ALMA i-V4N1

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Vol 4 - Nº 1
December 2017
ALMA Culture&Medicine - Editorial Alfredo Buzzi - www.almarevista.com

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STAFF
Editor in Chief Commercial Director
Alfredo E. Buzzi Alejandra Capdevila
Matienzo 1849 2º B
(1426) CABA - Buenos Aires Design
Argentine Soulbranding Marketing Studio
alma@editorialalfredobuzzi.com
Editorial Board
Register ISSN 2468-9890
Isabel Del Valle
Martín Dotta Santana
Sonia Lesyk
Juan Enrique Perea
María Victoria Suárez
Martín Valdez
Advisory Editorial Board

Baltasar Aguilar (San José, Uruguay) Renato Mendonça (Sao Paulo, Brasil)
Arpan Banerjee (Birmingham, Reino Unido) Micaela Patania (Buenos Aires, Argentina)
José Raúl Buroni (Buenos Aires, Argentina) Federico Pérgola (Buenos Aires, Argentina)
Elizabeth Beckmann (Worthing, Reino Unido) Ana María Rosso (Buenos Aires, Argentina)
Uwe Busch (Remscheid, Alemania) Norma Sánchez (Buenos Aires, Argentina)
Davide Caramella (Pisa, Italia) Florentino Sanguinetti (Buenos Aires, Argentina)
Adelfio Cardinale (Palermo, Italia) Eric Stern (Seattle, Estados Unidos)
Oscar Codas Thompson (Asunción, Paraguay) Miguel Stoopen (Mexico City, Mexico)
Paola Cosmacini (Roma, Italia) Adrian Thomas (Bromley, Reino Unido)
Eduardo Fraile (Madrid, España) Antonio Turnés (Montevideo, Uruguay)
César Gotta (Buenos Aires, Argentina) René Van Tiggelen (Bruselas, Bélgica)
Alberto Marangoni (Córdoba, Argentina) Adolfo Venturini (Buenos Aires, Argentina)
Jean-Pierre Martin (Sarlat-la-Canéda, Fancia) Angélica Wozniak (Montevideo, Uruguay)
ALMA - Culture & Medicine is an international quarterly concerned with topics of interest shared between culture and the
medical sciences. Diseases, with its symptoms and signs, its diagnosis, prognosis, and treatments, are full of aspects that are
not strictly medical: the story of the disease itself, its name, the story of those who have described diseases, the vicissitudes of
patients that suffered them, its onset on literature, art, music and movies. It may be of interest to learn about the life of physicians
that have contributed to medical knowledge, to know about their interests beyond medicine (many physicians have been poets,
musicians, politicians, sportsmen, cooks…) and also about the way we remember them today (their names are present in streets,
buildings, squares, cities, hospitals etc.). They have written books that became classics. It may also be of interest to learn about
contemporary physicians’ interests beyond medicine. A space used to recommend a book, a movie, a drink, a touristic destiny, a
museum, a play or how to cook fish.
The journal maintains academic standards. All approaches to culture and medicine are recognized, with the emphasis on
marshalling new material and on creative thinking. It is intended the journal should serve a wide readership in both medical and
non-medical communities.
Information for contributors

All contributions submitted for publication should be sent to Prof. Dr. Alfredo E. Buzzi, Editor, ALMA- Culture & Medicine,
alfredo@editorialalfredobuzzi.com.
Manuscripts should be prepared in accordance with the Guidance for Authors published in the web page
(www.editorialalfredobuzzi.com)

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SUMARY
EDITORIAL Prof. Dr. Alfredo E. Buzzi MEDICAL STATUES Dr. Arpan K Banerjee
John Lennon’s dream Pag 4 Johann Christoph Friedrich Pag 36
von Schiller (1759-1805)

NOBEL PRICES IN MEDICINE Prof. Dr. Alfredo E. Buzzi
Egas Moniz: the first Pag 6 HISTORY OF THE BRAIN Paulo Nuno Martins
Portuguese to receive A brief history of the Pag 39
a Nobel Prize human brain: some

philosophical considerations
SIMBOLISM AND MEDICINE Dra. María Victoria Suárez
Medicine and Pag 25
the snake

EDITORIAL
P. 4
ALMA Culture & Medicine - Vol 4. N 1 - December 2017 -
John Lennon’s dream

EDITORIAL
Prof. Dr. Alfredo E. Buzzi

Editor in Chief
A dream you dream alone is just a dream.

