26 OCT 2022

YEAR 9
SCIENCE
REVISION BOOKLET

PREPARED BY
M SAI PRASAD
Dynamic Earth
Convection currents in the mantle

Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth’s outer shell is divided into several plates that glide over the
mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like a hard and rigid shell compared to
Earth’s mantle. This strong outer layer is called the lithosphere.

Forces Involved
The forces that drive Plate Tectonics include:

● Convection in the Mantle (heat driven)

● Ridge push (gravitational force at the spreading ridges)
● Slab pull (gravitational force in subduction zones)

Relation Between Plate Tectonics and Natural Activities

Plate Tectonics
An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. The tectonic plates are always slowly moving,
but they get stuck at their edges due to friction. When the stress on the edge overcomes the friction,
there is an earthquake that releases energy in waves that travel through the earth's crust and cause
the shaking that we feel.
Volcanoes
On land, volcanoes form when one tectonic plate moves under another. Usually a thin, heavy
oceanic plate subducts, or moves under, a thicker continental plate. When this happens, the ocean
plate sinks into the mantle.

Impacts of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions on Earth’s Spheres

When earthquakes occur they can cause damage to all or some of the spheres on Earth, including
the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. When one of the spheres is affected then
at least one or more of the others will be affected as well because they all work together.

Atmosphere
Earthquakes indirectly contribute to the enhanced greenhouse effect. They are known to release
methane from pockets within the ground to the atmosphere by the movement of tectonic plates.
Methane is one of the greenhouse gasses that contribute to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Methane, as well as carbon dioxide, absorbs the sun’s radiation that is re-radiated from the Earth as
infrared radiation. This warms the atmosphere and since the levels of these gasses are higher than
usual, the atmospheric temperature has been increasing.

Hydrosphere
Confined and unconfined aquifers can both be affected by earthquakes. Confined aquifers that are
within the area of the earthquake are more likely to deform due to the movement of the earth, than
unconfined aquifers. Groundwater level changes can be affected, which is evident in both types of
aquifers. Permanent deformation of aquifers lasts until pressure within the aquifer equalizes with
the water table. This equilibrium can be met at varying lengths of time. This only applies in the
vicinity of the earthquake. The process and recovery of aquifers is still unknown. Ground breakage
creates new lakes also known as “sag ponds”. They increase groundwater flow from springs and
displacing stream channels.
Biosphere
The intense shaking of the earth’s surface causes damage or loss of human and animal life.
Earthquakes themselves do not kill or harm life, it’s when structures or certain flora collapse. The
creation of new springs and lakes created by ground breakage alters the surrounding environment.
There is potential for flooding, changes in the food chain and can cause changes in animal behavior
in the area affected. In the long run, this can lead to new species being formed or the extinction of
modern species. Landslides release pathogenic microbes into the atmosphere impacting on human
and animal health. This can have a devastating effect, such as becoming an epidemic or wiping out a
species. Both situations lead to further alteration in the biosphere.

Lithosphere
The solid portion of the earth including the crust and the upper mantle. Under the metropolitan
area in Adelaide you will find fairly stiff sediments that soften the impact of earthquakes. However if
an earthquake happens in an area with less compacted sediments, damage to buildings can occur,
including structures being destroyed and power lines falling. These incidents can cause fires and
harm to civilians. Serve movement in the Earth's crust causes the ground near lakes and rivers to
cause slumping.

Geological activities technological developments

Scientists use a wide variety of techniques to monitor volcanoes, including seismographic detection
of the earthquakes and tremor that almost always precede eruptions, precise measurements of
ground deformation that often accompanies the rise of magma, changes in volcanic gas emissions,
and changes in gravity and magnetic fields. Volcanologists use what's known as infrasound
monitoring to detect rumblings and explosions inside volcanoes and pick up low-frequency pitches
that can't be heard by human ears. Volcanic activity can deform a crater, which affects the shape of
the infrasonic sound waves coming from the volcano.

Seismometers allow us to detect and measure earthquakes by converting vibrations due to seismic
waves into electrical signals, which we can then display as seismograms on a computer screen.
Seismologists study earthquakes and can use this data to determine where and how big a particular
earthquake is.
Theory of evolution

Lamarckism
Lamarckism was proposed by Jean-Baptiste de Monet Lamarck in the year 1744-1829. This
theory was based on the principle that all the physical changes occurring in an individual during
its lifetime are inherited by its offspring. For eg., the development of an organ when used many
times. This theory has been explained here.

