Aircraftdesign en

General Aviation
Aircraft Design
A Twin Engine Propeller Driven Airplane
Armayel
Mojtaba Moradli
Mohammad Faraki
Nadia Dehroyeh
Nilufar Jadidi
Milad Famili
General Aviation Aircraft Design
Conceptual Design of a 10 Seater Twin Engine Propeller Driven Airplane
THINK LIGHT
THINK SIMPLE
THINK ACCESSIBILITY
THINK MAINTAINABILITY
AND
THINK COST
Advisor:
Farshad Pazooki Ph.D
Faculty of Engineering
Aerospace Department
September 2019 - Mehr 1398
2 of 81
Table of contents
Introduction ................................................................................................4
Design 4
Regulations 5
Part 23
Certificates
Market Survey 8
Mission specification .................................................................................10
Mission Profile ...........................................................................................10
Preliminary sizing .....................................................................................11
Determination of mission payload weight 12
Determination of crew weight 12
Target and Peer Aircrafts 13
Finding the allowable value for empty weight 15
Guess a likely value of take-off weight 17
Determination of mission fuel weight 17
Calculation of a tentative value for airplane operation wight empty
Calculation of trapped or unstable fuel and oil weight
Manufacturers empty weight or green weight
Calculation of a tentative value for Empty weight
Sensitivity studies and growth factor 25
Sensitivity of take-off weight to payload weight
Sensitivity of take-off weight to empty weight
Sensitivity of take-off weight to range, endurance, speed, specific fuel consumption,
propeller efficiency and lift-to-drag ratio
Sizing requirements 30
Sizing to stall speed requirements 31
Sizing to take-off distance requirements 34
Sizing to landing distance requirements 37
Sizing to climb requirements 40
Sizing to ceiling requirements 48
Sizing to maneuvering requirements 50
Sizing to cruise speed requirements 52
Matching Diagram 54
Preliminary configuration design ............................................................57
Overall layout design 58
Design of cockpit and fuselage layouts 59
Selection and integration of the propulsion system 64
Wing planform design 67
High lift devices sizing 68
Empennage configurations 69
Landing gear sizing 70
Weight and balance analysis 71
Dimensioned three-view 72
References ..................................................................................................81
3 of 81
Introduction
Design
A design is a plan or specification for the construction of an object or system or for the
implementation of an activity or process, or the result of that plan or specification in the form of a
prototype, product or process. The verb to design expresses the process of developing a design.
Behind every design there are always a purpose and there are some specifications or
requirements. No one will ever design an aircraft before knowing the application of the thing. In
another words, what we are going to design should solve or help to solve some specific problems
that we are facing. So, it is important to be well informed and knowledgeable around the problem
and be fully understood the way that the thing we are going to design, how is going to solve our
problem.
⎧ ⎧ Initial Conceptual Design

⎪Conceptual Design ⎨
⎪ ⎩Advanced Conceptual Design
⎪
Aircraft Design ⎨ Preliminary Design
⎪ Detailed Design
⎪
⎪⎩
The CD phase is the process of developing project plan by analyzing many solution candidates
and selecting right ones for further analysis. In this phase you more than every thing work with
computer analysis softwares, like CFD softwares.
It is in conceptual design that the basic questions of configuration arrangement size and weight,
and performance are answered.
The first question is, "Can an affordable aircraft be built that meets the requirements?" If not, the
customer may wish to relax the requirements.
Conceptual design is a very fluid process. New ideas and problems emerge as a design is
investigated in ever-increasing detail. Each time the latest design is analyzed and sized, it must be
redrawn to reflect the new gross weight, fuel weight, wing size, engine size, and other changes.
The PD phase is where you down select candidates based on the results of further aerodynamic
and structural analysis. It is the phase you actually start going to labs and test. Preliminary design
can be said to begin when the major changes are over.
A key activity during preliminary design is "lofting." Lofting is the mathematical modeling of the
outside skin of the aircraft with sufficient accuracy to insure proper fit between its different parts,
even if they are designed by different designers and possibly fabricated in different locations.
The DD phase is the process of conducting higher order analyses to refine candidate and making
prototypes. In this phase you reach a configuration freeze. A configuration freeze is a set date after
which no changes are allowed to the external geometry or the outside mold line (OML), even if a
better geometric shape is discovered. It marks the date for the aerodynamics group to cease
geometric optimization, as the “frozen” configuration is adequate to meet the requirements. The
go-ahead approval is the date at which upper management gives the green light for the design
team to proceed with the selected configuration and develop an actual prototype. In other words, it
marks the readiness of the organization to fund the project.
4 of 81
Regulations
The standards that aircraft are designed and built to have names like the Civil Aviation Regulations
(CAR, now obsolete), Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR, current in the United States), Joint
Aviation Regulations (JAR, European, obsolete as of September 28, 2003), or Certification
Specifications (CS, current in Europe). The current government agencies that enforce adherence to
these standards have names like the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA, now obsolete), Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA, current in the United States), Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA, European,
obsolete as of June 30, 2009), or European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA, current in Europe). With
respect to FAR, the convention is to refer to them as Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, or
simply 14 CFR. This way, a particular section of the regulations is cited by adding it to that code.
For instance Part 23 would be written as 14 CFR Part 23, and so on.
Part 23
Part 23 contains airworthiness standards required for issuance and change of type certificates for
airplanes in these categories:
• nine or less passengers, 12,500 pounds or less MTOW:
• commuter category: multiengine airplanes, 19 or less passengers, 19,000 pounds or less
MTOW, non-acrobatic operation (bank angle < 60°).
In 2016 the FAA proposed a new system of performance-based airworthiness standards instead of
prescriptive design requirements. The familiar weight and propulsion classifications of small
airplane regulations would be replaced by performance and risk-based standards for aircraft
weighing less than 19,000 pounds and seating 19 or fewer passengers. On August 30, 2017, a
revised Part 23 ruling went into effect, changing the aircraft classifications. The new passenger
classifications are: Level 1, seating for 0 to 1 passenger; Level 2, 2 to 6; Level 3, 7 to 9; Level 4, 10
to 19. Speed classifications are: low speed, Vc or Vmo equal to or less than 250 knots CAS and
equal to or less than Mmo 0.6 Mach; high speed, Vc or Vmo greater than 250 knots CAS and M mo
greater than 0.6 Mach.
Prior to August 30, 2017, Part 23 had a large number of regulations to ensure airworthiness in
areas such as structural loads, airframe, performance, stability, controllability, and safety
mechanisms, how the seats must be constructed, oxygen and air pressurization systems, fire
prevention, escape hatches, flight management procedures, flight control communications,
emergency landing procedures, and other limitations, as well as testing of all the systems of the
aircraft.
It also determined special aspects of aircraft performance such as stall speed (e.g., for single
engine airplanes – not more than 61 knots), rate of climb (not less than 300 ft/min), take-off speed
(not less than 1.2 × Vs1 ), and weight of each pilot and passenger (170 lb for airplanes in the normal
and commuter categories, and 190 lb for airplanes in the acrobatic and utility categories).
Restrictions for Aircraft Classes Certified under 14 CFR Part 23
Restriction Commuter Normal Utility Aerobatic
Number of pilots 1 or 2 1 1 1
Max number of occupants 19 9 9 9
Max T-O weight 19000 lb 12500 lb 12500 lb 12500 lb
Aerobatics allowed? No No Limited Yes
Normal flying
Normal flying
Stalls (no whip stalls)
Normal flying Stalls (no whip stalls)
Lazy eights
Non-aerobatic operations Stalls (no whip stalls) Lazy eights
Chandelles N/A
Chandelles
permitted
Steep turns ( φ ≺ 60" ) φ ≺ 60" )
Steep turns ( φ ≺ 60 "
)
Steep turns (
Spins (if approved)
Max maneuvering g-loading,

