Thyroid Glands

Disorders related to Thyroid gland ---- Hyperthyroidism

It is caused by increase in the level of thyroid hormones.
This increases –
Metabolic rate
Sensitivity
Flushing
sweating
Increase rate of respiration
Bulging of eye balls
 Thyroid Glands

Grave’s disease (Exopthalmic goitre)

Hypothyroidism in Adult
Characteristics – Protruding eye balls – bulging eye ball
Increased BMR – increased heart beat, increased BP, increase body
temperature, nervousness, irritability, tremor of fingers,
Weight loss
Hypothyroidism
Causes by deficiency of thyroid hormones or removal of thyroid gland.
Cretinism –
Hyposecretion in infants leads to cretinism.
Reduced BMR
Low oxidation
Short statured ---- skeleton fails to grow
Mentally retarded
Dry skin, thick tongue, prolonged neonatal jaundice, lethargy and
constipation.
 Thyroid Glands

Myxoedema --- Deficiency of thyroid hormones in adults.

Characteristics – peculiar thickening and puffiness of skin mainly face and
extremities.
Patient lacks alertness, intelligence.
Patients suffers – slow heart rate, low BP, feeling cold, low body
temperature and retarded sexual development.

Simple goitre (Iodine deficiency goitre)

Iodine needed for synthesis of thyroid hormone.
In deficiency of iodine in the diet, it causes enlargement of thyroid gland
leading to simple goitre.
This is common in hilly areas.
Addition of iodine to table salt prevents this disease.
Size of thyroid gland is increased but secretion of thyroxine is decreased.
 Thyroid Glands

Calcitonin –
Secreted by the ‘C’ cells.
It regulates the concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the blood.
It’s secretion is under control of blood plasma calcium concentration.
It is secreted ----- when concentration of calcium rises in the blood.
It lowers concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the blood plasma by
decreasing their release from the bones ands accelerating the uptake of
calcium and phosphorus by the bones.
Pineal gland –
Pineal gland is given off from the roof of diencephalon and is located between
the two cerebral hemispheres.
This gland is sensitive for the biochemical signals of light.
It secretes a hormone ----- Melatonin (sleep hormone)
Melatonin regulates – biological clock of our body
It helps in maintaining – normal rhythm of sleep – wake cycle
Influences body temp
Metabolism
Reproductive cycle
Parathyroid gland -
Situated posteriorly to thyroid gland.
Parathyroids are 4 in numbers, named as superior and inferior parathyroid
glands.
Cells of this gland are arranged in a compact mass.
It secretes peptide hormone – Parathormone (also called as Collip’s
hormone)
Regulates – calcium and phosphorus balance between blood and other
tissues.
Parathormone increases blood calcium level.
It draws calcium from bones
Increases calcium absorption in the digestive tract
Reduces loss of calcium in the urine
Blood calcium and phosphorus is maintained by parathormone and calcitonin.
They are antagonistic to one another.
Hyposecretion – Parathormone – lowers conc. of calcium in the blood.
It increases – excitability of nerves and muscles causing spasm.
This is called parathyroid tetany or hypocalcaemic tetany.

Hypersecretion – Parathormone – responsible for more absorption of

calcium from bones i.e. demineralization of bones resulting in softening,
bending, fracture of bones.
This is called ---- Osteoporosis.
Common in females – who have reached menopause.
Thymus gland ----
Located in the upper part of the thorax on the dorsal side of the heart.
It is soft pink in colour, bilobed mass of lymphoid tissue.
It is prominent at birth but gets gradually reduced in the adult so called as
temporary gland.
It secretes hormone – Thymosin.
Helps in development of immune system – maturation of T lymphocytes
Promotes production of antibodies.
Adrenal gland or Supra renal gland.
Adrenal glands ----- dual origin ------ mesoderm and ectoderm.
Located on the upper border of each kidney.
They are small, conical yellowing glands and shows 2 distinct regions –
Outer cortex and inner medulla.
Adrenal cortex – Derived from embryonic mesoderm.
It secretes many hormones together called corticoids.
a) Outer thin zona glomerulosa ---- secretes Mineralocorticoids.
Regulates – sodium and potassium ion concentration.
Regulate salt – water balance
Blood volume
Blood pressure
Hormone – Aldosterone – salt retaining hormone
It is the main mineralocorticoids
Balances sodium – potassium level.
b) Middle thick Zona fasciculata --- responsible for secretion of
Glucocorticoids like cortisol.
Regulates – metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and lipids.
Cortisol is responsible for ---- increase in blood glucose level
Immuno suppressive.
Suppresses synthesis – antibodies. Hence used in the treatment of
allergies.
Prepares animals to face emergencies in nature.