Lamarck’s Theory

Lamarck’s theory includes four main propositions:

Change Through Use And Disuse

The organs which are used frequently by the organism develop and the characteristics that are used
seldom are lost in the succeeding generations. For eg., a giraffe stretches its neck to eat leaves, a
“nervous fluid” would flow in its neck and it enlarges. The organs which the organisms have stopped
using would shrink with time.

Organisms Driven To Greater Complexity

As the organisms adapted to their surroundings, they became increasingly complex from the
simpler forms. Lamarck believed in the spontaneous generation of life.

Inheritance of Acquired Characters

An individual acquires certain characteristics during its lifetime. These characters are inherited by
their offspring as well. He explained this with an example of a blacksmith. A blacksmith has strong
arms due to the nature of their work. He proposed that any children a blacksmith conceives will
inherit the development of strong muscles.

Effect of Environment and New Needs

The environment influences all the organisms. A slight change in the environment brings about
changes in the organisms. This gives rise to new needs which in turn produces new structures and
changes the habits of the organisms.
Examples of Lamarckism

Few of the examples of Lamarckism are mentioned below:

Evolution of giraffe

The ancestors of the giraffe looked like horses with small necks and forelimbs. They lived in areas
where there was no surface vegetation. Therefore, they had to stretch their neck and forelimbs to
eat leaves from tall plants. Consequently, these parts got elongated. This trait was transmitted in the
successive generations.

Aquatic Birds with Webbed Toes

Aquatic birds such as ducks are believed to have evolved from terrestrial animals.

Extinction of Limbs in Snakes

The snakes are believed to have evolved from lizard-like ancestors that have two pairs of limbs.

Flightless Birds

It is believed that the ancestors of birds such as Ostrich were able to fly. Due to some environmental
changes, they had a lot of food and were well protected. They stopped using their wings and as a
result, the wings became vestigial.

Cave Dwellers

The ancestors of the animals living in caves are believed to have powerful eyesight. Due to living
under continuous dark conditions, they lost their power to see.

Darwin Theory
Darwin had the following ideas regarding the theory of natural selection:

● Species keep on evolving or changing with time. As the environment changes, the
requirements of an organism also change and they adapt to the new environment. This
phenomenon of changing over a period of time as per the natural requirements is called
adaptation.
 ● As per Darwin’s theory, only the superior changes are naturally selected and the inferior
ones are eliminated. Thus, not all adaptations contribute to progressive evolution. For
example, people living in tropical countries have more melanin in their bodies to protect
them from the sunlight.
● Almost all organisms share common ancestry with some organisms. According to Darwin, all
organisms had one common ancestor at some point in time and kept on diverging ever
since. His evolutionary theories support the convergent theory and divergent theory of
evolution with examples.
● He also studied that the birds of Galapagos Island (Darwin’s finches) developed different
beaks as per the availability of the food. This proved adaptive radiation. Similarly, he also
observed the Australian Marsupials which showed a number of marsupials emerging from
an ancestor.
● According to Charles Darwin, evolution is a very slow and gradual process. He concluded
that evolution took place over a very long period of time. As we talk about the time period in
evolution we usually refer to billions of years. The generation of a species from another
takes a long period of time. It is a very steady process as the changes and adaptation take a
long time to stabilize and give rise to a new species.

Natural selection takes place in four different ways as follows:

1. Variation – The changes accumulated over a period of time in an organism usually give rise
to a new species.
2. Inheritance – It is the passing on of the variations over generations which ultimately leads to
speciation.
3. A high rate of growth of population – This gives rise to more organisms being reproduced by
a species than the environment can support.
4. Differential survival and reproduction – The superior variations lead to the survival of a
particular organism and the inferior or negative variations lead to extinction. The superior
variations are the ones inherited during reproduction.
Fossil Formation
Living things (usually aquatic) die and then get buried quickly under sand, dirt, clay, or ash
sediments. Usually, the soft parts decay, or rot away, leaving the hard parts behind. These are
ammonites, one of the most common fossils that are found. As time goes on more and more
sediment accumulates.