A dream you dream together is a reality.
John Lennon
There are timeless songs that already But there is a verse that is a hymn to
belong to all of us and are a message by cooperation:
themselves. One of them is Imagine, which
John Lennon released in 1971. It was the You may say I’m a dreamer
best-selling single of his solo career and it is
But I’m not the only one
considered one of the best songs of all time.
I hope someday you’ll join us
The lyrics encourage to imagine a world at
peace without the barriers of borders or the And the world will be as one
divisiveness of religions and nationalities,
and to consider the possibility that the The proposal is to work together in an
focus of humanity is living a life unattached organized manner to reach a common goal.
to material possessions. That is called cooperation. Cooperation
is an issue to which Lennon frequently
But, despite its popularity, Imagine resorted, often associated with dreams.
has been criticized over the years by the This is demonstrated by the quote that
negative perception of his lyrics. John Blaney subtitles this editorial: “A dream you dream
argued that Lennon describes hypothetical alone is only a dream. A dream you dream
about someone is a reality.” Cooperation
possibilities that offer no practical
consists in working jointly with a common
solutions, asking to abandon political
objective, rather than working separately,
systems while encouraging one similar
or in competition.
to communism. Chris Ingham indicated the
hypocrisy in Lennon, the millionaire rock star The fact that this objective is represented
living in a mansion, encouraging to imagine by a dream gives it a special character. To
live our lives without possessions. Lennon start, dreams are associated with desire,
himself said the song was “anti-religious, and there are few things more powerful
anti-nationalist, anti-conventional, anti- than a desire: “give me poison to die, or
capitalist, but accepted by its sweetness.” a dream to live”. It has life itself: “you can

P. 5
kill the dreamer, but not the dream.” In chance of future encounters with the same
addition, the feeling of belonging of what individual: the work must be jointly, 3)
we dream is absolute: the Argentine writer positive memories of previous encounters
Luis Cané said: “If there is anything I feel the with that individual: cooperation will begin
owner of is not the life I live but my dreams”. to emerge when members of the group
meet and esteem, and have confidence
But dreaming is not enough: if we want
despite difficulties, and 4) a value associated
our dreams to come true we must wake up
… and cooperate. with future outcomes: the dream must be
important.
Cooperation empowers individuals to
move forward together, to move in the As we talked about these things, my wife
same direction rather than wandering in Vicky brought me a poem by the Polish poet
different (or opposite) directions. Wislawa Szymborska, which in a fragment
says:
While it is true that self-interest can
undermine cooperation, it has been shown, Life on earth turns out quite cheap.
interestingly, that human beings tend to act
more cooperatively than self-interest would For dreams for instance you don’t pay a
dictate. There is no better proof of the penny.
progress of civilization than the progress of
the power of cooperation. Alone, I can. But For illusions—only when they’re lost.
with help I can faster and better. The result
obtained in cooperation is much better than For owning a body—only with the body.
that obtained in solitude or in competition.
It is true: dreams are free. But cooperation
There are four essential conditions for a is not. To achieve cooperation we must first
cooperative behaviour: 1) a superposition cooperate. In this way, we can all dream
of wishes: the dream must be shared, 2) a John Lennon’s dream.

