnetic coil is shown in Fig. 3, where the top and front views are
listed on the right side of the overall magnetic field distribution. The
electromagnetic coil is reduced to a black contour, and the magnetic
lines (purple curves) and the amplitude of the magnetic flux density B
(colour) of the entire field are described in detail. It can be seen that the
magnetic field distribution has strong symmetry throughout the entire
field. The magnetic field gradients at both ends of the electromagnetic
coil were strong, and the magnetic lines were divergent. The magnetic
field inside the coil was stronger and more homogeneous, and the
magnetic field strength at the core location was 40–45 mT, while the
magnetic field distribution outside the coil was relatively weak (no more
than 10 mT).
The distribution details of the magnetic field inside the electromag­
netic coil section are shown in Fig. 4. The magnetic flux density of each
measuring point was measured three times and its average value was
calculated. Firstly, the relationship between the magnetic flux density B
along the coil axis (measuring path A) and the measured distance is
plotted in Fig. 4 (a). The maximum magnetic flux density in the center of
the coil is about 43.8 mT, and its minimum appeared at the end was
close to 22.1 mT. The length with magnetic flux density greater than 40
mT is 341.6 mm, accounting for 61.0% of the coil length.
Measuring path B, with a vertical distance of 80 mm from the central
axis of the electromagnetic coil, was selected to study the magnetic
strength, and the strength of magnetic flux density B along this path is
presented in Fig. 4 (b). The variations in the electromagnetic flux density
along the measurement line were similar to those shown in Fig. 4 (a), but
the maximum and minimum values were 44.0 mT and 27.5 mT,
respectively. In addition, the length of the effective area (magnetic flux
density greater than 40 mT) of magnetic field intensity is also longer,
reaching 410.8 mm and accounting for 73.4% of the total length.
The results demonstrate a magnetic intensity difference of 0.2 mT
(representing 0.46% of the peak value) in the middle section and 5.4 mT
and J is the
(representing 19.6% of the peak value) at the coil’s extremities. The
notable consistency between the numerical calculations and experi­
mental results confirms the accuracy of the calculated magnetic field
behaviour in the electromagnetic coil. A decline in the magnetic field
(3) intensity at the end of the coil was evident. The electromagnetic coil
effectively generated the intended maximum magnetic field strength of
40 mT, which was sufficient to rotate the steel fibres. The central 341.60
(4) mm area exhibits a near-uniform magnetic field distribution, ensuring
Fig. 3. Magnetic lines (curved purple lines) and strength (color) of the mag­
netic flux density B generated by the electromagnetic coil. (For interpretation of
the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)
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Y. Xiong et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251

Fig. 4. Comparison between the FEA and actual measured results of magnetic flux density.

effective fibre orientation during UHPC casting.

Table 2
Mix proportion of UHPC dry mixture (by weight ratio to cement).
3. UHPC beam mechanical experiment
Cementitious material Sand Water Superplasticizer
3.1. Materials and mixture proportions Cement Silica fume Fly ash

1 0.34 0.28 1.1 0.32 0.018

The study utilised Nanjing Onoda Company’s P II 52.5 Portland
cement (C), adhering to the Chinese standard GB 175-2007 [33]. Silica
fume (SF) and fly ash (FA) were used as mineral admixtures to partially
replace cement. Table 1 presents the chemical compositions and phys­
ical properties of the powders.
The compositions of the dry UHPC mixtures are listed in Table 2. The
particle-size distributions of the cementitious materials are shown in
Fig. 5. For the aggregates, 80% coarse sand and 20% fine sand were
employed, with particle sizes ranging from 380 to 830 μm and 180–380
μm, respectively. The polycarboxylic acid superplasticiser was provided
by Jiangsu Sobute New Materials Co., Ltd [34]. The water-cement ma­
terial ratio (w/c) was set to 0.17.

