Water

Water 1
“ALTHOUGH WATER IS NATURE’S
MOST WONDERFUL, ABUNDANT &
USEFUL COMPOUND, YET IS ALSO
THE MOST MISUSED ONE”

Water 2
 Importance of Water

• The most valuable gift to all living beings including plants and

animals

• 71% of the earth’s surface area is covered by water, 97% of

this water is ocean water

• Ocean water being saline cannot be directly used for drinking,

agricultural, and industrial purposes

Water 3
 Water
• Water occupies a unique position in industries. Probably its

most important use as an engineering material is in the steam

generation

• It is used as a coolant in power & chemical plants

• It is widely used in other fields such as textiles, atomic energy,

chemicals, ice , drinking, bathing, sanitary, washing, irrigation

etc
Water 4
 Importance of Water
• Water being a universal solvent (all dissolving), seldom occurs

in the pure state

• From the industry point of view water is an important

ingredient of the boiler system, from where the steam

generated is used for various industrial heating purposes

• Other industrial uses of water include: making of

slurries/solutions; as a coolant in condensers as well as in

Water 5
power plants
 Importance of Pure Water

• Water received from rains dissolves the atmospheric gases and

becomes somewhat saline when stored in lakes

• Purification of such water is however much easier than ocean

water purification

• 60% of human body is water, which is involved in various

biological processes. Purity of drinking water is thus very

important for sustaining life

Water 6
 Importance of Pure Water

• Pure water is important for an industry because the cost of

setting up an industrial plant runs in a few hundred million

rupees

• Thus, water obtained from lakes/rivers needs to be purified

before it can be used for drinking / industrial purposes

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 Various Sources of Water
Sources

Surface Water Under ground water

Rain water Spring & Well water

River water

Lake water

Sea water

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• Rain Water: Purest form of water. Since it is obtained

as a result of evaporation from surface water (a

natural distillation process)

• But during journey downwards through the

atmosphere, it dissolves a considerable amount of

industrial gases like CO2, SO2, NO2, NH3, etc &

suspended particles

• Lake water: has a more constant composition

Water 9
• River water: contains minerals of soil such chlorides,
sulphates, carbonates etc. It also contains organic &
inorganic matter.

• Sea water: the most impure form of water.

• Underground water: in form of spring & well water. It

is clearer in appearance due to the filtering action of
soil, but contains more of dissolved salts.

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 Impurities in Water
Characteristics

Physical Chemical Biological

Organic/Inorganic
Color impurities
Microorganisms

Turbidity Dissolved Gases

Taste

Odour
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 Physical Impurity - Color
• Color in water is due to dissolved substances &
substances present as fine colloids. e.g.

(i) metallic substances like salts of Fe, Mn

(ii) human materials, tannins

(iii) Peat, algae, weeds, protozoa

(iv) Industrial effluents (from paper & pulp, textile &

tanneries etc)

• Color in water is not harmful unless it is associated

Water 12
with toxic chemicals.
 Physical Impurity - Turbidity

• It is an Optical property. It means water sample is

scattering more light than transmitting in straight line.

• It is due to Colloidal & extremely fine suspension

.e.g. clay, silt, finely divided matter (organic &
inorganic), micro-organisms, plankton etc.

• It is eliminated by sedimentation, coagulation &

filtration.
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 Physical Impurity - Taste

• Taste is usually interlinked with Odor. It is due to the

presence of dissolved minerals.

• Bitter: Fe, Al, Mn & sulphate salts, excess of lime

• Soapy: Excess amount of NaHCO3

• Brackish: Unusual amount of salts

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 Physical Impurity - Odor

• It is most disagreeable & due to

i. Presence of living organism

ii. Decaying vegetation-algae, bacteria, fungi, weeds

iii. Sewage & industrial effluents

• The most common disagreeable odor in water bodies

is due to presence of small quantity of Sulphides.