NOBEL PRICES IN MEDICINE
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Egas Moniz: the first Portuguese

to receive a Nobel Prize
Prof. Dr. Alfredo Buzzi
Full Professor of Diagnostic Imaging.
School of Medicine, University of Buenos Aires
António Caetano de Abreu Freire (1874-1955), known as Egas Moniz, was a

Portuguese neurologist and the developer of cerebral angiography. He is
regarded as one of the founders of modern psychosurgery, having developed
the surgical procedure leucotomy (known better today as lobotomy) f or which
he became the first Portuguese to receive a Nobel Prize in 1949.
Neurosurgery advanced quickly after the

introduction of pneumoencephalography
and ventriculography by the American
neurosurgeon Walter Edward Dandy (1886-
1946) in 1918 and in 1919 respectively, but
many neurologists were unsatisfied for
the lack of precision of these methods in
localizing cerebral tumors. One of them was
the Portuguese physician Antonio Gaetano
of Abreu Freire, born in November 29th
Figure 1: In this house was born Moniz in 1874.
1874, in Avanca, a small village 40 km. near
Oporto, son of Fernando de Pina Rezende
de Pina Rezende Abreu Sa Freire, a Jesuit
Abreu and Maria do Rosariode Almeida e
priest, proposed him to use the name of
Sousa.
Egas Moniz, an historical figure of the 12th
century, hero of the resistance against the
Moors, of which the family had origin (figure
Medical education and political 2). This name superseded his original one,
involvement which fell later into oblivion.
Antonio Gaetano of Abreu Freire, born in As a student, he doubted between

November 29th 1874, in Avanca (figure 1), medicine and engineering, attending
a small village 40 km. near Oporto, son of preparatory courses of medicine and classes
Fernando de Pina Rezende Abreu and Maria of integral and differential calculation at
do Rosariode Almeida e Sousa. the same time. A regulation disposition
prevented him to continue engineering,
Being a boy, his uncle Abbé Caetano so he decided to direct his university life

P. 7
towards medicine. But he always kept his
interest in mathematics. He published
with a schoolmate an essay on algebra,
and he was devoted to private teaching of
mathematics.
He obtained his medical education in

Coimbra, the famous Portuguese university
at the north of Lisbon, where he entered
in 1891 (figure 3). He graduated in 1899,
and wrote as a doctorate thesis a book of
two volumes On the sexual life (close to 600
pages). This book was a great success, and in
the following decades reached 19 editions.
That same year of 1899 the citizens of

Estarreja, a small town near his native
village, elected him to the Parliament as
their deputy. He created and directed the
Center Party. Later, he was Deputy for the
Progressive Party. Figure 3: Egas Moniz in Coimbra, when he was 19 year-old.
He liked music, blew the trumpet in a

band, and also had great attraction for
theatrical performances.
En 1901 he married Elvira de Macedo

Dias, a pretty brunette born in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil.
In 1902 he went to France to study

neurology and psychiatry. First in Bordeaux,
he studied next to Albert Pitres (1848-1928)
and Louis Henri Vaquez (1860-1936). He
worked later with Emmanuel Regis (1855-
1918) in the study of the toxic psychoses
(adhering from that time to the concept
of the organic causes of mental diseases).
Then he went to Paris, and in the Salpetriére
he deepened his neurological studies with
Fulgence Raymond (1844-1910), Pierre Figure 3: Egas Moniz in Coimbra, when he was 19 year-old.
Marie (1853-1940) and Jules Dejerine (1849-
1917), and especially in the Pitié, with Joseph was appointed Associated Professor of
François Félix Babinski (1857-1932). Anatomy and Pathology, and soon was a
Full Professor at the University of Coimbra,
In 1903 he returned to Portugal, and position that he would occupy up to 1911.

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one scientific paper.
When King Carlos of Portugal and his

older son were killed in 1908, Moniz and
some of his friends were imprisoned
during 10 days. There were struggles
between republicans and monarchists up
to 1911, when the formers arrived to the
government. The new government created
a Chair of Neuropsychiatry at the School
of Medicine of Lisbon, and Moniz was the
Chairman until 1945, when he retired,
sharing the educational tasks with the
functions of Dean in several periods. With
Flores (pupil of Oskar Vogt) he organized a
Neurological Clinic in Santa Marta’s School
Hospital, where he finally began his clinical
studies that many times faced the topic of
Figure 4: Egas Moniz in Madrid (1918). cerebral tumors.
In 1918 he updated in the monograph

Neurología da guerra (“War Neurology”) the
progresses at that time. In 1923 he was
interested in lethargic encephalitis, and
in 1925, in commemoration of the first
Centennial of the Royal School of Surgery of
Lisbon, under the auspice of the school of
Medicine, he published Neurological Clinics.
He was designated Portuguese