3.2. UHPC material properties

The mechanical parameters of UHPC materials with different fibre

volume fractions (0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%) were evaluated. To

Table 1
Chemical composition of the powder.
Cement (C) Silica fume (SF) Fly ash (FA)

CaO (%) 65.00 0.53 17.6

SiO2 (%) 20.9 93.32 65.65 Fig. 5. Particle size distributions of the cementitious materials.
Al2O3 (%) 4.56 0.63 6.91
Fe2O3 (%) 3.23 0.1 0.06
ascertain the compressive behaviour, three cube specimens with di­
SO3 (%) 2.65 – 0.2
MgO (%) 0.65 0.43 –
mensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm and three prismatic speci­
Loss on ignition (%) 1.64 1.63 – mens measuring 100 mm × 100 mm × 300 mm were meticulously cast.

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Y. Xiong et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251

In addition, three flexural specimens measuring 100 mm × 100 mm × Table 3

400 mm were prepared to evaluate their basic tensile behaviours. The Material properties of the UHPC (average value).
testing protocols were obtained from literature [35,36] and T/CBMF Material properties Batch 1 Batch 2 Batch 3 Batch 4
37-2018 [37]. Fig. 6 illustrates the experimental details of UHPC ma­
Volume fraction of fibre (%) 0.5 1 1.5 2
terial properties tests. Notably, no vibrators were utilised during the Compressive strength (MPa) 127.90 133.51 140.93 146.62
production process owing to the self-levelling characteristics of the Uniaxial compressive strength (MPa) 99.67 105.75 113.48 119.56
UHPC. Table 3 presents the average values of the crucial mechanical Flexural strength (MPa) 9.18 11.80 13.15 18.83
properties of UHPC. Furthermore, the maximum equivalent tensile Maximum equivalent tensile stress 3.48 4.52 5.08 7.50
(MPa)
stress was calculated based on the flexural strength, considering the
plane cross-sectional assumption [38].
ambient magnetic flux density of approximately 0 mT.

3.3. Details of structural test specimen

As pointed out in some articles [39,40], UHPC is strong enough to
resist shear stress without web reinforcements. Therefore, to avoid the
influence of other complex factors, steel stirrups were not used in this
experiment.
In this experimental study, the test program included eight beam
specimens, as listed in Table 4. The beam size was selected based on the
constraints imposed by the fixed internal volume capacity of the elec­
tromagnetic coil. All beams were configured with rectangular cross
sections, measuring 100 mm × 100 mm, and had a length of 515 mm.
The beam width was meticulously designed to meet the prerequisite of
maintaining adjacent longitudinal rebar spacing greater than 1.5 times
the steel fibre length, while also ensuring the thickness of the structural
protective layer complied with relevant code specifications [41].
HRB400-grade hot-rolled ribbed steel reinforcements were employed;
their mechanical properties are listed in Table 5. Considering the in­
crease in tensile strength provided by steel fibres in cement matrix
composites, investigation of the mechanical properties with a lower
fibre volume content and capitalise on the improved fibre utilisation
efficiency made possible by oriented fibre technology.
According to the reference [42], the longitudinal reinforcement ratio
(ρs ) of all the beams was established as 1.6% using the equation As / bd.
The corresponding specimen numbers were designated as F05, F10, F15,
and F20, respectively, signifying the respective fibre volume fractions
(0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0%) investigated in this study. Two types of
beams were cast: aligned steel fibre beams, denoted as M40, were placed
within a 40 mT magnetic flux density in the electromagnetic coil, and
normal beams, labelled as M0, were situated away from the coil with an
3.4. The fabrication of the experimental beam
A four-point bending test with a pure bending length of 150 mm was
conducted on the UHPC beams, as shown in Fig. 7. The production
process for the UHPC experimental beams is as follows: The UHPC beam
assembly is shown in Fig. 8 (a). A square groove made of ABS plastic was
used as the mould for test beam casting. A pair of 1 mm thick PVC plates
was fitted precisely to the end of the mould, and the spatial position of
the steel bars was precisely controlled using preset scale lines. The steel
bars used in this study were produced by Shagang Group Co., Ltd., and
the properties of the steel reinforcements are listed in Table 6. A 3 mm
strain gauge was bound at the middle part of every rebar to monitor the
stress change during the test. In the entire system, the steel bar was the
only magnetic material, whereas the other materials did not affect the
magnetic field distribution. A forced mixer was used to mix the UHPC
(Fig. 8 (b)), and the mixing procedure was performed according to
Ref. [38]. Owing to its self-levelling and self-consolidation properties,
UHPC is always placed at a fixed location and is allowed to fill the entire
space by self-flowing. The flow process can optimise the orientation of
the steel fibres; however, the flow state degrades with distance [13]. To
avoid this instability effect, the casting process adopted uniform casting
along the long direction of the UHPC beam (the outlet width of the mixer
was longer than that of the mould). The steel fibres in the UHPC matrix
were randomly distributed.
Following completion of the UHPC casting process, the test beam was
magnetised by placing it inside an electromagnetic coil (Fig. 1) for 120 s.
Simultaneously, the classical beam was maintained in an ordinary
environment. Subsequently, all specimens were covered with a