24000
2.1+ <n ≤ 3.8 4.4 6.0
n+ W+10000 +
Min maneuvering g-loading,
n− -0.4n + <n − ≤ -1.52 -1.76 -3.0
5 of 81
Certificates
Type Certificate (TC)
Once the manufacturer of a civilian (i.e. non-military) aircraft, engine, or propeller has demonstrated
that their product meets or exceeds the current airworthiness standards set by its regulatory
agency, it is awarded a TC by publishing a type certificate data sheet (TCDS). The TCDS is a
document that contains important information about operating limitations, applicable regulations,
and other restrictions. This means the aircraft is now “officially defined” by the TC. TCDS for all
civilian aircraft can be viewed on the FAA website. the TC guarantees product quality, which is
imperative to the customer: it makes the product “trustworthy.” The reason why a TC is so costly is
that it requires the product to undergo strenuous demonstration of its safe operation and quality of
material and construction.
Supplemental Type Certificate (STC)
Many owners of airplanes want to add features to the model. A replacement of a piston engine with
a gas turbine is an example of a very common change made to existing certified aircraft. Another
example is the conversion of an airplane to allow it to transport patients, something it was very
unlikely to have been originally designed for. Such changes are possible, but require the aviation
authorities to approve the installation or change. Once convinced the change does not
compromise the continued airworthiness of the aircraft, a supplemental type certificate is issued.
The STC specifies what change was made to the aircraft, details how it affects the TC, specifies
new or revised operational limitations, and lists what serial numbers are affected. The list of serial
numbers is called effectivity.
Standard Airworthiness Certificate (AC)
Once the TC has been obtained, each unit of the now mass-produced aircraft will receive a
standard airworthiness certificate. This is only issued once each aircraft has been demonstrated to
conform to the TC and be assembled in accordance with industry practice; is ready for safe
operation; and has been registered (giving it a tail number). Each aircraft produced is tracked using
serial numbers. The AC allows the aircraft to be operated, as long as its maintenance is performed
in accordance with regulations.
Special Airworthiness Certificate (SAC)
A special airworthiness certificate can be issued for airplanes that, for some reason, must be
operated in a specialized fashion (e.g. ferry flying, agricultural use, experimental, marketing, etc.),
but precludes it from being used for commercial transportation of people or freight. An S-AC is
issued in accordance with 14 CFR 21.175 in the following subclasses: primary, restricted, limited,
light-sport, provisional, special flight permits, and experimental. Of these, the prototypes of new
aircraft designs typically receive an experimental permit while they are being flight tested or for
market surveys. Once the manufacturer is nearing the completion of the certification process and it
is apparent it will comply with the remaining regulations, the authorities often allow the
manufacturer to begin delivering aircraft by issuing provisional permits. This helps the
manufacturer begin to recover the extreme costs of developing the aircraft. The provisional permit
inflicts limitations to the operation of the aircraft that are lifted once the manufacturer finally
receives the TC. An example of this could be a GA airplane designed for an airframe lifetime of,
say, 12,000 hours. Since fatigue testing is one of the last compliances to be demonstrated, it is
possible the aircraft would receive a provisional S-AC with a 2000 hr airframe limitation. Since GA
aircraft usually operate some 300 400 flight hours per year, the 2000 hr limitation will not affect the
operator for several years, allowing the manufacturer to complete the certification while being able
to deliver aircraft. Once the 12,000 hr lifetime is demonstrated, the 2000 hr limitation on already
delivered aircraft is lifted, provided their airframe is deemed to qualify.
6 of 81
Maintenance Requirements
The use of an aircraft subjects it to wear and tear that eventually will call for repairs. Such repairs
can be of a preventive type, such as the replacement of a component expected to fail within a
given period of time, or the restorative type, such as the addition of a doubler to improve the
integrity of a structural part beginning to show signs of fatigue. The aviation authorities require
manufacturers to stipulate frequency and severity of preventive maintenance by instructing what
tasks must be accomplished and when, in a maintenance program. If the owner or operator of the
aircraft does not comply with this satisfactorily, the aircraft may lose its AC and is then said to be
“grounded.”
Airworthiness Directives (AD)
Sometimes the operation of a specific aircraft type develops unanticipated issues that may compromise its
safety. If such issues arise, the manufacturer is obligated to notify the aviation authorities. The authorities will
issue an Airworthiness Directive (AD) to the manufacturer and to all operators worldwide. The AD is a
document that stipulates redesign effort or maintenance action that must be accomplished to prevent the
issue from developing into a catastrophic event. Compliance with the AD is required or the AC for the
specific aircraft may be cancelled. ADs for different aircraft types can be viewed on the FAA website Service
Bulletin (SB) In due course the manufacturer inevitably gains experience from the operation of the aircraft.
This experience results from dealing with individual customers as well as from the manufacturer’s sustaining
engineering effort. This experience usually results in the improvement of the aircraft or its operation and is
therefore very valuable. Consequently, it is important to share it with other operators. This is done by
publishing service bulletins (SB). Although the recommendations in a SB are most often discretionary (i.e. it is
up to the customer to comply), they will sometimes relay information required to comply with an AD.
Advisory Circular (AC)
An advisory circular is a means for the FAA to share information with the aviation community
regarding specific regulations and recommended operational practices. This information is
sometimes detailed enough to be presented in the form of a textbook (e.g. AC36-3H – Estimated
Airplane Noise Levels in A-Weighted Decibels) or as simple as a few pages (e.g. AC 11-2A – Notice
of Proposed Rule making Distribution System). A complete list of ACs is provided on the FAA
website www.faa.gov (hFp://www.faa.gov).
Technical Standard Order (TSO)
A technical standard order is a minimum performance standard that particular materials, parts,
processes, and appliances used on civil aircraft are subject- ed to. Effectively, a TSO is a letter to
the manufacturers of a given product that states that if they (the manufacturers) wish to get their
products TSOd, they will have to meet the performance requirements and submit a list of
engineering documentations (drawings, specifications, diagrams, etc.) that are specified in the
letter. Effectively, a TSO is an official certificate that confirms the part is safe for use in a specific
aircraft. In other words: it is airworthy. This puts the manufacturer at a significant advantage over
another one whose product is not TSOd. It is also essential for pilots to know that the equipment
they are using is airworthy.
Technical Standard Order Authorization (TSOA)
A technical standard order authorization is a document that authorizes the manufacturer to

produce parts and components in accordance with a particular TSO. As an example, consider a
battery manufacturer who wants to produce a battery for use in a particular type of aircraft. The
TSO tells the manufacturer what the battery must be capable of (e.g. amp-hours, temperature
tolerance, etc.). The TSOA tells the manufacturer that in the eyes of the FAA the product is qualified
and can now be produced.
Parts Manufacturer Approval (PMA)
Parts manufacturer approval authorizes a manufacturer to produce and sell replacement or modification parts for a
given aircraft. This way, the manufacturer can produce airworthy parts even if they were not the original manufacturer.
7 of 81
Market Survey
In Iran, annually 440 million(1385) trip took place. From this number, 2% of them are related to
plane trips, 4% of them are related to rail trips and 94% of them are road trips. From this 94%,
68% of them are taking place with automobiles.[5] Annually lots of people go with their
automobiles to places 800(km) away from where they live for business and vacation. Their trip
takes 3 to 8 hours of their time and bring tons of casualties.
It is reasonable to say lots of these 68% people will be choose a low budget or inexpensive flight
with a light aircraft over road trip.
It is important to find the place that most of these 68% of people that might use our service as air
taxi live. And choose that place for our base or hub. In this scenario we need a public use airport or
airdrome in or around Tehran.
8 of 81
Beside this application of light aircrafts in transportation of people, there are more than half-dozen
of other areas that we can use these light aircraft and make a living out of it. Some of these areas
are listed as follow:
Oil and gas line inspection and survey

Goods transportation/Cargo Hook
Passenger transportation
Supporting services
Ambulance
Police
Firefighter
Natural Disaster and Armed
Conflict Response
Mail service
VIP and exclusive services
Photography
Aerial Showcasing
Tourism
Forestry
Borderlands inspection
Urban traffic control
Mapping the terrain
Seismic operations
Oil and Gas Exploration
Education
Air surveillance
Geophysics
Organ transportation
In the case of using light aircrafts in transportation of people, there are some companies active in
different countries that we list them below. These companies are air taxi companies.
Name Hub Destinations Webpage

900+ in the Southern
ImagineAir Atlanta, Georgia www.imagineair.com
and Eastern U.S.
Rouyn-Noranda Quebec, Ontario and
Propair Airport, Quebec, north east United- www.propair.ca
Canada States
Fort Lauderdale Florida and The
Skymax www.skymax.com
Executive Airport Bahamas
Boca Raton, Florida &
Airstream Jets Worldwide airstreamjets.com
Teterboro, New Jersey
Kortrijk-Wevelgem www.heli-
Heli Business -
International Airport /business.com
Manila,Cebu,Bor •
airtaxi.ph acay,Clark,Dava - airtaxi.ph
o, Panglao
California and the San Jose to 4 time
Quikcharter quikcharter.com
western USA period places
airports in the U.S.,
Linear Air Canada, and the - www.linearair.com
Caribbean
9 of 81
Mission specification
Conceptual design will usually begin with either a specific set of design requirements established
by the prospective customer or a company-generated guess as to what future customers may
need. Design requirements include parameters such as the aircraft range and payload, takeoff and
landing distances, and maneuverability and speed requirements.
Payload 10 Passengers at 175 lb. each (this includes the pilot) and 250 lbs. total baggage.
Range 1500 sm. with max payload. Reserves equal to 25% of required mission fuel.
Altitude 10000 ft. (for the design range)
Cruise speed 230 kn. at 75% power at 10000 ft.
Climb 5 minutes to 10000 ft.
Take-off and take-off length 1600 ft. and 1800 ft. landing length at 90°F in Yazd Airport. Landing
Landing performance at WL = 0.95WTO .
Power plants 2 × Turboprops
Pressurization None
Certification FAR 23
Load factor [-1.5g , +4.5g]
Mission Profile
1. Engine start and warmup
2. Taxi
3. Take-off
4. Climb
5. Cruise
6. Descent
7. Landing, Taxi, Shutdown
As it is obvious from the mission profile, we didn’t consider any range for climb and illustrate it as a
straight line. The reason is that the climb range in comparison to cruise range is negligible.
10 of 81
Preliminary sizing
Our objective in this section is to investigate, obtain and calculate some specific numeric
parameters in 8 Step as stated in below:
Step 1 Determination of mission payload weight

Step 2 Determination of crew weight
Step 3 Guess a likely value of take-off weight
Step 4 Determination of mission fuel weight
Step 5 Finding the allowable value for Empty weight
Step 6 Sensitivity studies and growth factor
Step 7 Sizing requirements
Step 8 Matching graph
Evolution of a mission specification and its relation to preliminary sizing and design
⎫
⎧⎪ Independent Market Survey Initial Design ⎪
Commercial Airplanes ⎨ ⇔ & ⇒ Mission Specification ⎪
⎪⎩ Customer Request Trade Studies
⎪
⎪
⎧ ⎬
⎪⎪ Specific Operational Requirement Initial Design ⎪
Request for Proposal (RFP) Issued. ⎪
Military Airplanes ⎨ Identified by Military ⇔ & ⇒
⎪ This contains a Mission Specification ⎪
Contractor Identifies Need to Military Trade Studies ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎭
Preliminary Preliminary If all is well:
⇒ ⇒ ⇒
Sizing Design Full Scale Design and Development
11 of 81
Determination of mission payload weight WPL
Mission payload weight is normally specified in the mission specification. It consist of cargo,
passengers and baggage.
Here, for a 10 seater airplane(this includes the pilot) with an average weight of 175(lb) per person
and 250(lb) of total baggage, the mission payload weight will be calculated as below:
WPL = 9 × 175(lb) + 250(lb) = 1825(lb)
Determination of crew weight Wcrew
The crew consists of the cockpit crew and the cabin crew. The number of people in each crew
depends on the airplane and its mission. It depends also on the total number of passengers
carried.
As stated in mission specification we only have cabin crew or pilot. We could take crew into
account as passenger(s) in payload weight. We can say in this scenario, the crew weight is equal to
zero. According to FAR 23, it is not unusual to define the crew weight as part of the payload for
those airplanes that are frequently operated by owner/pilots.
Wcrew = 175(lb)
12 of 81
Target and Peer Aircrafts