Ambassador to Spain near the end of the
World War I (figure 4), and in 1919 President
Sidonio Pais chose Moniz to be Portugal’s
Foreign Officer. He presided the Portuguese
Delegation in Versailles in 1919, and his
signature appears in the Treaty of Peace
with Germany (Treaty of Versailles), which
was signed on June 28th, 1919.
Figure 5: Pedro Almeida Lima
In Portugal, Sidonio Pais was assassinated

As a young man Egas Moniz became and Dr. Afonso Costa was sent to Paris. A
strongly involved in politics, and he served loud argument arose between the polite
several times in the Portuguese chamber Moniz and the bully Costa, and it ended in a
of deputies. His interest in politics would duel. Moniz returned to Portugal, tired and
take him away momentarily from medicine: extremely disappointed. His open-minded
between 1903 and 1912 he only published attitude and his intellectual honesty were

P. 9
not suitable for the political arena. that the blood vessels filled with these
substances would be visualized as well.
Egas Moniz returned to his Chair, and
reassumed the regular routine of rounds, In those days of December 1925, Pedro
lectures and publications of clinical cases. Almeida Lima (Figure 5), a young doctor and
He also pursued his interest in history and son of a professor of physics whom Moniz
art and their relation to medicine. knew well, presented himself.
Moniz’s hands were severely deformed

by gout (in public places, people that only
Cerebral Angiography (Arterial knew him by his fame recognized him by
Encephalography) his hands), so the collaboration of Almeida
Lima became indispensable in trials of
For that time (1924-1925) the works carotid injections, which Moniz had started
of Jean Sicard and Jacques Forestier with to contemplate.
Lipiodol became known, and Evarts Graham
and Warren Cole had demonstrated that With Almeida Lima’s help, Moniz started
using tetra-bromo-phenolthphalein it was vascular experimentation. If Enderlen
possible to visualize the gallbladder. and A. von Knauer in Germany and L.
Benedek in Hungary injected drugs into the
Moniz centered his attention in problems carotid arteries of neurosyphilitic patients
of the spinal canal, studied by the new without harm, he could inject bromides
method of myelography, but the problem into his patients to opacify the vessels. He
of the diagnosis of abscesses and tumors of considered the idea of using Lipiodol, but
the brain persisted. Since the subarachnoid feared that it might cause emboli. He made
space could be seen with Lipiodol, the experiences in dogs and rabbits and proved
cerebral ventricles with air, and the that bromides were harmless for animals.
gallbladder with bromide and iodine, Egas To check the tolerance in patients, he began
Moniz thought that if he could find an in 1926 to inject bromides intravenously in
appropriate chemical substance he could growing quantities (2cc, 5 cc and 10cc) and
stain the brain tissue itself. concentrations (10% to 80%). The patients,
epileptics and Parkinsonians, had a hot
He started giving 40 gm of lithium bromide sensation and developed nasty headaches.
orally (the usual dose was 1 to 3 gm) to He added 10% glucose, but the reactions
patients in the hope that it would make the were still appearing, and some patients
brain radiopaque against the ventricular developed painful infiltrates at the site of
system, but he obtained negative results. injection. He abandoned the intravenous
route, and started experiments in animals
Later he thought of using arterial injecting bromides into arteries, hoping
injections of bromide solutions, and that those be less sensitive than veins.
to determine it usefulness he made The fifteenth injected dog showed the
experiments with different concentrations ramifications of his cerebral arteries nicely.
of lithium, ammonium, potassium, sodium
and strontium bromide in fine glass tubes To get familiar with the arterial distribution
that he put behind the skull. The positive of the human brain, Moniz obtained the
results that he obtained made him infer permission to decapitate cadavers from