Fig. 6. Test setup of UHPC material property tests.

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Y. Xiong et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251

Table 4
Parameters used in the experimental program.
Specimen F05M0 F05M40 F10M0 F10M40 F15M0 F15M40 F20M0 F20M40

Fibre volume fraction (%) 0.5 1 1.5 2.0

Magnetic field intensity (mT) 0 40 0 40 0 40 0 40

3.5. Loading procedures of beams

Table 5
Properties of steel reinforcement bar (average value).
To assess the deformation of the UHPC beams, precise measurements
Diameter Area Elastic Yield Yield Ultimate were obtained using three linear variable displacement transducers
modulus strain strength strength
(LVDTs) strategically positioned at the mid-span and supporting loca­
ds (mm) As1 Es (GPa) εs (mm) fy (MPa) σul (MPa) tions. The loading process involved two stages: an initial loading stage
(mm2 ) commencing at 5 kN until the cracking load was attained, and a second
10 78.5 206 2348 483.6 640.2 loading stage using 10 kN (adjusted in accordance with the predicted
bearing capacity). As the applied load approached 90% of the antici­
pated ultimate load, the displacement at the mid-span served as the basis
preservative film and cured in a controlled environment at 20 ± 2 ◦ C
for regulating the loading rate. The test was concluded when the load
and a relative humidity (HR) of ≥95% for 48 h. Based on the guidelines
value dropped below 85% of the ultimate load. Throughout the loading
presented in Ref. [43], the specimens were transferred to steam curing
process, each loading stage was maintained for 300 s, during which the
equipment, where they were subjected to a temperature of 90 ± 2 ◦ C and
crack distribution, load, deflection, and strain were recorded simulta­
an HR of ≥95% for an additional 48 h. Following the steam curing
neously. Fig. 9 illustrates the details of the flexural test, wherein the
process, the specimens were slowly cooled to the ambient temperature
testing machine, operated by an electrohydraulic servo-loading system,
before testing.
ensures the accuracy and precision of the test.

Fig. 7. Details of the UHPC beam (unit: mm).

Fig. 8. The construction process of the experimental beam (unit: mm).

Table 6
Summary of flexural test results for beams.
Name Fibre volume fraction Yielding state Peak state

(%) Py (kN) Increase ratio (%) Dy (mm) Pp (kN) Increase ratio (%) Dp (mm)

F05M0 0.5 67.29 17.4 2.74 83.59 12.3 8.85

F05M40 0.5 81.43 3.38 95.33 9.55
F10M0 1.0 76.21 19.4 2.44 83.52 22.5 4.94
F10M40 1.0 94.53 3.15 107.77 6.10
F15M0 1.5 82.90 19.2 2.73 92.90 20.9 7.93
F15M40 1.5 102.65 3.37 117.39 5.63
F20M0 2.0 83.98 25.9 2.84 95.88 24.0 8.53
F20M40 2.0 113.40 3.62 126.24 4.74

Note: Py = load at steel rebar yield, Dy = deflection at steel rebar yield, Pp = peak load, Dp = deflection at the peak.