We look for twin-engine turboprop aircrafts with 6~14 seats in reference 3. We used Jane’s all the
world aircrafts versions 2010/11, 2014/15 and 2017/18. We also checked some famous aircraft
manufacturers official websites.
It must be said that several piston-engine aircrafts can be seen in list below. In this stage we only
need the take-off weights and empty weights of these aircrafts, so we only use them for weight
calculations in this stage.
Airplane Manufacturer WTO (lb) WE (lb)
Evektor-Aerotechnik (Czech
EV-55 Outback 10141 5860
Republic)
99A Beechcraft (US) 10400 5533
King Air 350 Beechcraft (US) 15000 9456
King Air C90GTx Beechcraft (US) 10485 6950
King Air 350iER Beechcraft (US) 16600 9997
PA-42-1000 Piper Aircraft (US) 12050 6837
PA-31T Cheyenne Piper Aircraft (US) 9000 4870
PA-42 Cheyenne III Piper Aircraft (US) 11200 6837
DHC-6 Twin Otter Viking aircraft (Canada) 12500 6881
Conquest I Cessna (US) 8200 4915
400A Avtek (US) 6499 3779
Caravan II Reims Aviation (France) 9360 5033
An-14 Antonov (Ukraine) 7937 5732
P.68 Partenavia (Italy) 4594 3130
Gweduck Ellison-Mahon Aircraft (US) 6000 4200
Cessna 421 Cessna (US) 7450 4501
Cessna 414 Cessna (US) 6750 4356
Cessna T303 Cessna (US) 5150 3364
Cessna 404 Titan Cessna (US) 8400 4816
Seneca V Piper Aircraft (US) 4750 3212
Baron 55 Beechcraft (US) 5100 3156
Vr (P68R) Vulcanair (Italy) 4548 3198
B60 Beechcraft (US) 6775 4275
P.180 Avanti Piaggio Aerospace (Italy) 12100 8375
13 of 81
King Air C90GTi Beechcraft (US) 10100 6950
King Air 350i Beechcraft (US) 15000 9720
MU-2B-30 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (Japan) 11574 7568
AP.68TP 601 Vulcanair (Italy) 6614 3704
CSIR-National Aerospace
Saras 13448 9074
Laboratories (India)
All the aircrafts are peers to the aircraft we are going to design. Among them we want to set one of
them as our target airplane.
Target airplane must be one of the peer aircrafts that not only being made in near past, but also its
linear relationship between Log10WTO and Log10WE be very close to regression line that we are
going to make for the linear relationship between Log10WTO and Log10WE of the all peer aircrafts.
14 of 81
Finding the allowable value for empty weight WE

There is a linear relationship between Log10WTO and Log10WE . So it is easy to obtain WE form
WTO . It is desirable to have as small a value for WE for any given value of WTO . Therefore, it is
reasonable to assume, that a manufacturer will always try to make WE as small as possible for any
given WTO .
There are two methods to do this. First one is to use the equation that represents the regression
line of the linear relationship between Log10WTO and Log10WE .
log10 WTO = Blog10 WE + A
Numerical values for the quantities A and B are listed in Table below.
Regression Line Constants A and B of Equation 1.1
Airplane Type A B
Homebuilts 0.3411 0.9519

Scaled Fighters 0.5542 0.8654
Composites 0.8222 0.8050
Single Engine Propeller Driven -0.1440 1.1162
Twin Engine Propeller Driven 0.0966 1.0298

Composites 0.1130 1.0403
Agricultural -0.4398 1.1946
Business Jets 0.2678 0.9979
Regional TBP 0.3774 0.9647
Transport Jets 0.0833 1.0383
Military Trainers Jets 0.6632 0.8640

Turboprops -1.4041 1.4660
Turboprops without No.2 0.1677 0.9978
Piston/Props 0.5627 0.8761
Fighters Jets(+ ext.load) 0.5091 0.9505

Jets(clen) 0.1362 0.0116
Turboprops(+ ext.load) 0.2705 0.9830
Mill. Patrol, Bomb and Transport -0.2009 1.1037

Jets
Turboprops -0.4179 1.1446
Flying Boats
0.1703 1.0083
Amphibious and Float Airplanes
Supersonic Cruise 0.4221 0.9876
15 of 81
The second method is to set a figure of target and peer aircrafts weights and use the linear
relationship between Log10WTO and Log10WE to plot a regression line near to target airplane.
Numerical values for the quantities A and B are obtained from the equation of regression line. In
figure below you can see such a plot for a twin-engine propeller driven aircrafts.
As we can see from the equation of regression line, the values of A and B are as follow:
A = 0.1964
B = 1.0025
finally, the empty weight is:
log10 WTO − A
log10 WTO = Blog10 WE + A ⇒ WE = inv.log10 [ ] = 6312.19(lb)
B
16 of 81
Guess a likely value of take-off weight WTO guess
According to our target airplane -EV-55 Outback- and peer airplanes mission capabilities listed in
Excel file, WTO is obtained by comparing the mission specification capabilities of the target and
guess
peers airplanes.
Determination of mission fuel weight WF

Mission fuel weight can be written as:
WF = WF + WF
used res
Fuel reserves are generally specified as a fraction of WFused in the mission specification, as a
requirement for additional range so that an alternate airport can be reached and as a requirement
for additional loiter time. Here, we have:
WF = 25%WF
res used
To determine WFused we use fuel-fraction method. According to this method the mission profile is
broken down into a number of mission phases. The fuel-fraction for each phase is defined as the
ratio of end weight to begin weight.
Table below provides a guide for determining this fraction for twelve types of airplanes.
Suggested Fuel-Fractions For Several Mission Phases

Mission Engine Landing,
Phase Start, Warm- Taxi Take-off Climb Descent Taxi,
Airplane up 2 3 4 7 Shutdown
Type 1 8
Homebuilts 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.995 0.995 0.995
Single
Engine
0.995 0.997 0.998 0.992 0.993 0.993
Propeller
Driven
Twin Engine
Propeller 0.992 0.996 0.996 0.990 0.992 0.992
Driven
Agricultural 0.996 0.995 0.996 0.998 0.999 0.998
Business
0.990 0.995 0.995 0.980 0.990 0.992
Jets
Regional
0.990 0.995 0.995 0.985 0.985 0.992
TBP
Transport
0.990 0.990 0.995 0.980 0.990 0.992
Jets
Military
0.990 0.990 0.990 0.980 0.990 0.995
Trainers
17 of 81
Fighters 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.995
Mill. Patrol,
0.96-0.90
Bomb and 0.990 0.990 0.995 0.990 0.992
0.980
Transport
Flying Boats
Amphibious
0.992 0.990 0.996 0.985 0.990 0.990
and Float
Airplanes
Supersonic
0.990 0.995 0.995 0.92-0.87 0.985 0.992
Cruise
Phase 1: Engine start and warm-up.
Begin weight: WTO

End weight: W1
W1
The fuel-fraction for this phase is: = 0.992
WTO
Phase 2: Taxi.
Begin weight: W1
End weight: W2
W2
W1
Phase 3: Take-off.
Begin weight: W2
End weight: W3
W3
W2
Phase 4: Climb
Begin weight: W3
End weight: W4
W4
W3
In some cases it is desirable to calculate this fraction from Breguet's equation for endurance, For
propeller-driven airplanes:
1 ηp L W
Ecl = 375( )( )cl ( )cl ln( 3 )
Vcl c p D W4
18 of 81
Note that Vcl in equation above is in mph .
If the fuel-fraction for the climb phase is to be calculated in this manner then it is necessary to
ηp L
estimate average values during the climb for Vcl , for ( ) and for ( )cl .
cp D
Table below provides a guide from which these quantities can be found.
Suggested Values for some parameters for cruise phase
Mission Phase L
Airplane Type
cj cp ηp
D
Homebuilts 8 - 10 - 0.6 - 0.8 0.7
Single Engine
8 - 10 - 0.5 - 0.7 0.8
Propeller Driven
Twin Engine
8 - 10 - 0.5 - 0.7 0.82
Propeller Driven
Agricultural 5-7 - - 0.82
Business Jets 10 - 12 0.5 - 0.9 0.5 - 0.7 -
Regional TBP 11 - 13 - 0.4 - 0.6 0.85
Transport Jets 13 - 15 0.5 - 0.9 - -
Military Trainers 8 - 10 0.5 - 1.0 0.4 - 0.6 0.82
Fighters 4-7 0.6 - 1.4 0.5 - 0.7 0.82
Mill. Patrol, Bomb