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Chemical Impurity – Organic/Inorganic

• Dissolved acids: contamination from waste released by

industries

• It is caused by the presence of dissolved CO2, mineral

acids (H2SO4), or weakly associated acids

• Acidity is not a specific pollutant. It may be defined as

the power of water to neutralize hydroxyl ions & is
expressed in terms of ppm (mg/L) of CaCO3 equivalent.

Water 16
Chemical Impurity – Organic/Inorganic

Mineral matter:
• Origins from rocks & industrial effluents
• These includes Mineral, acids, Ca2+, Mg2+,
Na+, K+, Fe2+, CO32- etc.
• Industrially Hardness & alkalinity are
important.
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 Chemical Impurity – Gases
• Water contains dissolved gases ex.
i. CO2: It is not assumed as an impurity, but water used
in industries some times needed to get rid of it.
CO2 is present due to atmospheric & biological
oxidation of organic matter.
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
ii. O2: All natural water has dissolved oxygen. It is very
imp for aquatic lives but it is a great nuisance in
industrial purposes.

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 Chemical Impurity – Gases
The test for oxygen is carried out for determining
Dissolved Oxygen [DO] of polluted water &
industrial effluents & constitutes a means of
controlling water pollution.
iii. NH3: it is acquired from decomposition (aerobic &
anaerobic) of Nitrogenous organic matter (in polluted
& sewage water) and urea.

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 Biological Impurities

• There are some biological impurities which

contaminate water, e.g. pathogenic bacteria, certain

fungi, viruses, parasitic worms etc. The imp source of

this contamination is from domestic & sewage waste,

solid excreta from warm blooded animals including

man, wild & domestic animals.

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 Biological Impurities
Micro-organism: Algae, fungi,& bacteria form slime
& there by causing fouling & corrosion. This slime
clogs the spray nozzle & screens of the circulating
pipes of AC & other industrial plants. In order to
control these, chemical treatment like chlorination is
done.

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 HARDNESS OF WATER
• Hardness of water is that characteristic which prevents
the lathering of soap. This is due to presence of certain
salts of Ca, Mg & other heavy metals dissolved in
water. This water when treated with soap (Na or K salts
of higher fatty acids like, oleic palmitic, or stearic) forms
a white scum or ppt of insoluble soaps of Ca & Mg

• Other metal ions like Fe2+, Mn2+, and Al3+ also react
with soap in a similar manner, thus contributing to water
hardness Water 22
 HARDNESS OF WATER
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca ↓ + 2NaCl

2C17H35COONa + MgSO4 → (C17H35COO)2Mg ↓ + Na2SO4

• The hardness of water is of two types:

1. Temporary or carbonate or alkaline hardness
2. Permanent or non-carbonate or non-alkaline hardness

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 Temporary/Carbonate/Alkaline Hardness
• Temporary hardness is caused by the less soluble carbonates

and bicarbonates of Ca & Mg

• Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling water

• Heat decomposes the bicarbonates of Ca & Mg as follows

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 ↓ + H2O + CO2↑

Calcium bicarbonate Calcium carbonate
(insoluble)

Mg(HCO3)2 Mg(OH)2 ↓ + 2CO2↑

Magnesium bicarbonate Magnesium hydroxide
Water (insoluble) 24
Permanent/Non-carbonate/Non-Alkaline Hardness

• Permanent hardness is due to the more soluble

chlorides, sulfates, and nitrates of Ca, Mg, Fe, and
other heavy metals

• Permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling of

water

• Special treatment is done for the removal of

permanent hardness which involves internal
conditioning or external Water
treatment 25
Difference between temporary and permanent hardness

Temporary Hardness Permanent Hardness

It is caused due to the It is caused due to the
presence of bicarbonates presence of Cl-, SO42-, nitrates
and carbonates of Ca2+, of Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, etc other
Mg2+, Fe2+ etc. than carbonates and
bicarbonates.
It can be removed by boiling. It cannot be removed by
boiling, but needs chemical
treatment.
It is also known as carbonate It is also known as non-
or alkaline hardness. carbonate or non-alkaline
hardness.
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Difference between temporary and permanent hardness
Temporary Hardness
Temporary hardness leads to
formation of loose deposits
(sludge) of carbonates and
hydroxides of Ca2+, Mg2+, if
used in boilers
Some examples of
temporary hardness causing
salts include: Salts like
Ca(HCO3)2, CaCO3,
Mg(HCO3)2, MgCO3, etc.
Permanent Hardness
Permanent hardness leads to
formation of hard deposits
(scales) if used in the boilers
Some examples of permanent
hardness causing salts include:
Salts like CaCl2, CaSO4,
Ca(NO3)2, MgCl2, MgSO4,
Mg(NO3)2.