6
Y. Xiong et al.
Fig. 9. Details of the test program (unit: mm).
4. Results and discussions
4.1. Magnetic orientation of fibres in a viscous silicone oil
An acrylic silicone oil tank (as shown in Fig. 10 (a)) with 300 mm ×
150 mm × 20 mm was used to describe the orientation of steel fibres
suspended in this viscous matrix. The rebar details are described in
Fig. 10 (b). The parallel arrangement of two rebars with a diameter of
10 mm is similar to that in the above experiment, the UHPC matrix is
simulated by this clear viscous medium (50 000 CST silicone oil) [30].
The thickness of the silicone oil tank is only 20 mm, therefore, the fibre
orientation effect can be visually observed during magnetisation. In the
experiment, the steel fibres with 1.0% volume ratio are evenly mixed
into the silicone oil, the dispersed state of magnetised steel fibres is
shown in Fig. 10(c). These fibres are all common types of cement-based
composites and are widely used. Through finite element analysis, the
diagram of the angle (θ) between the magnetic lines and the steel rebar
was obtained, as shown in Fig. 10 (d).
During the test, it was found that this magnetic strength was suffi­
cient to align the all fibres within 30 s in the electromagnetic coil.
Because the plastic viscosity of silicone oil is similar to that of UHPC,
oriented steel fibre in UHPC are feasible. The distribution of steel fibres
in silicon oil can be accurately simulated by electromagnetic finite
element program. The angle between the steel fibre and steel bar was
smaller when it was closer to the middle of the steel bar, and the steel
fibre between the two steel bars could obtain more scope parallel to the
Fig. 10. The test and simulation result on fibre orientation (unit: mm).
7
Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251
steel bar. The influence of the steel bar on the magnetic field is very
significant, and the magnetic lines near the end of the steel bar re­
sembles an “arrow feather”. The steel fibres converge by magnetisation
because all the steel fibres are similar to smaller steel rebars and can trap
others at the ends. Eventually, the fibres form chains that are identical
the magnetic sensing lines. The steel fibre easily disappears when the
angle between the magnetic lines and the steel bar is between 40◦ and
60◦ because it can be trapped by the end of the steel bar.
4.2. Electromagnetic field distribution in the UHPC beam
Fig. 11 (a) shows the distribution diagrams of the magnetic flux
density in the UHPC beam, and the details of the mid-span area are
shown in Fig. 11 (b). Orange was used to fill the steel bar area; the
magnetic lines are represented by black curves, and the magnetic field
intensity is shown in the colour nephogram. As shown in Fig. 11 (a), the
magnetic flux density at the end of the rebar reached 200 mT, whereas
the magnetic field strength in the middle of the steel rebar was close to
that of the background magnetic field. The magnetic flux density in the
centre of the beam is even higher when the effect of the steel bar end was
ignored. The magnetic field distribution in the flexural test area of the
beam can also explain this regular. The maximum value of magnetic flux
density is 42.8 mT and the minimum value is 41.2 mT. The deviation
was 3.7%, which indicated that the distribution of magnetic flux density
was uniform. It should be noted that the magnetic flux density around
the rebar increased and the distribution characteristics of the steel fibres
Y. Xiong et al.
Fig. 11. Distribution diagrams of Magnetic flux density.
were disrupted. In addition, the magnetic flux density in most areas of
the beam span was nearly uniform.
Fig. 12 shows the angle between the magnetic lines and the coil axis,
and the vector direction of the magnetised steel fibres in the electro­
magnetic coil may follow this regular. As shown in Fig. 12 (a), fibres
with a maximum angle of 90◦ were concentrated at the end of the steel
rebar and may not be advantageous for the axial tensile performance of
the beam. The angle between the magnetic lines and the axis in most of
the inner space of the beam is less than 10◦ , which contributes to the
enhancement of flexural performance. The maximum angle between the
magnetic lines and the coil axis in the flexural test area was 1.4◦ (Fig. 12
(b)), which was sufficient to drive the steel fibre evenly parallel to the
axis.
The distribution of the steel fibres along the beam length may affect
the envelopes of various internal stresses. Moreover, most civil engi­
neering structures follow the planar cross-sectional assumption. The
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Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251
details of several typical measurement paths are shown in Fig. 13. Six
measurement paths were chosen according to the symmetry principle. In
addition, three interesting sections were selected to analyse the influ­
ence of the steel bar end.
As shown in Fig. 14, the magnetic flux density and magnetic lines
were symmetrically distributed in the UHPC matrix. The peak value of
the magnetic flux density in the middle of the beam was 42.5 mT. The
magnetic field intensity weakened rapidly away from the mid-span area
and then increased near the end of the steel rebar. The most evident
effect was on the central axis of the beam, which was closest to the steel
bar.
The “bridging effect” of fibres is the key factor in improving the
mechanical properties of UHPC. If the minimum fibre length utilisation
is set to 95%, 18◦ (cos (18◦ ) = 0.951) will be the threshold for this
determination. The magnetic lines were more uniform in the middle of
the beam and almost parallel to the beam. The angle between the
Y. Xiong et al.
Fig. 12. The angle between the magnetic lines and the coil axis (unit: degree).
magnetic lines and the steel bar increases as they approach the end of the
steel bar. Except for the surface of the steel bar, where the maximum
angle is up to 32◦ , the fibre length utilisation was 84.8% (cos (32◦ ) =
0.848). Therefore, the magnetic field deflected most of the steel fibres
towards the length of the beam, which improved the tensile properties of
the UHPC.
Fig. 15 shows the magnetic field characteristics along the measure­
ment paths. Overall, the position of the steel rebar played a significant
role in determining the variation in the magnetic field, and the variation