13 - 15 0.5 - 0.9 0.4 - 0.7 -
and Transport
Flying Boats
Amphibious and 10 - 12 0.5 - 0.9 0.5 - 0.7 0.82
Float Airplanes
Supersonic Cruise 4-6 0.7 - 1.5 - -
19 of 81
Phase 5: Cruise.
Begin weight: W4
End weight: W5
W5 W
The fuel-fraction for this phase is: . The ratio 5 , can be estimated from Breguet's range
W4 W4
equation, For propeller-driven airplanes:
ηp L W
R cr = 375( )cr ( )cr ln( 4 )
cp D W5
Note that Rcr in Equation above is in stat. miles.
ηp = 0.82 ⎫
⎪
R cr = 1500(sm) ⎪
⎪ W5
c p = 0.7 ⎬ = 0.711
⎪ W4
L ⎪
= 10 ⎪⎭
D
Phase 6: Descent.
Begin weight: W5
End weight: W6
W6
W5
Phase 7: Landing, taxi and shut-down.
Begin weight: W6
End weight: W7
W7
W6
It is now possible to calculate the overall fuel fraction from equation below:
W1 i=7
W W W W W W W W
M ff = ( ) × ∏ ( i+1 ) = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × 7
WTO i=1 Wi WTO W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6
= 0.992 × 0.996 × 0.996 × 0.99 × 0.711× 0.992 × 0.992 = 0.6816453692
So:
WF = (1− M ff )WTO = (1− 0.6816453692)WTO = 3228.43

used
20 of 81
As a result:
WF = WF + (1− M ff )WTO = 807.108 + 3228.43 = 4035.54

res
For safety you would be wise to carry extra fuel in case your intended airport is closed, so a loiter
of typically 20-30 min is added. Alternatively, additional range could be included, representing the
distance to the nearest other airport or some fixed number of minutes of flight at cruise speed (the
FAA requires 30 min of additional cruise fuel for general-aviation aircraft). Here we did not have any
loiter so we did not assign any related term to it in mission fuel fraction.
21 of 81
Calculation of a tentative value for airplane operation wight

empty WOE
According to equation below, for each guess of ours for WTO , we are going to get a different
guess
WOE .
WOE = WTO − WF − WPL
tent guess
WTO guess (lb) WOE (lb)

tent
10141 4280.457111
9000 3593.510404
10150 4285.875622
10200 4315.978457
10250 4346.081293
10300 4376.184128
10350 4406.286964
10400 4436.3898
10450 4466.492635
10500 4496.595471
10550 4526.698306
10600 4556.801142
10650 4586.903977
11000 4797.623827
Calculation of trapped or unstable fuel and oil weight Wtfo

Wtfo can amount to as much as 0.5% or more of WTO for some airplanes. Although it is often
neglected at this stage in the design process.
Wtfo = %0.5WTO = 55(lb)
Manufacturers empty weight or green weight WME

Fixed equipment weight WFEQ is weight of equipment needed to operate the airplane during its
intended mission, include such item as: avionics equipment, air-conditioning equipment, special
radar equipment, auxiliary power unit(APU), furnishing and interiors.
22 of 81
Calculation of a tentative value for Empty weight WE
As been said before, we are going to get different WOE for different WTO
guess
. According to equation
b e l o w , w e a r e a l s o g o i n g t o g e t d i ff e r e n t WE f o r d i ff e r e n t WOEtent .
WE = WOE − Wtfo − Wcrew

tent tent
WTO guess (lb) WOE (lb) WE (lb)

tent tent
10141 4280.457111 4054.752111
9000 3593.510404 3373.510404
10150 4285.875622 4060.125622
10200 4315.978457 4089.978457
10250 4346.081293 4119.831293
10300 4376.184128 4149.684128
10350 4406.286964 4179.536964
10400 4436.3898 4209.3898
10450 4466.492635 4239.242635
10500 4496.595471 4269.095471
10550 4526.698306 4298.948306
10600 4556.801142 4328.801142
10650 4586.903977 4358.653977
11000 4797.623827 4567.623827
23 of 81
Compare the values for WEtent and for WE . Next, make an adjustment to the value of WTOguess and
repeat the process. Continue this process until the values of WEtent and WE agree with each other to
within some pre-selected tolerance. A tolerance of 0.5% is usually sufficient at this stage in the
design process.
(WE − WE )
Error = tent
× 100
WE
WTO guess (lb) Error(%)
10141 0.55673978
9000 0.661075135
10150 0.556055775
10200 0.55228842
10250 0.54857557
10300 0.54491605
10350 0.541308718
10400 0.537752462
10450 0.534246205
10500 0.530788899
10550 0.527379523
10600 0.524017086
10650 0.520700626
11000 0.498697024
So for a tolerance below 0.5% we will have:
WTO = 11000(lb)
guess
WF = 4377.37(lb)
WOE = 4797.62(lb)
tent
WE = 4567.62(lb)
tent
WE = 6845.48(lb)
WOE = WE + Wtfo + Wcrew = 7075.48(lb)
24 of 81
Sensitivity studies and growth factor

Some parameters in the range and endurance equations depend on the values that we selected for
them. We are going to show how airplane WTO varies with
1. Payload weight WPL
2. Empty weight WE
3. Range R
4. Endurance E
L
5. Lift-to-drag ratio D
6. Specific fuel consumption c p or c j
7. Propeller efficiency η p .
Parameters listed follow are represented by the symbol y .
The reasons for doing this are:
1. To find out which parameters drive the design,

2. To determine which areas of technological change must be pursued, if some new mission
capability must be achieved.
WTO = WOE + WF + WPL ⎪⎫

⎬ W = WTO − WF − WPL − Wtfo − Wcrew (I)
WOE = WE + Wtfo + Wcrew ⎪⎭ E
WF = (1− M ff )WTO + WF ⎫⎪
⎬ W = (1− M ff )WTO + M res (1− M ff )WTO (II)
res
WF = M res (1− M ff )WTO ⎪ F

res ⎭
I,II
⇒ WE = WTO [1− (1+ M res )(1− M ff ) − M tfo ] − (WPL + Wcrew ) = CWTO − D (III)
log10 WTO − A
WE = inv.log10 [ ] (IV)
B
III,IV
⇒ log10 WTO = A + Blog10 (CWTO − D)
M res is the reserve fuel fraction expressed in terms of mission fuel used.
WF
M res = res
= 0.25
WF
used
M tfo is the trapped oil and fuel fraction expressed in terms of take-off gross weight.
Wtfo
M tfo = = 0.0046
WTO
⎪⎧C = 1− (1+ M res )(1− M ff ) − M tfo = 0.7071

⇒⎨
⎪⎩ D = WPL + Wcrew = 2000
25 of 81
If the sensitivity of WTO is desired, it is possible to obtain that sensitivity by partial differentiation of
WTO in equation log10 WTO = A + Blog10 (CWTO − D) . This results in:
⎛ ∂C ∂WTO ∂D ⎞
B ⎜ WTO +C −
⎛ 1 ⎞ ∂WTO ⎝ ∂y ∂y ∂y ⎟⎠
⎜ W ⎟ ∂y =
⎝ TO ⎠ CWTO − D
∂A
Since the regression line constants A and B vary only with airplane type, the partial derivatives ∂y
∂B
∂WTO
and ∂y are zero. It is possible to solve equation above for ∂y
that is called the airplane growth
factor due to payload.
⎛ ∂C ∂D ⎞
⎜ B(WTO )2 − BWTO
∂WTO ⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎟⎠
=
∂y (C(1− B)WTO − D)
Sensitivity of take-off weight to payload weight
⎧ ∂D
⎪ y = WPL ⇒ ∂W = 1
⎪ PL
If ⎨
⎪ ∂C = 0 ⇒ ∂WTO = BWTO
= 6.5901
⎪⎩ ∂WPL ∂WPL D − C(1− B)WTO
This means for 1(lb) additional payload, 6.5901(lb) will be added to our airplane take-off weight.
Sensitivity of take-off weight to empty weight

We had:
log10 WTO = A + Blog10 WE
By partial differentiation of WTO with respect to We the take-off weight to empty weight sensitivity
is expressed as:
∂WTO BWTO
= = 1.6116
∂WE log10 WTO − A
inv.log10 [ ]
B
This means for 1(lb) additional empty weight, 1.6112(lb) will be added to our airplane take-off
weight.
26 of 81
Sensitivity of take-off weight to range, endurance, speed,

specific fuel consumption,
propeller efficiency and lift-to-drag ratio
We had:
∂WTO BWTO2
∂C
=
∂y (CWTO (1− B) − D) ∂y
C = ( M ff (1+ M res ) − M tfo − M res )
∂C ∂M ff
= (1+ M res )
∂y ∂y
i=7
W1 W
M ff = ( ) × ∏ ( i+1 )
WTO i=1 Wi
⎛W ⎞
∂⎜ i+1 ⎟
∂M ff ⎛ W ⎞ ⎝ Wi ⎠
= M ff ⎜ i ⎟
∂y ⎝ Wi+1 ⎠ ∂y
Wi
At this point, it is recalled that the ratio can be determined from Breguet's equations. These
Wi+1
Breguet equations take on two different forms, depending on whether range or endurance is
sought. Breguet's equations can be generalized as:
⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ W ⎞
R = ln ⎜ i ⎟ E = ln ⎜ i ⎟
⎝ Wi+1 ⎠ ⎝ Wi+1 ⎠
⎛W ⎞ ⎛W ⎞
∂⎜ i+1 ⎟ ∂⎜ i+1 ⎟
⎝ Wi ⎠ ⎛ W ⎞ ∂R ⎝ Wi ⎠ ⎛ W ⎞ ∂E
= − ⎜ i+1 ⎟ = − ⎜ i+1 ⎟
∂y ⎝ Wi ⎠ ∂y ∂y ⎝ Wi ⎠ ∂y
The quantities R and E in turn are found as follows:
1 1
R = Rc p E = EVc p
⎛ L⎞ ⎛ L⎞
⎜⎝ 375ηp D ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 375ηp D ⎟⎠
By combining Equations, the sensitivity of WTO with respect to y can be written as:
Wi+1 W
for the case involving a ratio ( ) dependent on range, and for the case involving a ratio ( i+1 )
Wi Wi
dependent on endurance:
∂WTO ∂R ∂WTO ∂E
=F =F
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
27 of 81
The factor F in these equations is defined as:
2
WTO
(CWTO (1− B) − D) ( ress ) ff
F = −B 1+ M M = 74557.35
∂R ∂E
The form taken by the so-called Breguet partials and depends on whether the particular
∂y ∂y
weight ratio being differentiated is defined by equation R or by equation E . Table below gives the
forms for the Breguet partials. These partials are derived by partially differentiating equation we
L
derived with respect to R , E , V , c p , c j , η p or .
D
Breguet Partials for propeller Driven and for Jet Airplanes
Propeller Driven Jet
Range Case y=R ∂R cp ∂R cj