P. 10
Conscience tortured Moniz. He was

doubtful to follow the examinations, and
summoned his associates to his house
to discuss whether or not they should
continue. They concluded that thrombosis
was probably induced by the compression
of the artery during the injection that they
did to prevent the blood from washing
out the contrast material. The bromides
could also have irritating effects in such
high concentrations. Later considerations
induced them to abandon the compression
of the artery during the injection, and to
change the bromides for iodide.
In the U.S.A., Donald Cameron, surgeon of

the Minnesota Hospital, started experiments
on contrast materials for pyelography in
Figure 6: Carlos Heuser (1878-1934) 1918. He was called to active service in the
United States Navy. At Fort Wayne Hospital
the Institute of Anatomy and to transfer he obtained nice pyelograms in guinea
the heads to the X-ray Department of Santa pigs and later in patients with 25% to 50%
Marta’s Hospital, where with Almeida Lima potassium and sodium iodide. In Argentina,
they could inject material into the carotid or Carlos Heuser (figure 6), one of the best
vertebral arteries. known radiologists by the second decade of
the XX century, founder of the Argentinean
The first patients were injected
Society of Radiology, and the first to use
percutaneously into the carotid artery with
Lipiodol for hysterosalpingograms in
a solution of 70% strontium bromide. In the
1921, gave in 1919 an account of the use
first four cases he didn’t observe contrast
of sodium iodide in urology. Probably just
in the films (they injected only 2 to 5 cc.).
letting his fantasy loose, he said: “I injected
The movement of the patient’s head to the
the potassium iodide intravenously and on
lateral position resulted in extravasations of
the film taken one could observe that the
the contrast, and Moniz decided to abandon
veins of the hand and forearm were made
the percutaneous approach.
visible. In a child with hereditary syphilitic
He asked a surgeon, Antonio Martins, to lesions I have seen on the film the iodide in
make a cut down and inject by direct vision, the heart. Would this represent progress? I
after the dissection of the artery. point this out to those who have a hospital
service available, because it is a new way
In the sixth patient, a 48 year-old man to examine the veins and the pulmonary
who had Parkinson’s disease, some few artery”. It was a brilliant flash of inspiration,
carotid branches appeared fairly in the third but no echo followed, neither in the U.S.A.,
film: the first reward for their persistence. nor in Europe, nor in Argentina, nor in the
However, the patient developed carotid other Spanish-speaking South American
thrombosis and died 8 hours later. countries. Heuser, himself, did not make

P. 11
anything of his own momentary vision of
angiography. But iodide demonstrated to
be a useful and secure contrast material.
Moniz started all over again. Intravenous

trials were made first, and tubes containing
iodine solutions of different iodine salts in
different concentrations were put behind
the skulls (figure 7). Then, they made
injections into the carotid arteries.
The new series of trials in patients began

with 5 cc of 22% sodium iodine, without
positive results. The second case showed Figure 7: Injection of 30% sodium iodide in a head preserved
in formalin (1927)
some contrast in the carotid, but not in
the branches. Moniz and his collaborators
realized that they had aspired blood into
the syringe before injecting, and that this
diluted the contrast material.
The third case of this series with sodium

iodine (and the ninth since they began the
experiences) was a 20 year-old young man,
who had a pituitary tumor and a Babinski-
Frohlich’s syndrome. Clearly defined
branches became visible in the films (Figure
8). It was June 28, 1927.
He described “the carotid displaced

Figure 8: The first successful carotid angiogram
forward, and without its normal superior
curve. The middle cerebral artery, quite
angiography in pages 48-72 of the first
visible, is displaced forward and upward.
volume of the Revue of Neurologie (July, 1927),
The anterior cerebral artery has a different
entitled L’encephalographie artérielle. Son
position from which we usually saw, and is
importance dans la localisation des tumeurs
very thin and not very clear”. He attributes to
cérébrales (“Arterial Encephalography.
the tumor the cause of these alterations of
Its importance on the localization of
the position of the arteries, but, cautious, he
brain tumors”). This historical article was
pointed out: “On this point we cannot emit a
sure opinion”. Nevertheless, his conclusion followed by another two the same year:
was irrefutable: “The demonstration of our Injections carotidiennes et les substances
thesis is made. Radioarteriography of the opaques (“Carotid injections and opaque
brain can be obtain in living patients, and it substances”) in the Presse Médical, and
can provide us elements for the localization La radio-artériographie et la topographie
of tumors”. cranio-encéphalique (“Radioarteriography
and cranio-encephalic topography”) in the
He published the first paper on cerebral Journal de Radiologie et d’Electrologie.