Pressure, heat, and chemical reaction cause the sediments to harden into a rock called sedimentary
rock. Movements in the earth’s crust push the layers of sedimentary rock back up to the higher
ground. Finally, through erosion caused by weather, wind, and water, the fossils become exposed at
the surface again.

Fossils, age of the Earth, and evolution

Fossils document the existence of now-extinct species, showing that different organisms have lived
on Earth during different periods of the planet's history. They can also help scientists reconstruct the
evolutionary histories of present-day species.

Fossil remains have been found in rocks of all ages. Fossils of the simplest organisms are found in
the oldest rocks, and fossils of more complex organisms in the newest rocks. This supports Darwin's
theory of evolution, which states that simple life forms gradually evolved into more complex ones.
Evidence for early forms of life comes from fossils. By studying fossils, scientists can learn how much
(or how little) organisms have changed as life developed on Earth.
Balance of nature
Interactions of natural events on Earth’s spheres

THE LITHOSPHERE
It is believed the lithosphere evolved about 4.6 billion years ago. The lithosphere refers to the solid,
rocky crust that covers the entire planet. This solid, rocky crust is composed of a number of different
rocks that have been grouped into three categories based on how they are formed. These three
groups include:

● Metamorphic rocks – Metamorphic rocks are formed by heat and / or pressure from
pre-existing rocks.
● Igneous rocks – igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of hot molten rock also known as
magma. When the hot magma cools it begins to harden meaning once it had fully cooled it
create what is known to be an igneous rock.
● Sedimentary rocks – sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks. When rocks
erode and mix with other dirt, clay and particles then settle together the mix together to
form a sedimentary rock.

The lithosphere includes a various number of different landforms such as mountains, valleys, rocks,
minerals and soil. The lithosphere is constantly changing due to forces and pressures such as the
sun, wind, ice, water and chemical changes.
The earth’s surface is composed into two types of lithospheres. There are known as the oceanic and
continental lithospheres.
The oceanic lithosphere includes the uppermost layers of mantle which is topped with a thin yet
heavy oceanic crust. This is where the hydrosphere and lithosphere meet.
The continental lithosphere include the uppermost layers of mantle which is topped with a thick yet
light continental crust. This is where the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere meet the
lithosphere.
THE HYDROSPHERE
The hydrosphere refers to the most important resource which I water. The hydrosphere includes all
forms of water in the Earth’s environment. The forms of water include things such as the ocean,
lakes, rivers, snow and glaciers, water underneath the earth’s surface and even the water vapour
that is found in the atmosphere. The hydrosphere is always in motion as seen through the
movement and flow of water in rivers, streams and the ocean (beach). Plant and animal organisms
rely on the hydrosphere for their survival as water is essential. The hydrosphere is also home to
many plants and animals and it believed that the hydrosphere covers approximately 70% of the
earth’s surface

THE BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is composed of all living organisms, including; plants and animals. It is believed that
all life exists in the biosphere. Most of the living organisms are found from up to three meters below
ground to thirty meters above it and also in the to 200 meters of the ocean and seas. The biosphere
could not survive if it wasn't for the other spheres as all organisms need water from the
hydrosphere, minerals for the lithosphere and gasses from the atmosphere. Energy flow is essential
to maintain the structure of organisms by the splitting of phosphate bonds.

THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere refers to the air that surrounds the earth. The atmosphere is always in motion and
constantly changing. It’s believed that there are about 14 different glasses that make up the
atmosphere. The atmosphere is also responsible for the weather as the weather occurs within the
lower atmosphere.
The bottom layer of the atmosphere is known as the troposphere. The troposphere is where the
weather happens. It is the warmest near the Earth because of the heat rising from the earth’s
surface but it becomes colder with altitude. This layer is separated from the next by what is knows
as tropopause. The tropopause is the point in which temperatures will begin to change due to the
increase of altitude. Above the tropopause is the stratosphere. The stratosphere is where there
large concentration of ozone gas is found. The ozone gasses are essential as they absorb a large
percent of radiant solar energy, protecting the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays also known as UV.
The coldest of spheres is known as the mesosphere; this is where the water vapor often freezes to
create clouds that are purely made of ice. The mesosphere is separated from the thermosphere by
the mesopause.
The topmost layer is known as the thermosphere, this is where many satellites circle the earth. Due
to the thin air and proximity of the sun, the temperatures in the thermosphere tend to rapidly
increase and decrease.