in the magnetic field distribution along the beam height direction
9
Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251
Fig. 13. The detail of measuring paths in the beam.
changed significantly. The magnetic lines on the centre section were
parallel to the axis of the beam, and the magnetic field intensity was
42.5 mT. Therefore, the mechanical performance of the beam at this
location was relatively stable. As the magnetic flow density at the beam
top is similar to that of the background field, it can be seen from Fig. 15
(a) that the magnetic field intensity at measurement path V of the beam
end drops toapproximately 20 mT of the background field owing to the
steel rebar’s influence. However, the magnetic flow density on the side
of the beam is less affected by the steel rebar (Fig. 15 (c)). The angle
between the magnetic lines and the beam axis was between 10◦ and 40◦ ,
as shown in Fig. 15 (b) and (d). Based on the principle of symmetry, the
magnetic lines at the midpoint of the vertical distance of the steel bar are
parallel to the beam axis. The magnetised steel fibre was not completely
parallel to the beam axis because of the direction of the magnetic line.
This distribution of steel fibres may help improve the properties of the
material in other directions while resisting the smaller bending moment
tensile stress in the beam direction. This is also consistent with the
characteristics of the internal force distribution of axial bending in the
actual beam bearing capacity, and it may be better able to resist the
shear and transverse stresses at the beam end.
4.3. Beam flexural test results and analysis
4.3.1. Magnetic orientation of fibres in UHPC
The CT method is considered the gold standard for assessing fibre
distribution in UHPC, providing nondestructive and high-resolution
imaging of internal structures [44]. Fig. 16 (a) illustrates the magnetic
field distribution within the sample induced by the electromagnetic coil,
with the field lines (curved black lines) and angle (colour) variations
revealing the magnetic field behaviour. Based on the magnetic field
distribution characteristics, two representative locations at the end
(Location I) and middle (Location II) of the beam were selected to study
the fibre orientation. To ensure the characterisation accuracy of the fibre
distribution in UHPC, samples (100 mm × 100 mm × 50 mm) were cut
to test the fibre distribution.
The sample is shown in Fig. 16 (b), and the profile details of the
rebars and distribution of the steel fibres can be observed on the cutting
surface. The cross section of the steel bar displayed a regular appear­
ance, and the cross section of the steel fibre exhibited a small dot-like
structure, indicating that these fibres were vertically aligned and uni­
formly distributed within the cross-sectional plane of the sample.
The application of CT imaging ensures an accurate examination of
the sample, and extracting information on the steel fibre distribution
offers valuable insights into the spatial arrangement within the sample.
The CT technique, utilising a Y.CT Precision S system from YXLON, was
employed to acquire detailed microstructural information about the
sample. CT imaging enables material identification based on density, in
Y. Xiong et al.
Fig. 14. Magnetic characteristics along the beam length direction.
Fig. 15. Magnetic characteristics along the beam height direction.
which grayscale intensities are correlated with material densities. Given
the notably higher density of steel fibres compared with other constit­
uents, steel fibres exhibit a distinctive bright white appearance on CT
images, allowing for straightforward extraction and differentiation [44].
Fig. 17 shows 3D reconstructions of the steel fibres, as observed in the
CT images.
The fibre distribution in the UHPC sample obtained by the classical
concrete pouring method is shown in Fig. 17 (a). The reconstruction and
qualitative visualisation of 3D images from CT were reported by Liu
et al. [44]. It can be clearly observed that the fibres in the UHPC matrix
had a relatively random distribution. The fibre distributions at locations
I and II are shown in Fig. 17 (b) and (c), respectively. The positions of
the steel bars and fibres can be clearly distinguished in the figures.
Overall, the fibres in the UHPC matrix were distributed uniformly and
did not form chains owing to magnetisation, as shown in Fig. 10. This is
mainly because the UHPC matrix has different hydromechanical prop­
erties (such as greater viscosity and density) from silicon oil; therefore,
the UHPC matrix is more suitable for this method of aligning steel fibres
using an electromagnetic field.
The orientation of the fibres in the UHPC matrix was consistent with
the magnetic lines in Fig. 16 (a). Fig. 17 (b) shows the distribution
characteristics of the steel fibres at location I. The steel fibres tend to
10
Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251
converge towards the reinforcement. This indicates that the end effect of
the steel bar is evident and that the finite element simulation can
accurately predict this effect. The obvious parallelism between the steel
fibre and rebar is clearly shown in Fig. 17 (c), which indicates that the
orientation of the steel fibre in the mid-span area of the test beam was
very successful. Because the compressive strength of the UHPC is much
higher than its tensile strength, most of the area near the bottom of the
beam was subjected to tensile stress during the bending load. In this
case, the steel fibres work together with the UHPC matrix and can
effectively improve the tensile properties.
4.3.2. Load–deflection relationship and crack pattern
Fig. 18 illustrates the results of a four-point flexural test conducted
on the reinforced UHPC beams. The left side displays load-midspan
deflection curves for various fibre volume fractions, with deflection
measurements precisely corrected for the deformation of the test system.
The mid-span fracture failure modes of the test beams are shown on the
right-hand side of the figure.
The 50 mm square (red dashed lines) in the cracking failure mode
diagram is used to demarcate the crack location, and there are three
small squares in the horizontal direction in the figure because the pure
bending length is 150 mm. Remarkably, the fracture direction and
Y. Xiong et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251