P. 12
expression change to surprise when Moniz

showed him the films.
The next day, July 7th, 1927, Moniz

presented his paper. The films and his
charisma conquered the audience. Babinski,
Sicard and Souques had only words of
praise. The trip to Paris was a complete
success.
Back in Portugal, Moniz proposed to his

associate the surgeon Martins to made
injections in the arms and the legs in order to
obtain arteriograms, but due to objections
of the Chief of his Service, Martins could
not follow Moniz´s suggestion. Also, he
could not continue helping him anymore,
although many doctors of other services
were interested in their work and disclosed
the technique. However, others accused
Moniz of causing harm in their patients. The
Figure 9: Jean Athanase Sicard (1872-1929)
Professor of Internal Medicine, the most
important man in the School of Medicine,
Immediately, Egas Moniz announced a didn’t allow the procedure to be used in the
presentation in the next meeting of the University Hospital.
Society of Neurology of Paris. After another
successful case, he left Lisbon on July 3rd, The intrigues arrived further on: some
1927. members of the School of Medicine tried
to drag Moniz into political disgrace. With
In Paris he met his old teachers and his usual diplomatic skill, he evaded the
friends Joseph Babinski and Alexandre- incident so well that his department was
Achille Souques (1860-1944). The morning soon elevated academically at the level of
before the presentation, he went to the Institute for Scientific Research.
Necker Hospital to visit Jean Athanase
Sicard (figure 9), already famous for his Egas Moniz made a presentation of his
studies with Lipiodol. Sicard was examining films with the corresponding patient at the
a patient, he turned to his students, without Amphitheater of the School of Medicine
noticing the presence of Moniz, and of Lisbon in the summer of 1927. At the
commented: “If we could design a method end, an Associated Professor of Surgery,
for the brain analogue to the Lipiodol for the Reynaldo Dos Santos (Figure 10), asked
tumors of the spinal cords, cerebral surgery him: “Doesn’t it seem that the method you
would advance quickly”. Then, noticing the presented could be equally well applied
presence of Moniz, he told him: “Oh, you to the extremities?”. Moniz answered:
are here, Mr. Moniz. Is there something “Certainly and with the least apprehension.
new that you bring us from Portugal to I think it would be a credit on your account.
locate cerebral tumors”?. His lightly ironic You could bring elements of diagnostic as

P. 13
well as therapeutic value to enrich vascular
pathology of the extremities”. Dos Santos
commented: “This is what I believe. I will
attempt the arteriography of the extremities
at once”.
Although Antonio Martins should have

been the first in using the method of Moniz
in the extremities, the limitations imposed
by his superiors prevented him to did so,
and a tragic misfortune that concluded early
with his life (his rifle was shot while he was
cleaning it) preclude his name to occupies
a more important place in the history of
angiography. Reynaldo Dos Santos deserves
the credit of having introduced aortography
in collaboration with the radiologist José
Pereira Caldas and the surgeon Augusto C.
Lamas in 1929, and was the first in using Figure 10: Reynaldo Dos Santos (1880-1970)
arteriography widely in many medical and

surgical illnesses. But this is another story.
opened field, obtaining X-rays in lateral
In 1928 Egas Moniz was invited to give projection. His studies included the utility
lectures to Belgium, Argentina and Brazil. of carotid angiography in patient with
In Brussels his affable character and his intracranial hypertension, the description
surprising X-rays deserved him the success, of the techniques, indications and a few
but in Rio de Janeiro and in San Pablo the (surprisingly few) undesirable reactions.
victory was total. His wife was carioca, His emphasis, however, was about
and Moniz moved in his own element, the the diagnostic value of the method in
Portuguese language. cerebral tumors. Displacement of arteries,
neovascular formation, and arterial-venous
Egas Moniz returned as Member of the communications were recognized in tumors.
Brazilian Academy of Sciences, and soon The studies of Almeida Lima comparing
learned of the first publication in Germany the angiographic findings with autopsy
on the use of his method by Fedor Krause, specimens and postmortem angiograms
in April 1928, and, one month later, in were incorporated to the work. They also
England, by Worms and Maio. described aneurisms and thrombosis.
It was Moniz’s task to join cases, to In 1931 a seemingly more comfortable