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 Concentration of different impurities
(found in underground v/s river or lake water)
Concentration range in Concentration range in
Impurity
underground water river/lake water

Total hardness 300 – 400 ppm 75 – 200 ppm

Alkalinity 250 – 350 ppm 45 – 250 ppm

Dissolved O2 Close to zero 2 – 14 ppm

CO2 1 -10 ppm Low

Ca hardness High Usually low, sometimes high

Mg hardness High Usually low, sometimes high

Max. limit of TDS i.e. total dissolved solids in drinking water is 500 ppm
Sep 9, 2012 Water 28
 Expressing water hardness (units)

 Total hardness is the sum of the molar concentrations of Ca2+ &

Mg2+ ions in moles/L or mmoles/L. Following are the generally

used units for expressing water hardness:

1. ppm = mg/L of CaCO3

2. mmol/L = 100.1 mg CaCO3 /L or 40.1 of Ca2+/L

Sep 9, 2012 Water 29

 Classification of water hardness

 Hard water is a precise mixture of minerals dissolved in water. The

exact hardness depends upon the temperature & pH. Following is

the water hardness classification as per the US geological survey:

Classification ppm CaCO3

Soft 0 – 60

Moderately Hard 61 – 120

Hard 121 – 180

Very hard ≥ 181

Sep 9, 2012 Water 30
 Disadvantages of Hard Water

1. For domestic purposes: which include washing, bathing, cooking,

drinking

2. For industrial purposes: which includes industries such as textile,

pharmaceutical, sugar, paper, dyeing, laundry, bakeries, concrete

making

3. For steam generation purpose: which includes boilers

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 Disadvantages of Hard Water (Domestic)

i. Washing/Cleaning:

• The Ca & Mg stearates being water insoluble, get deposited on

clothing, giving stains on clothes making them look less than clean

• Lather formation is restricted resulting in wastage of soap

ii. Bathing:

• The Ca & Mg stearates being water insoluble, get deposited on

buckets, bath tub, and also on skin

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 Disadvantages of Hard Water (Domestic)
• Lather formation is restricted resulting in wastage of soap

• Shower lines get clogged due to continuous deposition of salts from hard

water

iii. Cooking:

• Due to presence of Ca & Mg salts boiling point is elevated resulting in

wastage of time and fuel

• Foods like pulses, beans, vegetables, etc. do not cook properly in hard

water

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 Disadvantages of Hard Water (Domestic)

iv. Drinking:

• Hard water tastes less than soft water

• Long term use of hard water could result in harmful effects on the

digestive system and the urinary tract

• Has bad effect on metabolic system. Calcium oxalate stones may develop

in urinary tracts, if used regularly.

• Also it causes deposition of Ca in the bone joints.

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 Disadvantages of Hard Water (Industrial)

i. Textile industry:

• Hard water used for washing yarn, fabric, etc. in the textile

industry, causes wastage of soap and deposition of the insoluble

Ca & Mg stearates on the fabric

• Dyeing of such fabric does not produce the desired color shade

and the color is non-uniform

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 Disadvantages of Hard Water (Industrial)

ii. Pharmaceutical industry:

• Use of hard water for the preparation of drugs, syrups, injections,

and drops may result in the formation of undesirable side products

which may produce harmful side effects

iii. Sugar Industry: Crystallization of sugar is affected.

iv. Paper industry: Reaction with chemicals to provide smooth & glossy

finishing to paper. Iron salts add unwarranted color to paper.