Fig. 16. Sampling location of the test sample (unit: mm).

Fig. 17. Fibre orientation in UHPC.

largest cracks predominantly occurred in the pure bending region of the
beam, substantiating the reliability of the test results. When the fibre
volume content was 0.5%, the final failure of the beam body was
dominated by multiple uniform tensile cracks, which is similar to that of
ordinary concrete. However, as the fibre content increased, the material
exhibited more pronounced strain-hardening behaviour. The bottom of
the beam exhibited narrow cracks at various positions during loading,
and a significant single crack emerged in the weakest area. Furthermore,
the presence of the aligned steel fibres appeared to amplify the collapsed
area on the top surface of the beam. This phenomenon can be attributed
to the enhanced utilisation of steel fibres at the bottom, resulting in the
reinforced tensile performance of the UHPC. The test results underscore
the potential of aligned steel fibres for augmenting the strength of UHPC
and contributing to its strain-hardening behaviour.
The mechanical properties were subjected to qualitative analysis
based on the load-deflection curve, and the key data are compiled in
Table 6, following the analytical method outlined in Ref. [45]. The
Young’s modulus of each beam was deduced using the Euler-Bernoulli
beam theory, and it was observed that the initial Young’s modulus be­
tween classical UHPC beams and aligned steel fibre UHPC beams
exhibited no significant difference. However, when the fibre content
remained constant, the aligned steel fibres demonstrated an average

11
Y. Xiong et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251

Fig. 18. Load–deflection relationships and crack patterns.