confirm the angiographic diagnosis by contrast medium, based on thorium dioxide
autopsy and histology, and to prove the and known as Thorotrast (introduced for
validity of his method not only by design but imaging of the spleen and liver by P. Radt
also by numbers. in 1929), was tried in arteriography by
Dos Santos. It was attempted in cerebral
But carotid angiography was the center arteriography by Moniz, Pinto and Almeida
of his attention. He made injections in an Lima, and in aortography by Dos Santos,

P. 14
familiar. The method may be necessary at

the present time in Spain. It is not, however,
necessary to the proper treatment of the
tumors in this country...” Thorotrast was not
abandoned completely for arteriography
(especially for cerebral angiography) until
late in the forties (figure 11).
In 1929 Moses Swick introduced an

organic iodide (synthesized in 1926 by
Arthur Binz and Curt Rath in Berlin) for
urography, later known as Uroselectan, that
Figure 11: Thorotrast angiogram (Egas Moniz, 1940)
had only one iodide atom, with a low iodine
Lamas and Pereira Caldas. The reports content. New di-iodinated contrast media
about its utility were enthusiastic. Thorium such as Uroselectan B (1930) and Diodrast
dioxide produce little acute intravascular (1932) were synthesized, with high iodine
toxicity (although it was locally harmful to content, but also increased osmolality.
the tissues of the neck if extravasated), was These two compounds were to become the
almost painless on arterial injection, and standard contrast media for intravascular
was intensely radiopaque. use for the next twenty years, but injected
into the carotid arteries they could provoke
In the U.S.A. the Council of Pharmacy epileptic attacks, pareses and aphasia.
and Chemistry of the American Medical Experimental studies showed that these
Association voted against the use of this substances damage the blood-brain barrier.
contrast medium in the intravenous form It was not until less toxic water-soluble
because of its radioactivity and imperfect iodide-containing contrast media became
elimination, that leads to radiation-induced available that arteriography of the carotids
tumors following a latent interval of several became a relative safe examination.
decades.
Up until 1927 (in 25 years) Egas Moniz
When Jesús Sanchez-Perez, Spanish published 54 scientific works, two-thirds
angiographer and promoter of the of them in Portuguese and one-third in
development of several cassette changers French. In the four years between 1927 and
that had stayed one year with Moniz in Lisbon, 1931 he published 61 works, only one-third
tried to travel to Montreal in order to make of them in Portuguese and two-thirds in
a presentation of cerebral angiography, he French, with the addition of a Spanish and
received a letter of Wilder Penfield, the well- a German publications.
known leader of the Neurological Institute,
dated in August, 1936, that said: “The work He made two publications in Argentina:
of Moniz is open to criticism of his not “Encefalografía arterial: A propósito de
knowing how much damage the Thorotrast las inyecciones carotídeas” (“Arterial
will do to his patients... An extensive paper Encephalography: The issue of carotid
was presented at the last meeting of the injections”) in the Revista Oto- Neuro-
American Neurological Association, with Oftalmológica y de Clínica Neurológica
which most of the leading neurologists are 1929, 4: 276, and “Nuevos aspectos de

P. 15
Figure 12: Egas Moniz during a course (1931)
la angiografía cerebral” (“New aspects sufficiently short exposure time.