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 Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers)

• Feeding of hard water from natural sources, directly into the

boiler results in the following problems:

i. Sludge and scale formation

ii. Caustic embrittlement

iii. Boiler corrosion

iv. Priming and foaming

Water 37
 Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers)
i. Sludge and Scales:

• Continuous evaporation of water in boilers results in

concentration of the dissolved salts

• Eventually the salts precipitate when concentrations reach a

saturation point

• The loose, slimy, floating precipitate is called sludge

• When the precipitated salts deposit as a hard layer on the inner

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walls of the boiler, they are called scales
• Loose, slimy ppt => Sludge; Hard crust adhered to the
inner walls => Scale

• Sludge formation due to  MgCO3, CaCO3, CaCl2

greater solubility in hot waters
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• Hard crust adhered to the inner walls => Scale
– Deposition of Ca(HCO3)2  CaCO3 + H2O +CO2
– Deposition of CaSO4  adherent, difficult to remove
– Hydrolysis of Mg salts
MgCl2 + 2H2O  Mg(OH)2 (soft type of scale) +
2HCl
– Presence of Silica  formation of CaSiO3 & MgSiO3
Scales & Sludges are poor conductors of heat
Water 40
Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers) - Sludge
• Formation of sludge:

₢ Sludges are formed as loose, slimy precipitates in

comparatively colder areas of the boiler

₢ Sludges get collected in the areas (where the flow rate is slow)

such as the bends in the pipelines

₢ Salts forming sludge: MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4, all

other salts that have greater solubility in hot water than in cold

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water
Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers) - Sludge
• Effect of sludge formation (disadvantages of sludge):

→ Sludges cause choking of pipelines

→ Sludges are poor conductors of heat and hence the boiler

efficiency is compromised

→ Sludges trapped in scales get deposited as scales

→ Excessive sludges obstruct pipeline flow, plug opening,

thereby disturbing the normal functioning of the boiler

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Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers) - Sludge
• Removal of Sludge:

⃰ Sludge being loose and slimy, can be easily removed by means

of a wire brush

• Prevention of Sludge:

⃰ Use of properly treated soft water only

⃰ Frequent blow down operation involving replacement of the

concentrated water from the boiler with fresh water

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Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers) - Scales

• Formation of scales:

† Scales are the hard deposits of the salts that firmly stick to

inner walls of the boiler

† Scales could be formed by the decomposition of calcium

bicarbonate by the reaction in low pressure boilers:

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3↓ + H2O + CO2↑

(Scale)
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Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers) - Scales
• Formation of scales:

† In high pressure boilers the CaCO3 further reacts with water under

hot conditions as follows:

CaCO3 + H2O Ca(OH)2 + CO2↑

(Sludge)

† Scales could also be formed by the deposition of CaSO4 that

precipitates from the hot water in the boiler, and gets deposited on

the inner walls of the boiler. This is the main cause of scale

formation in high pressure boilers

Water
and the scales are hard to remove45
Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers) - Scales
• Effect of scales formed due to use of hard water (disadvantages of

scales): a) Fuel wastage:

‡ Scales are low conductors of heat and obstruct or restrict the heat

transfer from the walls of the boiler to the water inside

‡ Scales thus cause overheating of the boiler and hence fuel wastage

‡ The extent of fuel wastage is proportional to the thickness of the scale

‡ Thus, a 0.325mm scale thickness causes 10 % fuel wastage while a

12mm scale thickness causes a Water

150% fuel wastage 46
Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers) - Scales
• Effect of scales formed due to use of hard water (disadvantages of scales):

b) Decrease of efficiency:

‡ Scales get deposited in the valves and condensers of the boiler, choke these

partially and thus decrease the boiler efficiency

• c) Decrease of boiler safety:

‡ Scales being bad conductors of heat, result in the overheating of the boiler tubes

making these softer and weaker

‡ The boiler thus becomes unsafe to bear the pressure of steam, especially in high

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pressure boilers
Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers) - Scales

• Effect of scales formed due to use of hard water (disadvantages

of scales): d) Explosion danger:

‡ Scales being bad conductors of heat, the heat is not transmitted to

the water inside

‡ Moreover, the metal parts as well as the scales undergo expansion

‡ The uneven expansion of scales result in their sudden cracking,

which causes the hot water to come in contact with the boiler wall
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Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers) - Scales

• Effect of scales formed due to use of hard water (disadvantages

of scales): d) Explosion danger:

‡ The boiler wall is already at a very high temperature due to over

heating, and the sudden contact of the hot water with the boiler wall

results in the production of a large amount of steam

‡ This leads to a sudden increase of pressure which may cause

explosion of the boiler

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Effect of Hard/Impure Water (In Boilers) - Scales

• Removal of scales:

† Loosely adhering scales can be removed by scraping with a wooden

spatula or wire brush or by frequent blow down operations

† Brittle scales can be removed by giving thermal shocks involving

heating the boiler and then sudden cooling with cold water

† Hard and adherent scales can be removed by using some chemicals

to dissolve them ex. CaCO3 scales can be dissolved using 10% HCl
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 Difference between sludges and scales
Sludges Scales
Loose, slimy ppt which remain Hard, adhering deposits on the walls
floating in water or get collected & bottom of the boiler are called
at bottom of boiler are called scales.
sludges.
Formation is due to salts with Formation is due to salts with higher
lower solubility in cold water, eg, solubility in cold water, eg, CaSO4
MgCO3
Risk of explosion does not Explosion may take place.
persist.
Methods for removal: carping by Method for removal: Internal
wire brush, scalpel. treatment by dilute acids,
complexation.
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 Other effects of impure water in the boiler

ii. Caustic Embrittlement:

 In high pressure boilers, highly alkaline water causes brittling of

the boiler material

 As a result of the lime-soda process, free Na2CO3 is generally

present in small proportion in the softened water

 In such high pressure boilers the Na2CO3 decomposes as:

Na2CO3 + H2O 2NaOH + CO2

(makes
Water
boiler water caustic) 52
 Other effects of impure water in the boiler
ii. Caustic Embrittlement:
 The NaOH so formed flows (by capillary action) into the minute
hair cracks on the inner walls of the boiler
 Here the water evaporates leaving behind the caustic NaOH
 The NaOH now attacks the surrounding areas and begins dissolving
the iron material of the boiler wall, forming soluble sodium ferroate

2NaOH + Fe Na2FeO2 + H2
(sodium ferroate)
 This causes embrittlement of the boiler wall at stressed parts like
bends, joints, etc
Water 53
 Other effects of impure water in the boiler

• Prevention of Caustic Embrittlement: Caustic embrittlement can

be prevented in the following ways:

 By using sodium phosphate as the softening agent instead of sodium

carbonate

 By adding tannin or lignin or Na2SO4 solution which block the hair

cracks thereby preventing the flow of NaOH in to the hair cracks

 By carefully adjusting the pH of the feed water between 8 – 9

Water 54
 Other effects of impure water in the boiler

iii. Boiler Corrosion:

 Boiler corrosion is the deterioration of the boiler material due to

chemical or electrochemical interaction with its environment

 The two main causes of boiler corrosion are:

1. Dissolved O2

2. Dissolved carbon dioxide CO2

Water 55
Priming

• When a boiler feed water is steaming rapidly, some

particles of the liquid water are carried along with the
steam. This process of ‘wet steam’ formation is called
Priming.

Priming can be avoided by-

• Using soft water in boilers

• Avoiding rapid changes in steam production rate

• Maintaining low water level in boiler

Water 56
Foaming
• Production of persistent foam or bubbles in
boiler water that do not break easily – due to
presence of dissolved salts
Foaming can be avoided by-
• Adding anti-foaming agents like castor oil,
polyamides which spreads on the surface &
prevent foaming
Water 57
 Drinking Water Purification
ȸ Municipalities supply potable water that is safe for human

consumption.