12
Y. Xiong et al.
strength improvement of approximately 20% over the classical UHPC
reinforced beams. Notably, at 2% fibre volume content, the strength
enhancement reached approximately 24%. This indicates that the effect
of performance optimization is enhanced with the increase of fibre
volume content, and the benefit of directional steel fibre is significant.
Upon comparing the test results of beams with 0.5% and 2% fibre vol­
ume content, it becomes evident that the strength index of the 0.5%
directional steel fibre test beam (F05M40) was comparable to that of the
2% classical test beam (F20M0). This suggests that the proposed method
can substantially reduce the volume fraction of steel fibres while
maintaining similar mechanical properties. Consequently, the fibre
alignment process significantly augmented the yield loads and peak
loads of each specimen, offering the possibility of cost reduction in
UHPC production and promoting the adoption of green prefabricated
UHPC structures.
Furthermore, the mechanical properties of the samples in the
strengthening stage were determined by fitting the slope (tangent
modulus) of the curve from the yield stage to the peak stage. As can be
seen from Fig. 18, when the fibre contents are 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% and
2.0%, aligning the steel fibres can increase the tangent modulus of the
beam by 1.0, 1.6, 4.5 and 4.9 times, respectively. The increase in the
tangential modulus during the strengthening stage was linear with
respect to the fibre content. Therefore, the steel fibres are parallel to the
beam length direction and can work efficiently during the crack devel­
opment stage, to ensure that the beam body can sustain high stiffness.
When the fibre volume content is only 0.5%, the fact that the fibres in
the UHPC matrix cannot improve the tangent modulus of the beam is not
really surprising. Considering the lower volume percentage of steel fibre
application, the matrix performance is still dominant.
4.3.3. Ductility and energy absorption capacity
The ductility index is used to measure the resistance of civil engi­
neering structures to deformation during the transition from the elastic
zone to the plastic zone to failure. In this study, the deflection ductility
index, according to Equation (5) [46] was used to evaluate the ductility
of the specimens.
Du
μu = (5)
Dy
where μu is the ductility characteristic of the member, Du is the deflec­
tion of the member at the ultimate load, and Dy is the deflection of the
member at the yield load.
Fig. 19(a) shows the variation in deflection ductility index for
different fibre volume fractions. The fibres were randomly distributed in
samples that were not magnetised, whereas they were distributed
directionally using an electromagnetic field. The ductility of the sample
group with a random fibre distribution was significantly higher than that
Fig. 19. (a) Variation of ductility, (b) Variation of energy absorption capacity.
13
Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251
with aligned fibres, and the gap became more obvious with an increase
in the fibre volume fraction. When the fibres were randomly distributed
in the UHPC, the ductility of the sample increased with an increase in the
number of fibres. When the fibres have a directional distribution, the
ductility of other samples seems to be little different, except for the fibre
content of 0.5%. This may be because the fibre content of 0.5% was low
and the matrix’s property was still the dominant factor. This phenom­
enon can also be reflected in the load-displacement curves. The yield
load and deflection (Dy ) of the aligned steel fibre UHPC beams increased
significantly, and the capacity decreased significantly after the peak
load. The tensile strength of the matrix was much lower than that of the
fibres, and the fibres were fully utilised in a certain direction. Then, the
fibres in the cracked zone withdrew from the work quickly while the
material reached the ultimate load, and the ultimate load and deflection
(Du ) did not appreciably increase as a result.
During the entire life cycle of a structural operation, the energy ab­
sorption capacity is a comprehensive index reflecting the susceptibility
of a structure to damage and is often used to evaluate the ductility of the
structure. The total area under the force-displacement curve represents
the energy required to destroy the specimen, and the increase in the
energy absorption capacity of the specimen was quantified using the
envelope area (shadow map in Fig. 18). A mid-span displacement of 10
mm was selected because the bearing capacity of classical UHPC rein­
forced beams decreased significantly at this point.
Fig. 19 (b) shows the variation of energy absorption capacity with
different fibre volume fractions. The variation of energy absorption ca­
pacity is monotonically increasing with the fibre volume fraction, and
aligning the steel fibres is also superior to conventional processes, con­
trary to what is shown in Fig. 19 (a). As can be seen from the shadow
map in Fig. 18, this increase in the energy absorption capacity is largely