c) Inner thin Zona reticularies – responsible for production of sex corticoids –

Gonadocorticoids.
Male – role in development and maintenance of external sex characters.
Excess secretion causes gynaecomastia (enlaged breast)
Female – excess sex corticoids causes hirsutism (excess hair on face)
Androgens and estradioles secreted by adrenal cortex.
Disorders related to Adrenal cortex -----
a) Hyposecretion ----- mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids ---- Addison’s
disease.
Characteristics – low blood sugar
Low sodium and high potassium in blood plasma
Increased loss of sodium and water in urine.
Weight loss
Weakness
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhoea
b) Hypersecretion ------- glucocorticoids produces Cushing’s disease
Leads to – high blood sugar
Excretion of glucose in urine
Rise sodium in blood
High blood pressure, obesity, wasting of limb muscles.
Adrenal medulla ---- Develops from ectoderm.
It secretes 2 hormones --- adrenaline (Epinephrine) and noradrenaline
(norepinephrine)
Adrenaline – Emergency hormone also called 3F hormones – fight, flight,
fright
Noradrenaline – regulates the blood pressure under normal secretion.
Also acts as vasoconstrictor.
 Pancreas

Develops from – Endoderm.

Both exocrine and endocrine glands.
Endocrine cells – form group of cells called – Islets of Langerhans.
There are 4 kinds of cells –
1) Alpha cells – 20% ---- secrete glucagon. Stimulates liver for
glucogenolysis to increase blood glucose level.
2) Beta cells ----- 70% ----- secrete Insulin. It stimulates liver and muscles for
glycogenesis. This lowers blood glucose level.
3) Delta cells ---- 5% ----- secrete somatostatin. It inhibits the secretion of
glucagon and insulin. It also decreases gastric secretion.
4) Pancreatic Polypeptide Cells (PP cells) ---- 5% ----- secrete pancreatic
polypeptide (PP). It inhibits the release of pancreatic juice.
 Disorders related to Pancreas

Diabetes mellitus – Hyperglycemia

The most common metabolic endocrine disorder of pancreas.
Leads to increase in blood glucose level.
This is due to under activity of Beta cells, which results in reduced
secretion of insulin.
In children, this is called as insulin dependent diabetes mellitus / Type I
The other form of diabetes is non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus /
Type II
It is caused due to failure of insulin to facilitate the movement of glucose
into cells.
Reduced sensitivity to insulin is called insulin resistance.
In both disorders, blood glucose level increases. Some glucose is excreted in
urine.
Causes excessive urination and dehydration of body.
Degradation of fats increases formation of ketone bodies (ketosis).
Insulin injection lowers blood glucose.
 Gonads

Gonads are sex organs --- 1) ovaries – produces – Estrogen, Progesterone,

Relaxin, Inhibin.
Estrogen – secreted by developing follicle. Estradiol is the main estrogen.
It is responsible for secondary sexual characters in female.
Progesterone – secreted by corpus luteum of the ovary after ovulation.
This hormone is essential for thickening of uterine endometrium, thus
preparing the uterus for implantation of fertilized ovum.
Relaxin – secreted by the corpus luteum of the ovary at the end of
gestation period. It relaxes the cervix of the pregnant female and ligaments
of pelvic girdle for easy birth of young one.
Inhibin – secreted by corpus luteum --- inhibin inhibits the FSH and GnRH
production.
2) Testes --- secrete male sex hormone called Androgens (Testosterone)
Testosterone – secreted from Leydig cells by the influence of LH. Rise in
testosterone level in blood and inhibit LH secretion.
Responsible – appearance of secondary sexual characters, pubic hair,
deepening of voice, broadening of shoulders, aggressiveness etc.
Placenta

Placenta the connection between foetus and uterine wall of the mother.
It is a temporary endocrine gland.
During pregnancy ---- placenta secretes ----- hormones such as – estrogen,
progesterone, hCG, placental progesterone.
It maintain the thickness of uterine endometrium thus they help to maintain
pregnancy.

Gastro intestinal tract -----

In gastrointestinal mucosa, certain cells are endocrine in function.
1)Gastrin – it stimulate gastric glands to produce gastric juice
2)Secretin – it is responsible for secretion of pancreatic juice and bile
3)Cholecystokinin – this hormone stimulates the pancreas release its
enzymes and also stimulates gall bladder to release bile.
4) Entero – gastrone - it shows gastric contraction and inhibits the secretion
of gastric juice.
Kidney ---- it produces renin, erythropoietin and calcitriol.

Heart ----- atrial natriuretic hormone / ANF ---- increases sodium excretion by
kidneys and reduces blood pressure.

Hormone therapy ----- hormone therapy is use of hormones in medical

treatment.
 Mechanism of hormone action

Hormones are released in a very small quantity. They produce their effect on
the target organs cells by binding to hormone receptors. The hormone
receptors may be on the cell membrane or may be intracellular.

a) Mode of hormone action through membrane receptors -----

b) Mode of action through intracellular receptors -------
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Thyroid Glands
Thyroid Glands