Endurance Case = =
y=E ∂y L ∂y L
375 × ηp × V×
D D
∂E V × cp
= ∂E c j
∂y L =
375 × ηp × ∂y L
D
D
Range Case
Endurance Case
y = cp ∂R
=
R y = c j ∂R = R
∂y L ∂y L
375 × ηp × V×
y = cp D y = cj D
∂E V×E ∂E E
= =
∂y L
∂y L
375 × ηp ×
D
D
Range Case
Endurance Case
y = ηp ∂R
=
−R × c p Not Applicable
∂y L Not Applicable
y = ηp 375 × η2p ×
D
∂E −V × E × c p
=
∂y L
375 × η2p ×
D
Range Case y=V Not Applicable ∂R −R × c j
Endurance Case =
y=V ∂E E × cp ∂y L
= V2 × ( )
∂y L D
375 × ηp ×
D Not Applicable
Range Case −R × c j
L ∂R
Endurance Case y= ∂y
=
L
D V × ( )2
D
L
y= ∂E −E × c j
D =
∂y L
( )2
D
28 of 81
⎧ ∂WTO ∂R F × cp
⎪ =F = = 10.9108
⎪ ∂R ∂R
375 × ηp ×
L
∂WTO ∂R ⎪ D
=F ⎪ ∂W
∂y ∂y ∂R F×R
⎪ TO
=F = = 36369.4408
⎧c p = 0.45 ⎪ ∂c ∂c p L
p 375 × ηp ×
⎪ ⎪ D
⇒ ⎪ η = 0.82 ⇒⎨
⎪ p ⎪ ∂WTO ∂R F × −R × c p
⎨ R = 1500(sm) =F = = −66273.2033
⎪ ∂η ∂ηp L
⎪ ⎪ p 375 × ηp ×
2
⎪ L = 10 ⎪ D
⎪⎩ D ⎪ ∂WTO F × −R × c p
∂R
⎪ L =F = = −1.0910
L L 2
⎪ ∂( ) ∂( ) 375 × ηp × ( )
⎩ D D D
∂WTO ∂WTO
As it’s been shown, and became negative. This means the growth of efficiency and
∂ηp L
∂( )
D
lift to drag ratio will have good effects on the airplane because our Take-off weight can be less
than before.
29 of 81
Sizing requirements
We need a rapid estimation of those airplane design parameters which have a major impact on the
performance. In this section, methods will be presented which allow us to do so. The methods will
W T
result in the determination of a range of values of wing loading , thrust loading (or power
S W
W
loading ) and maximum lift coefficient C L , within which certain performance requirements are
P max
met. From these data it usually follows that the combination of the highest possible wing loading
and the lowest possible thrust loading (or power loading) which still meets all performance
requirements results in an airplane with the lowest weight and the lowest cost.
30 of 81
Sizing to stall speed requirements

For some airplanes the mission task demands a stall speed not higher than some minimum value.
In such a case, the mission specification will include a requirement for a minimum stall speed.
FAR 23 certified single engine airplanes may not have a stall speed greater than 113 km/h(61
knots) at WTO . These stall speed requirements can be met flaps-up or flaps-down at the option of
the designer.
⎧ W 1 2
⎪( S )Cruise = 2 Vs ρCruiseC Lmax : Cruise Phase
W ⎪
2
S W 1 2 ⎪ W 1
Vs = ⇒ = Vs ρC L ⎨( ) Landing = Vs2ρLandingC L : Landing Phase
ρC L S 2 max
⎪ S 2 max L
max
⎪ W 1 2
⎪ S Take-off 2 Vs ρTake-off C LmaxTO : Take-off Phase
( ) =
⎩
By specifying a maximum allowable stall speed at some altitude, equation above defines a
maximum allowable wing loading WS for a given value of C L . Table below presents typical values
max
of C L for different types of airplanes with associated flap settings.

max
The reader should recognize the fact that C L is strongly influenced by such factors as Wing and
max
airfoil design, Flap type and flap size, Center of gravity location.
As stated in mission specification, The home airport is Yazd Airport.
June Temperature Temperature offset Altitude Density
(Fahrenheit) (Fahrenheit) (m) (slug/ft^3)
90 45.4612 1236 0.00193332
and for cruise phase:
(Fahrenheit) (Fahrenheit) (ft) (slug/ft^3)
55 26.6616 10000 0.00166366
The most far airport that can our airplane reach in IRAN is Maku airport, that its distance from Yazd
airport is about 1400(km) .
(Fahrenheit) (Fahrenheit) (m) (slug/ft^3)
73 25.1852 956 0.0020641
31 of 81
Typical Values For Maximum lift Coefficient
Airplane Type CL CL CL
max max TO max L
Homebuilts 1.2 - 1.8 1.2 - 1.8 1.2 - 2.0
Single Engine Propeller

1.3 - 1.9 1.3 - 1.9 1.6 - 2.3
Driven
Twin Engine Propeller

1.2 - 1.8 1.4 - 2.0 1.6 - 2.5
Driven
Agricultural 1.3 - 1.9 1.3 - 1.9 1.3 - 1.9
Business Jets 1.4 - 1.8 1.6 - 2.2 1.6 - 2.6
Regional TBP 1.5 - 1.9 1.7 - 2.1 1.9 - 3.3
Transport Jets 1.2 - 1.8 1.6 - 2.2 1.8 - 2.8
Military Trainers 1.2 - 1.8 1.4 - 2.0 1.6 - 2.6
Fighters 1.2 - 1.8 1.4 - 2.0 1.6 - 2.6
Mill. Patrol, Bomb and

1.2 - 1.8 1.6 - 2.2 1.8 - 3.0
Transport
Flying Boats
Amphibious and Float 1.2 - 1.8 1.6 - 2.2 1.8 - 3.4
Airplanes
Supersonic Cruise 1.2 - 1.8 1.6 - 2.0 1.8 - 2.2
For our target airplane, as stated reference[6], Stall speed for different phases gonna be:
Take-off Landing Cruise
(kn) (kn) (kn)
64 64 77
Using equations derived in follow, wing loading for cruise, landing and take-off phases will
calculated as below:
Take-off Landing Cruise
(lb/ft^2) (lb/ft^2) (lb/ft^2)
7.91887872 10.568192 8.877456126
32 of 81
33 of 81
Sizing to take-off distance requirements

Depending on the type of mission, the take-off requirements are frequently spelled out in terms of
minimum ground run requirements in combination with some minimum climb capability.
Figure 3.2 presents a definition of take-off distances used in the process of sizing an airplane to
FAR 23 requirements. FAR 23 airplanes usually are propeller driven airplanes.
The take-off ground run, STOG of an airplane is proportional to takeoff wing loading ( WS )TO , take-off
power loading ( WP )TO and to the maximum take-off lift coefficient, CL .
maxTO
Figure 3.3 relates STOG to the take-off parameter TOP23 for a range of single and twin engine
FAR23 certified airplanes. Figure 3.4 relates STO and STOG to each other. There is a lot of scatter in
the data. One reason is, that take-off procedures vary widely. Another is that take-off thrust
depends strongly on propeller characteristics. Finally, take-off rotation to lift-off attitude depends
on control power, control feel and on airplane inertia. Nevertheless, it is useful to employ the
correlation lines of figures 3.3 and 3.4 in the preliminary sizing process. The correlation lines drawn
suggest the following relationships:
STOG = 4.9 TOP23 + 0.009 TOP232

and, since Figure 3.4 implies:
STO = 1.66 STOG

It follows that:
STO = 8.13 TOP23 + 0.0149 TOP232
where TOP23 (lbs 2 / ft 2 hp) is the so-called take-off parameter for FAR 23 airplanes.
34 of 81
According to mission specification, the take-off length is 1600 ft, from equation above we can
calculate the take-off parameter:
STO = 8.13 TOP23 + 0.0149 TOP232 ⇒ 1600 = 8.13 TOP23 + 0.0149 TOP232 ⇒ TOP23 = 153.57(lbs 2 / ft 2 hp)
slug
Sea Level Density 0.00237806
ft 3
slug
Yazd Airport Density 0.00193332
ft 3
Relative Density 0.812982011 -
Maximum Take-off Lift
2 -
Coefficient
TOP23 × σ C L
=
maxTO
( )
W
P TO
( )
W
S TO
Wing Loading Power Loading
lb lb
ft 2 hp
5 49.99839365
10 24.99919682
15 16.66613122
20 12.49959841
25 9.99967873
30 8.333065608
35 7.142627664
40 6.249799206
45 5.555377072
50 4.999839365
55 4.545308514
60 4.166532804
65 3.846030281
70 3.571313832
75 3.333226243
80 3.124899603
35 of 81
36 of 81
Sizing to landing distance requirements

Landing distances of airplanes are determined by four factors:
1. Landing weight WL
2. Approach speed VA
3. Deceleration method used
4. Plying qualities of the airplane
5. Pilot technique
Kinetic energy considerations suggest that the approach speed should have a'square' effect on the
total landing distance. After an airplane has touched down, the following deceleration methods can
be used:
a. Brakes
b. Thrust reversers
c. Parachutes
d. Arresting systems (field-based or carrier-based)
e. Crash barriers
For civil airplanes, the requirements of FAR 23 and FAR 25 are in force.
Typical Values For Landing to Take-off Weight Ratio
W W W
Airplane Type Minimum Average Maximum
WTO WTO WTO
Twin Engine Propeller

0.88 0.99 1.0
Driven
Figure below presents a definition of landing distances used in the process of sizing an airplane to
FAR 23 requirements.
Landing Stall Speed 64 knot
Landing Length 1800 ft
slug
Maku Airport Density 0.0020641
ft 3
37 of 81
The approach speed is specified as:
VA = 1.3Vs = 83.2(knot)
L
Figure 3.13 shows how the landing ground run SLG is related to the square of the stall speed VsL .
The stall speed here is that in the landing configuration: gear down, landing flaps and power-off.
Figure 3.14 shows how the total landing distance sL , is related to sLG : This figure suggests the
following relationship:
s L = 1.938s LG
By specifying the maximum allowable total landing distance sL it is possible to find the
corresponding landing ground run, SLG :
s LG = 0.265Vs2 = 1085.44(ft)
L
This in turn can be translated into a relation between wing-loading ( WS )L , and C Lmax L .
s L = 0.5136Vs2
L
1 W 1 2
L = W ⇒ W = ρVs2 SC L ⇒ = ρV C = 10.56
2 L max
S 2 sL Lmax
38 of 81
39 of 81
Sizing to climb requirements

All airplanes must meet certain climb rate or climb gradient requirements. To size an airplane for
climb requirements, it is necessary to have an estimate for the airplane drag polar.
Assuming a parabolic drag polar, the drag coefficient of an airplane can be written as:
C2L
CD = CD +
0
πA e
The zero-lift drag coefficient, C D0 can be expressed as:
f
CD =
0
S
where f is the equivalent parasite area and S is the wing area.