The effects of abiotic and biotic changes on the ecosystem

Abiotic factors refer to non-living physical and chemical elements in the ecosystem. Abiotic
resources are usually obtained from the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. Examples of
abiotic factors are water, air, soil, sunlight, and minerals.
Biotic factors are living or once-living organisms in the ecosystem. These are obtained from the
biosphere and are capable of reproduction. Examples of biotic factors are animals, birds, plants,
fungi, and other similar organisms

Biotic factors such as the presence of autotrophs or self-nourishing organisms such as plants, and
the diversity of consumers also affect an entire ecosystem. Abiotic factors affect the ability of
organisms to survive and reproduce. Abiotic limiting factors restrict the growth of populations.
Multicellular internal coordination

The lungs and respiratory system allow us to breathe. They bring oxygen into our bodies (called
inspiration, or inhalation) and send carbon dioxide out (called expiration, or exhalation). This
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is called respiration.

Photosynthesis is a key biological process that involves the exchange of CO2 and O2 between the
atmosphere and plant leaves via pores in the leaves called stomata.

Multicellular internal response to changes

Types of Adaptations

Structural Adaptations

These involve the physical features of an organism that help them to survive in the environment
including the different types of terrestrial habitat. The physical changes are related to the changes
in the physical environment. For eg., camouflage, which is the protective colouration that helps an
organism to blend in its environment. This protects them from predators and increases their
chances of survival.

Behavioural Adaptations

This is the change that affects the behaviour of an organism. This could be caused due to the
changes in the surrounding environment or due to the actions of other species. For eg: The rabbit
freezes if it feels that it has been seen by a predator. Changes in reproductive strategy, feeding
habits, migration, hibernation, communication methods are a few other examples of behavioural
adaptations.

Physiological Adaptations

Like structural adaptations, the physiological adaptations also involve physical changes in the
species. However, physiological adaptations are not always seen in the organism’s appearance. This
type of adaptation can be either due to changes in the environment or due to the behaviour of other
species.
For eg: A fish living in water that suddenly becomes more acidic has to shift its body chemistry to
adapt itself.

Theory of Adaptation

The theory of adaptation was proposed by Charles Darwin which states that an organism that is able
to adapt to the changing environment will survive, the rest will be eliminated. This is known as
survival of the fittest.

According to the adaptation theory, there are different changes that take place when the habitat
changes:

● Habitat Tracking: This is when a species finds another similar environment to which it has
inhabited before.
● Extinction: When the species is unable to find such an environment, it dies or becomes
extinct.
● Genetic Change: This occurs when organisms with slight genetic changes are better adapted
to changed habitat with better access to resources and mating partners.

Multicellular internal response to environmental changes

One way multicellular organisms respond to changes in the environment is by behavioral

adaptations.

An example of this is in a desert ecosystem. Many organisms will seek shelter during the day and
hunt during the nighttime when it is cooler. This helps to conserve water in their bodies and assist
with thermoregulation. This way, they won't overheat during the daytime.

Another example of a behavioral adaptation is when a reptile basks in the sun on a rock to warm its
body temperature. In the early morning hours, reptiles can be sluggish because they are
ectothermic and gain heat energy from their environment. Basking is a behavior that allows them to
respond to changes in temperature.
Migratory patterns followed by birds are also behavioral adaptations to insure they get to their
breeding grounds for mating purposes, or to get to an area with more food and better climate
during cold winter months.

Evolution plays a huge role in behaviors that animals do which enable them to survive in a changing
environment. These behaviors are considered to be adaptations which help them win the struggle
for existence and may be passed down if they are advantageous.

Plants are multicellular organisms that can also respond to changes in the environment. The term
tropism has to do with plants growing in the direction of an environmental trigger or stimulus. This
trigger can be water, light, gravity, etc.

In phototropism, plants will grow toward a source of light. Light is a stimulus which plants cannot
see, however, their survival depends on growing toward the light so that they can carry out
photosynthesis.

A plant hormone known as auxin stimulates cell elongation in plants. If the sun's rays are at an
angle, there will be a greater concentration of auxin on the dark side of the stem. This auxin
stimulates cell elongation on the dark side of the stem. The effect of these longer cells is that the
plant bends over in the direction of the light source.