due to the utilisation efficiency of the fibres being maximized and the
changes in the carrying capacity. The displacement ductility index of the
UHPC beams decreases obviously due to the steel fibres rapid with­
drawal from work. After the bearing capacity reached its peak, the in­
ternal force of the section was redistributed, and the tension borne by
the steel fibres is changed to that borne by the steel bars. Only the
tension reinforcements worked in the tension zone, and the mechanical
properties of classical beams are similar to those of aligning steel fiber
UHPC beams. Therefore, aligned steel fibre reinforced UHPC beams
retain sufficient ductility and mechanical properties, and do not exhibit
the brittle failure characteristics of rapid loss of bearing capacity after
reaching the peak of bearing capacity. It is not recommended to use the
traditional deflection ductility index to evaluate the ductility perfor­
mance of the new structure.
Y. Xiong et al.
5. Conclusions
This study starts from the aligning steel fibres by the electromagnetic
field, the distribution characteristics of steel fibres in reinforced beams
were studied, and many new conclusions for improving the performance
of UHPC reinforced structures are proposed, which are summarized as
follows:
i) It is proven for the first time that an electromagnetic field is
effective and feasible for aligning steel fibres in UHPC reinforced
beams, and the fibre direction can be predicted by electromag­
netic finite element analysis. Electromagnetic orientation tech­
nology offers the advantages of high efficiency and easy control.
Reusable electromagnetic equipment can reduce the unit cost and
amount of critical materials required for construction. This is
beneficial for carbon reduction in civil engineering and has a
positive significance for the global carbon-neutral goal.
ii) The distribution characteristics of the steel fibres can be directly
observed by replacing the UHPC matrix with transparent silicon
oil. The steel fibres were magnetised in silicon oil and then turned
and connected end-to-end in a chain arrangement (Fig. 9)
consistent with the direction of the magnetic line. In the UHPC
matrix, the CT images show that the steel fibres produced the
same orientation effect as the silicon oil matrix. Compared with
the CT method, the silicon oil method has a lower cost, and a
larger observation scale and is more suitable for the study of fibre
distribution characteristics at the structural scale.
iii) The fixed steel bars significantly change the vector characteristics
of the original electromagnetic field. In the entire beam region,
the magnetic field could effectively drive the steel fibres in the
UHPC matrix. In this study, the magnetic field presented a sym­
metrical distribution, and the orientation of the steel fibres
changed with the direction of the magnetic line. The magnetic
lines in the middle region of the steel bar are parallel to the steel
bar. A strong magnetic field gradient was generated at the end of
the steel bar, and the shape of magnetic line distribution re­
sembles an "arrow plume".
iv) Compared with traditional UHPC reinforced beams, the yield and
peak strengths of aligned steel fibre UHPC beams can be
increased by 20% on average. The bearing capacity of the beam
increases with the increase in fibre content within the range of
0.5–2%. By comparing the mechanical properties of beams
F20M0 and F05M40, it was found that the steel fibre alignment
technique can effectively reduce the amount of steel fibre
(approximately three-quarters in this study) in the UHPC rein­
forced beam.
v) After the peak bearing capacity was reached, the bearing capacity
of the beam decreased. The traditional deflection ductility and
energy absorption capacity indices are significantly different
when evaluating the ductility of structures, and the ductility of
this new material cannot be accurately determined by a single
evaluation system. Therefore, an energy-absorption capacity
evaluation method is recommended. The ductility of the UHPC
reinforced beams was significantly improved compared to that of
traditional UHPC reinforced beams.
The potential of magnetic field aligned steel fiber technology was
presented, and this paper outlined study methods for predicting mag­
netic field and fiber distribution. However, it is imperative to
acknowledge that the current research is confined to investigating the
mechanical properties of UHPC beams with a simple reinforcement
frame. Further inquiry is warranted to explore fiber distribution through
profile steels and complex reinforcement frames.
14
Cement and Concrete Composites 143 (2023) 105251
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The study of this paper is financially supported by Natural Science
Foundation of Jiangsu Province (Grant No. BK20221472), Innovative
Project of Key Disciplines with Advantages and Characteristics of Key
Laboratory for Safety Control of Bridge Engineering of Ministry of Ed­
ucation in Changsha University of Science and Technology (Grant No.
15KD01).
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