It is possible to relate equivalent parasite area, f to wetted area Swet . This is shown in Figures
(3.21a and b).
40 of 81
It is possible to represent Figures (3.21) with the following empirically obtained equation:
log10 f = a + blog10 Swet
The correlation coefficients a and b are themselves a function of the equivalent skin friction
coefficient of an airplane, c f .
Table below shows typical values for a and for b for a range of c f values. Figures(3.21) in turn allow
the reader to quickly estimate a realistic value for c f .
Correlation Coefficient for Parasite Area Versus Wetted Area
Equivalent Skin Friction Coefficient cf a b
0.0090 -2.0458 1.0000
0.0080 -2.0969 1.0000
0.0070 -2.1549 1.0000
0.0060 -2.2218 1.0000
0.0050 -2.3010 1.0000
0.0040 -2.3979 1.0000
0.0030 -2.5229 1.0000
0.0020 -2.6990 1.0000
It is evident, that the method for estimating drag boils down to the ability to predict a realistic value
for Swet . It turns out, that Swet correlates well with WTO for a wide range of airplanes. The scatter in
these figures is mainly due to differences in wing loading, cabin sizes and nacelle
log10 Swet = c + d log10 WTO ⇒ Swet = 1533.36
The constants c and d are regression line coefficients.
41 of 81
Regression Line Coefficient for Take-off Weight Versus Wetted Area

Airplane Type c d
Homebuilts 1.2362 0.4319
Single Engine Propeller Driven 1.0892 0.5147
Twin Engine Propeller Driven 0.8635 0.5632
Agricultural 1.0447 0.5326

Business Jets 0.2263 0.6977
Regional TBP -0.0866 0.8099
Transport Jets 0.0199 0.7531
Military Trainers 0.8565 0.5423
Fighters -0.1289 0.7506
Mill. Patrol, Bomb and Transport 0.1628 0.7316
Flying Boats 0.6295 0.6708
Supersonic Cruise -1.1868 0.9609

Now that we calculated wetted area, we can find equivalent parasite area from equation below that
stated before. Be aware that we get S = 300( ft ) from peer aircrafts to EV-55 Outback.
2
log10 f = a + blog10 Swet ⇒ f = 10.733
Then we can find parasite drag as below:
f 10.733
CD = = = 0.035
0
S 300
First Estimates for Additional Zero-lift Drag Coefficient and e With Flaps and Gear
Configuration ΔC D e
0
Clean 0 0.80 - 0.85
Take-off Flaps 0.010 - 0.020 0.75 - 0.80
Landing Flaps 0.055 - 0.075 0.70 - 0.75
Landing Gear 0.015 - 0.025 no effect
We can calculate wing aspect ratio as below:
b2 522
A= = = 9.01
S 300
42 of 81
Configuration CD π Ae CD
0
C2L
Clean 0.035778695 24.05658667 0.035778695 +
24
C2L
Take-off Flaps 0.055778695 22.64149333 0.055778695 +
22
C2L
Landing Flaps 0.110778695 21.2264 0.110778695 +
21
C2L
Landing Gear 0.060778695 28.30186667 0.060778695 +
28
For estimating rate-of-climb(RC) and climb gradient(CGR) of an airplane we do as below:
dh
RC = = 33000 × Rate of climb Parameter(RCP)
dt
W
ηp ( )
RCP = ( )-( S )
W 3
( ) C 2
P 19( ) σ
L
CD
3
C2
To maximize RC, it is evidently necessary to make L as large as possible. This is achieved when:
CD
CL = 3C D πAe
RCmax 0
CD = 4C D
RCmax 0
3 3
C 2
1.345(Ae) 4
( )max =
L
1
CD
C D4
0
43 of 81
Configuration CD π Ae CL CD C2
0 RCmax RCmax ( L )max
CD
Clean 0.0357 24.05658667 1.6069 0.1431 14.2331
Take-off Flaps 0.0557 22.64149333 1.9464 0.2231 12.1714
Landing Flaps 0.1107 21.2264 2.6559 0.4431 9.7684
Landing Gear 0.0607 28.30186667 2.2716 0.2431 14.0832
Power Loading Power Loading Power Loading Power Loading

Wing Loading
(Clean) (Flaps) (Landing Flaps) (Landing Gear)
5 80.54574621 69.88304677 57.05555623 15.43443594
10 58.65910548 50.69291913 41.19232914 10.97490991
20 42.37507308 36.51312245 29.56679635 7.791284291
30 34.93372115 30.06095109 24.30361966 6.372780609
40 30.42892035 26.16334572 21.13231212 5.524800473
50 27.32458298 23.48110194 18.95340251 4.945084753
60 25.01718535 21.48937255 17.33727827 4.516621298
70 23.21448127 19.93443701 16.07666983 4.183305296
80 21.755339 18.67657859 15.05760684 3.914426581
44 of 81
To find the best possible climb gradient, it is necessary to find the minimum value of CGRP. This
minimum value depends on the lift coefficient and on the corresponding lift-to-drag ratio. A
problem is, that the minimum value of CGRP is usually found at a value of C L very close to C Lmax .
It is suggested to the reader, to ensure that a margin of 0.2 exists between C Lmax , and C Lclimb .
dh
)(
Climb gradient(CGR) = dt
V
1
CGR +
L
Climb gradient parameter(CGRP) = D = 18.97ηp σ
CL W W
( ) ( )
P S
For calculating time-to-climb of an airplane we do as below:
Figure 3.26 shows an assumed linear relationship between rate-of-climb and altitude. Whether or
not this relation in reality is linear depends on the engine and on the airplane characteristics as well
as on the flight speed at which the climb is carried out.
Figure 3.26 introduces the following quantities:

RC0 = rate of climb at sealevel(fpm)
ft
RCh = rate of climb at altitude h(fpm) = 1.673( )
min
The reader is asked to show, that the rate-of-climb at a given altitude can be written as:
h
RC = RC0 (1− )
h abs
Typical values for habs are given in Table below for different propulsive installations.
45 of 81
Typical Values for the Absolute Ceiling
Airplane Type h abs (ft × 10−3 )
Airplane with piston-propeller combinations
normally aspirated 12 - 18
Supercharged 15 - 25
Airplanes with turbojet or turbofan engines
Commercial 40 - 50
Military 40 - 55
Fighters 55 - 75
Military Trainers 35 - 45
Airplanes with turbo propeller or propfan engines
Commercial 30 - 45
Military 30 - 50
Supersonic Cruise Airplanes(jets) 55 - 80
When sizing an airplane to a given time-to-climb requirement, the time-to-climb, tcl will be
specified.
A value for habs can be selected from Table mentioned before unless it is specified in the mission
specification. The rate-of-climb at sealevel, RC0 can be calculated from:
h 1 18 × 103 1
RC0 = abs ln( )= ln( ) = 2919.3487(fpm)
t cl h 5 10000
(1− ) (1− )
h abs 18 × 103
h 10000
RC = RC0 (1− ) = 2919.3487(1− ) = 1297.4883(fpm)
h abs 18000
For shallow flight path angle γ ≺ 15° :
dh
RC = = 33000 × Rate of climb Parameter(RCP)
dt
W
ηp ( )
RCP =( )-( S )
W 3
( ) C 2
P 19( ) σ
L
CD
46 of 81
lb lb
ft 2 hp
16.91130391 5
15.68273384 10
14.22161131 20
13.27274283 30
12.56593756 40
12.00281016 50
11.53545388 60
11.13668822 70
10.78952695 80
47 of 81
Sizing to ceiling requirements

When sizing to a given ceiling requirement, the minimum required rate of climb at the ceiling
altitude is specified. Table below defines the minimum climb rates for different ceilings.
Definition of Airplane Ceilings
Ceiling Type Minimum Required Climb Rate
Absolute ceiling 0 fpm
Service ceiling
Commercial/Piston -propeller 100 fpm
Commercial/jet 500 fpm
Military at maximum power 100 fpm
Combat ceiling
Military/Subsonic/maximum power 500 fpm at M<1
Military/Supersonic/max.cont. power 1000 fpm at M>1
Cruise ceiling
Military/Subsonic/max.cont. power 300 fpm at M<1
Military/Supersonic/max.cont. power 1000 fpm at M>1
The rate of climb at any altitude for propeller driven airplanes is given by:
dh RC 100
RC = = 33000 × Rate of climb Parameter(RCP) = RCP = = = 0.00303
dt 33000 33000
W
ηp ( )
RCP = ( )-( S )
W 3
( ) C 2
P 19( ) σ
L
CD
48 of 81
lb lb
ft 2 hp
5 63.48682412
10 48.20443516
20 35.962028
30 30.09684841
40 26.4588996
50 23.91240136
60 21.99831047
70 20.49004161
80 19.26087372
49 of 81
Sizing to maneuvering requirements