ȸ Drinking water should pass the following specifications:

1. It should be sparkling clear and odorless

2. It should be pleasant to taste

3. It should be cool

4. The total dissolved solids (TDS) should be less than 500 ppm
Water 58
 Drinking Water Purification
ȸ Drinking water should pass the following specifications:

5. It should be free of H2S gas

6. It should be free of mineral such as Pb, As, Cr, Mn salts

7. It should have low alkalinity and a pH value of about 8

8. It should be reasonably soft and free of disease producing micro-

organisms

Water 59
 Drinking Water Purification
 Drinking water purification consists of:

A. Removal of suspended impurities: which involves

1) Screening, 2) Sedimentation, 3) Filtration

B. Removal of micro-organisms: which involves following methods

used for destroying the disease causing micro-organisms

1) Boiling, 2) Addition of bleaching powder, 3) Chlorination

4) Addition of Chloramine (ClNH2), 5) Ozonization

Water 60
 Drinking Water Purification
A. Removal of suspended impurities:

1. Screening: The impure water is passed through screens having a large

number of holes where the bigger sized floating material is trapped and

removed

2. Sedimentation:

o Water with sediments is allowed to settle in large tanks (approx. 5m deep)

to allow the suspended particle to settle under gravity. Retention period is

about 2 – 6 hours
Water 61
 Drinking Water Purification
A. Removal of suspended impurities:

2. Sedimentation:

o Using coagulants, fine clay and colloidal particles are made to form a

gelatinous precipitate (flock) which then settles down easily

o The coagulants used are alum, sodium aluminate and ferrous sulfate

o The positively charged ions such as Al3+ and Fe2+ from the coagulants,

neutralize the negative charge on the colloidal particles, which then come

closer and unite to form bigger flocks that settle down under gravity
Water 62
 Drinking Water Purification
A. Removal of suspended impurities:

2. Sedimentation:

o The coagulants in solution form, are thoroughly mixed with the water before

sedimentation

o Thus, alum (K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O) reacts with calcium bicarbonate in

water to form a gelatinous precipitate of Al(OH)3

Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2 2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2 ↑

o Alum is used when the water has some alkalinity. If the alkalinity of water is

low, sufficient lime is added first

Water 63
 Drinking Water Purification
A. Removal of suspended impurities:

2. Sedimentation:

o Sodium aluminate (NaAlO2)is used for water having a pH range of 5.5 –

7.0

NaAlO2 + 2H2O Al(OH)3 + NaOH

3. Filtration: In this process the supernatant water is passed through a bed of

fine sand and other proper sized granular material. During this process most

of the bacteria and micro-organisms are removed

Water 64
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms:

o Water passing through sedimentation, coagulation, and filtration still has a

small percentage of pathogenic bacteria which must be removed before the

water can be used for drinking purposes

o The process of destroying or removing of the pathogenic micro-organisms

from the water and making it safe, is called as disinfection, and the

chemicals or substances used for the disinfection are called as disinfectants

Water 65
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms:

o Methods used for disinfection include:

1. Boiling

2. Addition of bleaching powder (CaOCl2)

3. Chlorination

4. Addition of chloramine (ClNH2)

5. Ozonization

6. UV treatment

Water 66
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (chlorination method of disinfection)

o Chlorine is most widely used disinfectant throughout the world

o The apparatus used for chlorination of water is called a chlorinator

o The chlorinator consists of a high tower fitted with a number of baffle plates

to ensure thorough mixing of the chlorine with water

o Water and proper quantity of concentrated chlorine solution are introduced

at the top of the tower

o During the passage through the tower thorough mixing occurs

Water 67
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (chlorination method of disinfection)

o The treated water is collected via an outlet at the bottom

o For filtered water, about 0.3 – 0.5 ppm of chlorine is sufficient

¶ Mechanism of chlorine action:

 Chlorine reacts with water to form hypochlorous acid (HOCl) which is a

powerful germicide

 The HOCl interacts with the enzymes in the cells of the micro-organisms
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
and thus stop their metabolic processes

Water 68
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (chlorination method of disinfection)

¶ Mechanism of chlorine action:

 HOCl dissociates as:

HOCl H+ + OCl─
 The hypochlorite ions (OCl─) are incapable of interacting with the enzymes

in the cells of the micro-organisms

 Thus, Cl2 is most effective at water pH less than 6.5 where the HOCl exists

predominantly in the undissociated form, which is 80 times more

destructive to the bacteria than the hypochlorite ions

Water 69
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (chlorination method of disinfection)

Advantages of chlorine as a disinfectant:

a. It is the most ideal disinfectant and is effective and economical

b. It requires very little space or storage

c. It is stable and does not deteriorate upon keeping

d. It can be used at low as well as high temperatures

e. It does not introduce any salt impurities in the treated water

Water 70
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (chlorination method of disinfection)

¶ Disadvantages of chlorine as a disinfectant:

a. If excess Cl2 is added, a characteristic unpleasant taste and odor results

b. Excess Cl2 causes irritation on the mucous membrane

c. The quantity of free Cl2 in treated water should not exceed 0.1 – 0.2 ppm

d. It is more effective at a pH of 6.5 and less effective at higher pH values

because of the predominance of the OCl─ ions.

Water 71
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (Ozonization method of disinfection)

 Ozone is an excellent disinfectant and is produced by passing an electric

discharge through cold and dry oxygen

(electric discharge)
3O2 2O3
(Oxygen) (Ozone)
 Ozone if highly unstable and breaks down liberating nascent oxygen
(Decomposition)
O3 O2 + [ O ]
(Ozone) (Nascent oxygen)
 Nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent and oxidizes any organic

matter, as well as destroys the bacteria present in water

Water 72
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (Ozonization method of disinfection)

 Ozonization process:

 Ozone is injected into water, and the two are allowed to come into

contact for 10 – 15 minutes in a sterilizing tank

 The amount of ozone injected is 2 – 3 ppm

 The disinfected water is removed from the top

Water 73
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (Ozonization method of disinfection)

 Advantages of ozonization:

 Using ozone simultaneously removes color, odor, and taste without

giving any residue

 Excess ozone is not harmful since it is unstable and decomposes to

oxygen
(Decomposition)
O3 O2 + [ O ]
(Ozone) (Nascent oxygen)
Water 74
 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (Ozonization method of disinfection)

 Disadvantages of ozonization:

 The method and the equipment needed to prepare ozone is

expensive. Therefore, the method cannot be used for the large scale

disinfection of the municipal water supply

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 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (UV method of disinfection)

ᴥ UV treatment is a non-chemical method used for destroying microorganisms in

water by altering their genetic material (DNA)

ᴥ The short wavelength UV radiation (UVC) is considered germicidal and is used

for the UV treatment process

ᴥ At a wavelength of 254 nm UV breaks down the molecular bonds within the

micro-organismal DNA thereby rendering them harmless (due to the inability to

perform the vital cellular functions) thus prohibiting their growth or

reproduction

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 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (UV method of disinfection)

ᴥ Advantages of UV treatment: (over chlorination):

i. No known toxic or significantly toxic byproducts

ii. No danger of overdosing

iii. Does not require storage of hazardous material

iv. Adds no smell to the final product water

v. Requires very little contact time making it a fast process

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 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (UV method of disinfection)

ᴥ Advantages of UV treatment: (over chlorination):

vi. Cheaper compared to the boiling method using a cook stove. UV

treatment method is about 20,000 times more efficient than boiling

vii. Non-expensive and no need for labor or a technically trained

personnel for operation

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 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (UV method of disinfection)

ᴥ Limitations of UV treatment:

i. Water with high levels of suspended solids (which shield the microorganisms),

turbidity, color, or soluble organic matter, can react with the incident UV

radiation and reduce its disinfection performance

ii. Water with such impurities should be first treated via a reverse osmosis

process or a membrane filtration before passing the water through the UV

radiations
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 Drinking Water Purification
B. Removal of micro-organisms: (UV method of disinfection)

ᴥ Applications of UV treatment:

• These include private wells, hotels, restaurants, bottlers, breweries,

food and pharmaceutical industry, cottages, water systems,

laboratories, hospitals, dairies, and many other applications

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