Matter cycle in nature

Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen Cycle Definition

“Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process which transforms the inert nitrogen present in the
atmosphere to a more usable form for living organisms.”
Furthermore, nitrogen is a key nutrient element for plants. However, the abundant nitrogen in the
atmosphere cannot be used directly by plants or animals. Read on to explore how the Nitrogen cycle
makes usable nitrogen available to plants and other living organisms.

What is the Nitrogen Cycle?

Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into many forms,
consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the atmosphere.

It involves several processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, decay and
putrefaction.

Nitrogen gas exists in both organic and inorganic forms. Organic nitrogen exists in living organisms,
and they get passed through the food chain by the consumption of other living organisms.

Inorganic forms of nitrogen are found in abundance in the atmosphere. This nitrogen is made
available to plants by symbiotic bacteria which can convert the inert nitrogen into a usable form –
such as nitrites and nitrates.

Nitrogen undergoes various types of transformation to maintain a balance in the ecosystem.

Furthermore, this process extends to various biomes, with the marine nitrogen cycle being one of
the most complicated biogeochemical cycles.

Nitrogen Cycle Explained – Stages of Nitrogen Cycle

Process of the Nitrogen Cycle consists of the following steps – Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification,
Assimilation, Ammonification and Denitrification. These processes take place in several stages and
are explained below:

Nitrogen Fixation Process

It is the initial step of the nitrogen cycle. Here, Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) which is primarily available
in an inert form, is converted into the usable form -ammonia (NH3).

During the process of Nitrogen fixation, the inert form of nitrogen gas is deposited into soils from
the atmosphere and surface waters, mainly through precipitation.
Carbon cycle

Carbon Cycle Definition

Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are interchanged among the biosphere, geosphere,
pedosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.

Carbon Cycle Steps

Following are the major steps involved in

the process of the carbon cycle:

1. Carbon present in the

atmosphere is absorbed by
plants for photosynthesis.
2. These plants are then consumed
by animals and carbon gets
bioaccumulated into their bodies.
3. These animals and plants
eventually die, and upon
decomposing, carbon is released
back into the atmosphere.
4. Some of the carbon that is not
released back into the
atmosphere eventually become
fossil fuels.
5. These fossil fuels are then used
for man-made activities, which
pump more carbon back into the atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle on Land

Carbon in the atmosphere is present in the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon enters the atmosphere
through natural processes such as respiration and industrial applications such as burning fossil
fuels. The process of photosynthesis involves the absorption of CO2 by plants to produce
carbohydrates. The equation is as follows:

CO2 + H2O + energy → (CH2O)n +O2

Carbon compounds are passed along the food chain from the producers to consumers. The majority
of the carbon exists in the body in the form of carbon dioxide through respiration. The role of
decomposers is to eat the dead organism and return the carbon from their body back into the
atmosphere. The equation for this process is:

(CH2O)n +O2 → CO2 + H2O

Oceanic Carbon Cycle

This is essentially a carbon cycle but in the sea. Ecologically, oceans take in more carbon than it gives
out. Hence, it is called a “carbon sink.” Marine animals convert carbon to calcium carbonate and this
forms the raw building materials require to create hard shells, similar to the ones found in clams
and oysters.

When organisms with calcium carbonate shells die, their body decomposes, leaving behind their
hard shells. These accumulate on the seafloor and are eventually broken down by the waves and
compacted under enormous pressure, forming limestone.

When these limestone rocks are exposed to air, they get weathered and the carbon is released back
into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

Importance of Carbon Cycle

Even though carbon dioxide is found in small traces in the atmosphere, it plays a vital role in
balancing the energy and traps the long-wave radiations from the sun. Therefore, it acts like a
blanket over the planet. If the carbon cycle is disturbed it will result in serious consequences such as
climatic changes and global warming.

Carbon is an integral component of every life form on earth. From proteins and lipids to even our
DNA. Furthermore, all known life on earth is based on carbon. Hence, the carbon cycle, along with
the nitrogen cycle and oxygen cycle, plays a vital role in the existence of life on earth.
Key Points on Carbon Cycle

● Carbon cycle explains the movement of carbon between the earth’s biosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere.
● Carbon is an important element of life.
● Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is taken up by green plants and other photosynthetic
organisms and is converted into organic molecules that travel through the food chain.
Carbon atoms are then released as carbon dioxide when organisms respire.
● The formation of fossil fuels and sedimentary rocks contributes to the carbon cycle for very
long periods.
● The carbon cycle is associated with the availability of other compounds as well.