Requirements for sustained maneuvering capability (including sometimes specific turn rate) are
often contained in the mission specification for utility, agricultural, aerobatic or for military
airplanes.
Sustained maneuvering requirements are usually formulated in terms of a combination of sustained
load factor (g's) to be pulled at some combination of speed and altitude.
The sustained maneuvering capability of an airplane depends strongly on its maximum lift
coefficient and on its installed thrust.
For equilibrium perpendicular to the flight path, it is necessary that:
nw = C L qS = 1482 × δM 2C LS
The maximum load factor capability of an airplane, nmax can be found as:
1482 × δM 2C L S
n max = max
W
( )
S
This load factor can be sustained as long as there is sufficient thrust. Since:
1
×
C2 W
W W 1
T = C D qS + ( L )qS⇔( ) = ( )( )
0
πAe T=PV P S 1 C2L
× ρV(C D + )
2 0
πAe
lb lb
ft 2 hp
5 105.908504
10 124.6747033
20 94.25007738
30 69.41403976
40 54.04148181
50 44.00826555
60 37.03421645
70 31.93297097
80 28.04994895
50 of 81
If some maximum load factor, nmax is desired on a sustained basis at a given combination of Mach
W
number, M and altitude, then this equation can be used to find the relation between ( ) and
P
W
( ) , for a given value of C D0 .
S
If a requirement is included for a specific minimum turn rate, the following equation may be used:
g
ψ! = ( ) (n 2 − 1)
V
If turn rate is specified at a given speed, the required sustained load factor, n may be found from:
Vψ! 2
n reqd = ( ) +1
g
51 of 81
Sizing to cruise speed requirements

The power required to fly at some speed and altitude is given by:
Preqd = TV = C D qSV ⇒ 550SHPηp = 0.5ρV 3SC D
Cruise speeds for propeller driven airplanes are usually calculated at 75 to 80 percent power. In
that case it can be shown that the induced drag is small compared to the profile drag. Frequently,
the assumption C D = 0.1C D is made. Because of this fact, cruise speed turns out to be
i 0
proportional to the following factor:
W
( )
( S ) W
( ) 1
W
( ) 1 Vcr ∝ I p = ( S ) 3
Vcr ∝ [ P ]3 W
η σ( )
( p ) P
σC D
0
where the parameter I p is called the power index.

Figures 3.28, 3.29 and 3.30 show how Vcr is related to I p for a range of example airplanes. These
figures can therefore be used as a first estimate for I p for a given desired cruise speed. From that
W W
in turn it is possible to determine the relationship between ( ) and ( ) needed to meet a given
S P
cruise speed requirement.
52 of 81
Velocity 264.67993 mph
Ip 1.52 -
Relative Density 0.699587058 -

It is stated in mission specification that the cruise speed is 230 knot at 75% power, so it is needed
to multiply our power loading by 0.75.
lb lb
ft 2 hp
0 0
10 4.688719223
20 9.377438446
30 14.06615767
40 18.75487689
50 23.44359611
60 28.13231534
70 32.82103456
80 37.50975378
53 of 81
Matching Diagram
Having established a series of relations between power loading and wing loading, it is now
possible to determine the 'best' combination of these quantities for the design at hand. The word
'best' is used rather than 'optimum' because the latter implies a certain mathematical precision.
What is usually done at this point is to overlay all requirements and select the lowest possible
power-to-weight ratio and the highest possible wing loading which are consistent with all
requirements. This process is also known as the matching process. The result of mating process
would be a point that is called The Design point. It refers to a status that you can have the highest
power, thrust and lift force by the smallest engine and the smallest wing area possible. Now with
estimation we can start optimizing our design(Multi disciplinary design optimization). This
optimization is all about mathematics and statistics.
Table below shows the dependency of different sizing procedures to the wing loading or power
loading. As you can see some of them i.e. like Landing distance are dependent to both wing and
power loading and some of them are just dependent to one of them like stall speed. This is
important because it helps us to do different sizing procedures in a more efficient way according to
mission specification.
Dependent to both wing & power

Sizing Independent to power loading
loading
Stall Speed #
Take-off Distance #
Landing Distance #
Climb #
Time to Climb #
Ceiling #
Maneuvering #
Cruise Speed #
Table below indicated acceptable areas for each sizing diagram.
Sizing Acceptable Area
Stall Speed Left of the line

Take-off Distance Beneath the curve
Landing Distance Left of the curve
Climb Beneath the curve
Time to Climb Beneath the curve
Ceiling Beneath the curve
Maneuvering Above the curve
Cruise Speed Beneath the line
54 of 81
55 of 81
The area that all the sizing areas have in common in called the design area. Every point in the
design area is a point that the airplane is capable of meeting its requirements.
The best design point is the point that is in the acceptable area, with lowest possible amount of
power loading and highest amount of wing loading.
The design point is identified with red star in the figure.
56 of 81
Preliminary configuration design

Our objective in this section is to investigate and analyze some design configurations in 10 Step as
stated in below:
The end of step 10 we reach to a result referred to point or baseline design.
Step 1 Overall layout design

Step 2 Design of cockpit and fuselage layouts
Step 3 Selection and integration of the propulsion system
Step 4 Wing planform design
Step 5 Empennage sizing
Step 6 Landing gear sizing
Step 7 Weight and balance analysis
Step 8 Stability and control analysis
Step 9 Drag polar determination
Step 10 Dimensioned three-view
57 of 81
Overall layout design
The Evektor-55 Outback is a 10-seated, twin turbo-propeller engine with high wings, and T-tails. 6
items mentioned below are some important points worth mentioning in this section.
1. It is nearly always desirable to place the fuel c.g., the payload c.g. and the empty weight c.g. at
the same longitudinal location. Doing this limits c.g. travel. Limiting c.g. travel results in a
configuration with less wetted area due to less need for trim control power. This consideration has
a major influence on the relative placement of those airplane components, which primarily affect
the overall c.g. location.
2. The critical Mach number of the wing of a subsonic airplane should be selected such that the
airplane does not cruise too far into the drag rise.
3. The critical Mach number of the wing should always be lower than the critical Mach number of
stabilizing or control surfaces.
4. The integration of major components such as: nacelle on wing, nacelle on fuselage, wing on
fuselage and so on needs to be done so that interference drag is minimized.
5. Ideally this means that any connecting, intersecting items should intersect at as close as
possible to 90 degrees. If it is not possible to do this, extensive fairings are needed to avoid
interference drag penalties.
6. Major intersecting structural components should be arranged to avoid duplication of

special heavy structure.
58 of 81
Design of cockpit and fuselage layouts

Referring to the mission specification, we need to make a list of crew, payload and operational
items which need to be located in the fuselage.
1. Number and weight of passengers
59 of 81
2. Weight and volume of ‘carry-on’ and ‘check-in' baggage
3. Number and weight of cockpit and cabin crew members
60 of 81
4. Weight and volume of cargo
5. Weight and volume of fuel carried in fuselage
Translate the list obtained into a dimensioned drawing of a proposed cabin interior layout.
This step includes making a decision on the size and shape of the fuselage cross section to be
used, the location of the cabin floor in that cross section and a check of volumetric requirements
imposed by any of the items.
61 of 81
In passenger transport airplanes and in business airplanes it is important to consider carefully the
following choices:
1. Number of persons abreast

2. Number and size of aisles
3. Type of seating to be employed: first class, business class, tourist class or economy class
4. Cabin provisions required in terms of: closets, toilets, overhead storage compartments, galleys
62 of 81
Figure 4.1 defines several important geometric parameters for the fuselage. Table below shows
ranges of these parameters which are currently employed. Unless there is a good reason, these
ranges should not be exceeded.
lf lfc
Airplane Type θfc (deg)
df df
Twin Engine 3.6 - 8 2.6 - 4 6 - 13
The fuselage cone is normally a smooth transition from the maximum fuselage cross section to the
'end' of the fuselage. When the 'fineness ratio' of this cone is too low, there will be a large base
drag penalty although the fuselage weight may be reduced. When the 'fineness ratio of this cone is
too large, there will be a large friction drag penalty as well as a large weight penalty.
It will be obvious to the reader, that a long fuselage cone tends to increase the tail moment arm
thereby reducing required tail area and vice versa.
The decision on the fuselage cone fineness ratio is therefore one that involves a number of
tradeoffs.
The geometry of the fuselage cone can also have an impact on the ability of the airplane to rotate
about its rear gear during take-off. Make sure that the selected cone geometry does not interfere
with take-off rotation.
As you can see the EV-55 Outback’s fuselage has a monocoque shape. Airplanes with monocoque
fuselage shape are hard to manufacture and have more weight.
63 of 81
Selection and integration of the propulsion system
The EV-55 Outback has two Turboprop Pratt and Whitney PT6A-21 installed in pods,
dispositioned below the wings.
The EV-55 Outback engines have 4 blades each with a diameter of 82 in and constant speed.
The following factors play a role in selecting the type of propulsion system to be used:
1. Required cruise speed and/or maximum speed
2. Required maximum operating altitude
3. Required range and range economy
4. FAR 36 noise regulations (applies to civil airplanes only)
5. Installed weight
6. Reliability and maintainability
7. Fuel amount needed
8. Fuel cost
9. Fuel availability
10. Specific customer or market demands
11. Timely certification
The disposition of the engine below the wing has several advantages:
1. The interference drag of the fuselage has less effect on the mass flow going to the inlet.
2. Noise reduction in comparison to installing engine above wings.
64 of 81
65 of 81
66 of 81
Wing planform design

From a structural viewpoint, EV-55 Outback has a cantilever, high wing configuration.
In comparison with low wing and mid wing configurations, high wing airplanes due to more wing
span, generate more lift force and also more drag. The generation of more lift force help the
airplane to have a higher lift coefficient and it means that the airplane can land in much lower
speed and has a better function in landing phase. But due to the absence of ground effect, the
high wing airplanes do not have a good functionality in take-off phase.
The wing airfoils are NACA 4412.
67 of 81
High lift devices sizing
68 of 81
Empennage configurations
The T-tail configuration of EV-55 Outback can be seen in picture below:
69 of 81
Landing gear sizing