Energy flow in the ecosystem

Energy flow in the food web

The energy flow takes place via the food chain and food web. During the process of energy flow in the
ecosystem, plants being the producers absorb sunlight with the help of the chloroplasts and a part of it is
transformed into chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis.

This energy is stored in various organic products in the plants and passed on to the primary consumers in
the food chain when the herbivores consume (primary consumers) the plants as food. Then conversion of
chemical energy stored in plant products into kinetic energy occurs, degradation of energy will occur
through its conversion into heat.

Then followed by the secondary consumers. When these herbivores are ingested by carnivores of the first
order (secondary consumers) further degradation will occur. Finally, when tertiary consumers consume
the carnivores, energy will again be degraded. Thus, the energy flow is unidirectional in nature.

Trophic level

The producers and consumers in the ecosystem can be arranged into different feeding groups and are
known as trophic level or the feeding level.

1. The producers (plants) represent the first trophic level.

2. Herbivores (primary consumers) present the second trophic level.
3. Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) represent the third trophic level
4. Top carnivores (tertiary consumers) represent the last level.
Abiotic and biotic relationships in an ecosystem
Biotic and abiotic factors are what make up ecosystems. Biotic factors are living things within an
ecosystem; such as plants, animals, and bacteria, while abiotic are non-living components; such as
water, soil and atmosphere. The way these components interact is critical in an ecosystem.

Different types of species interaction in an ecosystem are:

Predatory-prey interaction:

1. In this type of ecosystemic interaction one organism feeds over another organism, hence
predates the prey.
2. Example of Predatory-prey interaction is the hunting down of deer by lions and cheetahs,
etc.

Parasitism interaction:

1. In this type of ecosystem one organism uses another host organism for survival and feeds
over its requirements.
2. Example of Parasitism interaction is parasitic fleas and ticks that live on dogs and cats, etc.

Herbivory interaction:

1. In this type of interaction one organism prepares the food via photosynthesis and the other
organisms consume the prepared food.
2. Example of Herbivory interaction is the grass eaten by cows, etc.

Competitive interaction:

1. In this type of interaction both the organisms compete for survival over the same resources,
hence one of the organisms is negatively affected by another.
2. Example of Competitive interaction is the competition between plants of the same species
for sunlight and space, etc.
Commensalism interaction:

1. It is the interaction where one organism is benefitted from the other, while the other
organism is practically unaffected by the other.
2. Examples of Commensalism interaction are tree frogs using plants as protection and egrets
birds eating insects from cattle's backs, etc.

Mutualism interaction:

1. This is an interaction where both the organisms benefit from each other mutually.
2. Examples of Mutualism are the symbiotic relationship between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and
root nodules of leguminous plants, mycorrhiza, etc.
Communicating

Role and interactions of coordination systems

The nervous system helps in controlling and coordinating various activities of the human body.
The three types of nerves, cranial nerves, spinal nerves and visceral nerves run through the
body and help in sending and receiving messages in the form of electrical impulses.

The control and coordination in human beings take place through nervous system and
hormonal system which is called endocrine system.

The five sense organs in our body, eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin are called receptors. This is
because they receive information from the environment around us. Therefore, a receptor is a
group of cells in sense organ which is sensitive to a particular type of stimulus like light, sound,
smell, taste, heat, etc.

All the receptors send message in the form of electrical impulses to spinal cord and brain
through sensory nerves. Another type of nerves called motor nerves then transmits response
from brain and spinal cord to effectors. An effector is a part of the body which responds to a
stimulus according to the instructions sent from the nervous system. The muscles and glands
are effectors of the body.

Particle models in convection and conduction of heat

Thermoreceptors are specialized nerve cells that are able to detect differences in temperature.
Temperature is a relative measure of heat present in the environment. Thermoreceptors are able to
detect heat and cold and are found throughout the skin in order to allow sensory reception
throughout the body. The location and number of thermoreceptors will determine the sensitivity of
the skin to temperature changes.

First, heat receptors are closer to the skin's surface, while cold receptors are found deeper in the
dermis. This means that sensitivity to hot temperatures will be higher than lower temperatures
based on the location.