The landing gear of the EV-55 Outback is mounted under the fuselage.
the pod covering the rear landing gears it is airfoil shaped. This is not immediately obvious when
looking at the formers, but they (almost obviously) are airfoil shaped.
70 of 81
Weight and balance analysis

The center of gravity of the proposed airplane design must be in the right place for different loading
scenarios.
71 of 81
Dimensioned three-view
In picture below you can see top, side and frontal view of EV-55 Outback.
72 of 81
Images Using Solid Modelers
Images Using Finite Element Modelers
73 of 81
Images Using Computational Fluid Dynamics Software
74 of 81
Drawings
75 of 81
MISSION SPECIFICATION
NUMBER OF PASSENGERS 10 passenger including the pilot
WEIGHT OF EACH PASSENGER 175(lbs)
BAGGAGE OF EACH PASSENGER 250(lbs) total baggage
PAYLOAD WEIGHT 1825(lbs)
NUMBER OF CREW 1
WEIGHT OF EACH CREW 175(lbs)
BAGGAGE OF EACH CREW -
CREW WAIGHT 175(lbs)
CRUISE RANGE 1500(sm)
LOITER TIME -
FLY TO ALTERNATE -
CRUISE SPEED 230(kn)
CLIMB TIME 5 minutes
TAKE OFF FIELD LENGTH 1600(ft)
TAKE OFF FIELD ALTITUDE 1236(m)
LANDING FIELD LENGTH 1800(ft)
LANDING FIELD ALTITUDE 956(m)
POWER PLANTS TYPES Turboprop
NUMBER OF ENGINES 2
PRESSURIZATION None
CERTIFICATION FAR 23
76 of 81
MISSION FUEL FRACTION ESTIMATION 1

cp 0.7
Cruise
L
) 10
D Cruise
A 0.1964
B 1.0025
WTO 10141(lbs)
MISSION FUEL FRACTION ESTIMATION 2
START WEIGHT FRACTION 0.992
TAXI WEIGHT FRACTION 0.996
TAKE OFF WEIGHT FRACTION 0.996
CLIMB WEIGHT FRACTION 0.99
CRUISE WIGHT FRACTION 0.711
LOITER WEIGHT FRACTION -
DESCENT WEIGHT FRACTION 0.992
ALTERNATE WEIGHT FRACTION -
LANDING WEIGHT FRACTION 0.992
M ff 0.6816
WF 4377.3761(lbs)
WE 6845.4842(lbs)
WTO 11000(lbs)
C 0.5979
D 2000
F 74557.3538
∂WTO
∂WPL 6.5901
∂WTO
∂WE 1.6116
∂WTO
∂R 16.9724
∂WTO
∂ηp -42604.2021
∂WTO
∂c p 36369.4408
∂WTO
L -1.6972
∂( )
D
77 of 81
DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION

A -2.1549
B 1
C 0.8635
D 0.5632
Cf 0.007
CRUISE alt. DENSITY 0.00166366(slug/ft^3)
THRUST @ alt. to S.L. THRUST RATIO -
DIRECT CLIMB SIZING
RC0 2919.3487(fpm)
TIME TO CLIMB SIZING
h abs 18000(ft)
TARGET AIRPLANE DESIGN POINT
W
P 17.32(lb/hp)
W 9.46(lb/ft^2)
S
SIMILAR AIRPLANE DESIGN POINT
W
P 17(lb/hp)
W 9(lb/ft^2)
S
DESIGN POINT
W
P 16(lb/hp)
W 8(lb/ft^2)
S
OUTPUT TABLE
FROM MATCHING DIAGRAM TAKE OFF THRUST
78 of 81
AERODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
CONFIGURATIO
e ΔC Dconf Vs (knot)
N
CLEAN 0.85 0 -
TAKE OFF 0.8 0.02 64(kn)
LANDING 0.75 0.075 64(kn)
APPROACH - - -
GEARS No effect 0.025 -
CRUISE - - 77(kn)
Part II
OVERALL CONFIGURATION Conventional High-wing
LEGROOM 32in
CABIN WIDTH 5(ft)
FUSELAGE LENGTH 47(ft)
FUSELAGE DIAMETER 1.6(ft)
SEAT PITCH 32(in)
AISLE WIDTH 16.3(in)
PROPULSION TYPE PT6A-21 Turboprop
MAX. S.L. THRUST -
PROPULSION MANUFACTURER Pratt & Whitney Canada
PROPUSLION UNIT COST 750 hp -135A: $560,000
WING SWEEP -
WING TWIST -
WING AREA 300(fr^2)
ASPECT RATIO 9.0133
MAC 5.69(ft)
ROOT AIRFOIL NACA4412
TIP AIRFOIL NACA4412
WING POSITION High
WINGLET NO
79 of 81
CL
max TO 2
CL 1.8
max Clean
CL
max Landing
2.5
FLAP TYPE Slotted flap
TAIL CONFIGURATION T-Tail
VERTICAL TAIL AERA 14(ft^2)
VERTICAL TAIL AIRFOIL NACA 23015
VERTICAL TAIL CONTROL 17.78(ft^2)
SURFACE SIZING 0.38
HORIZONTAL TAIL AERA 229(ft^2)
HORIZONTAL TAIL AIRFOIL NACA23015
HORIZONTAL TAIL CONTROL 0.40
SURFACE SIZING
LANDING GEAR TYPE Nose Gear/Tricycle
80 of 81
References
1. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part I, Preliminary Sizing of Airplanes.
2. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part II, Preliminary Configuration Design and Integration of the
Propulsion System.
3. Taylor, J.W.R., Jane's All The World Aircraft, Published Annually by: Jane's Publishing Company,
238 City Road, London ECIV 2PU, England. (Issues used: 1945/46, 1968/84)
4. Taylor, J.W.R., Jane's All The World Aircraft, Published Annually by: Jane's Publishing Company,
238 City Road, London ECIV 2PU, England. (Issues used: 1945/46, 1968/84)
5. https://www.tinn.ir/‫بخش‬-english-2/11163--‫جابجایی‬-‫هوایی‬-‫ای‬-‫جاده‬-‫ریلی‬-‫تفکیک‬-‫به‬-‫شهری‬-‫برون‬-‫سفرهای‬-‫آمار‬
‫نقل‬-‫حمل‬-‫جامع‬-‫طرح‬-‫براساس‬-‫سال‬-‫تا‬-‫بار‬-‫تن‬-‫میلیون‬
6. https://www.evektor.cz/en/ev-55-outback
7. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, Daniel P. Raymer, Published by American Institute of

Aeronautics and Astronautics(AIAA), Inc. 370 L'Enfant Promenade, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024
81 of 81

Aircraftdesign en

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aircraftdesign en

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

General Aviation

Conceptual Design of a 10 Seater Twin Engine Propeller Driven Airplane

⎧ ⎧ Initial Conceptual Design

Restriction Commuter Normal Utility Aerobatic

Max number of occupants 19 9 9 9

Max T-O weight 19000 lb 12500 lb 12500 lb 12500 lb

Aerobatics allowed? No No Limited Yes

Max maneuvering g-loading,

Min maneuvering g-loading,

n− -0.4n + <n − ≤ -1.52 -1.76 -3.0

Supplemental Type Certificate (STC)

Standard Airworthiness Certificate (AC)

Special Airworthiness Certificate (SAC)

Airworthiness Directives (AD)

Advisory Circular (AC)

Technical Standard Order (TSO)

Technical Standard Order Authorization (TSOA)

A technical standard order authorization is a document that authorizes the manufacturer to

Parts Manufacturer Approval (PMA)

Oil and gas line inspection and survey

Name Hub Destinations Webpage

Altitude 10000 ft. (for the design range)

Cruise speed 230 kn. at 75% power at 10000 ft.

Climb 5 minutes to 10000 ft.

Power plants 2 × Turboprops

Load factor [-1.5g , +4.5g]

Step 1 Determination of mission payload weight

Determination of mission payload weight WPL

WPL = 9 × 175(lb) + 250(lb) = 1825(lb)

Determination of crew weight Wcrew

Target and Peer Aircrafts

Airplane Manufacturer WTO (lb) WE (lb)

99A Beechcraft (US) 10400 5533

King Air 350 Beechcraft (US) 15000 9456

King Air C90GTx Beechcraft (US) 10485 6950

King Air 350iER Beechcraft (US) 16600 9997

PA-42-1000 Piper Aircraft (US) 12050 6837

PA-31T Cheyenne Piper Aircraft (US) 9000 4870

PA-42 Cheyenne III Piper Aircraft (US) 11200 6837

DHC-6 Twin Otter Viking aircraft (Canada) 12500 6881

Conquest I Cessna (US) 8200 4915

400A Avtek (US) 6499 3779

Caravan II Reims Aviation (France) 9360 5033

An-14 Antonov (Ukraine) 7937 5732

P.68 Partenavia (Italy) 4594 3130

Gweduck Ellison-Mahon Aircraft (US) 6000 4200

Cessna 421 Cessna (US) 7450 4501

Cessna 414 Cessna (US) 6750 4356

Cessna T303 Cessna (US) 5150 3364

Cessna 404 Titan Cessna (US) 8400 4816

Seneca V Piper Aircraft (US) 4750 3212

Baron 55 Beechcraft (US) 5100 3156

Vr (P68R) Vulcanair (Italy) 4548 3198

B60 Beechcraft (US) 6775 4275

P.180 Avanti Piaggio Aerospace (Italy) 12100 8375

King Air C90GTi Beechcraft (US) 10100 6950

King Air 350i Beechcraft (US) 15000 9720

MU-2B-30 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (Japan) 11574 7568

AP.68TP 601 Vulcanair (Italy) 6614 3704

Finding the allowable value for empty weight WE

log10 WTO = Blog10 WE + A

Homebuilts 0.3411 0.9519