of cerebral angiography”) in Revista Oto-
Neuro- Oftalmológica y de Cirugía Neurológica Despite Egas Moniz’s publications in
Sudamericana 1932, 7: 425. books (in French) and in journals outside
Portugal (including the Unites States),
By 1931 (figure 12) he compiled 90 cerebral angiography developed very
cases (180 arteriograms) in the first book slowly outside Portugal. In 1941 (14 years
on cerebral angiography, published in after Moniz’s first article) Dyke wrote:
France by Masson et Cie. and prefaced by “Its main indication, in my opinion, is to
Joseph Babinski: “Diagnostic des tumeurs determine whether or not an aneurism or
cérébrales et épreuve de l’encephalographie an arteriovenous angioma exists; in other
artérielle” (“Diagnosis of cerebral tumor words, to differentiate a mass formed by
and trial of cerebral angiography”), of 512 enlargement of one of several blood vessels
pages, with 225 ilustrations. All cases were from a true tumor”.
followed clinically in an exemplary way, and
many of them surgically. Only two patients Some authors think that the fact that
died, both suffered severe arteriosclerosis cerebral angiography was accepted very
in addition to brain tumors. All cases had slowly (particularly in the Anglo-Saxon
bilateral carotid arteriograms by direct countries) may have been due partly to the
cut-down in the lateral position. Anterior- fact that the investigation involve making
posterior position required technical two permanent scars one each side of the
improvements: the low- yield generators of neck, unpleasant stigmata particularly for an
the X-ray equipment still did not permit a attractive woman to carry for the rest of her

P. 16
life (Moniz always insisted on undertaking With Almeida Lima, Moniz and Carvalho
bilateral arteriography). In 1936 J. Loman y undertook experiments to visualize the
A. Myerson reported the feasibility of direct pulmonary arteries. After in-vitro trials, they
percutaneous carotid artery puncture for began to inject into patients 60% sodium
cerebral angiography, “because exposure iodide into their antecubital veins. In high
and ligation of the carotid artery constitutes concentrations the pain was dissuasive;
a formidable surgical technique which furthermore, they could never visualize
might cause clinicians to hesitate to utilize the contrast beyond the subclavian vein
the procedure” because of the dilution. They attempted
injections in the external jugular vein
Egas Moniz and his colleagues published
(closer to the heart). In this case, there
over 200 papers and monographs on
were no complaints from the patients in
normal and abnormal cerebral angiography
spite of increasing the concentration. At
However, Moniz’s interest on angiography
this point, Moniz and his collaborators took
was not limited to the central nervous
notice of Forssmann’s article. Immediately
system.
they followed his suggestion, and they
carried out injections in the right atrium
through a catheter. They were successful
Pulmonary Angiography in visualize the pulmonary vessels since
(“Angiopneumography”) the concentrations (80% to 100% sodium
iodide) were higher than Forssmann had
The same day of his presentation at dared to use.
the School of Medicine of Lisbon in the
summer of 1927 when he returned from In the session of February of 1931 of
France, after his historical meeting with Dos the Lisbon Scientific Academy Egas Moniz
Santos, Moniz talked with a professor friend showed the first pulmonary angiograms
of the Portuguese surgeon, suggested (“angiopneumography”) in man, obtained
him to amplify his cerebral studies with with the collaboration of Carvalho and
investigations of the extremities and other Almeida Lima. He emphasized that all his
parts of the body. “I don’t think I will do suggestions should be carefully proven by
that; it would take a lifetime. I’d rather means of experimentation, but he had the
concentrate on that sector in which my idea to mention pulmonary vascular tumors,
studies enable me to draw rewarding cysts and tuberculosis as experimentation
conclusions”, answered Moniz. However he fields. As Forssmann did, he also mentioned
later changed his mind, perhaps influenced the potentialities of physiologic studies
by Lopo de Carvalho whom that year of and selective therapy. Very soon they
1927 was designated Professor of Medical published another paper with films with fair
Propaedeutics and was interested in lung pulmonary arterial visualization.
tuberculosis, or perhaps by the publication
of Werner Forssmann, who carried out the In 1931 took a trip to give lectures in Bern,
first heart catheterization on himself in Switzerland, and in Trieste, Italy.
Berlin in 1929. Due to technical difficulties
and surely to the low concentration of the In 1933 Moniz, together with A. Pinto
material contrast, Forssmann didn’t obtain and A. Alvarez studied arteriographically
satisfactory x-rays. the cerebellum and other organs of the

P. 17
posterior fossa, carrying out vertebro-
basilar angiographies through the
subclavian artery surgically exposed.
In 1934 his second book, “L’angiographie

cerebrale; ses applications et resultats en
anatomie, physiologie et clinique” (“Cerebral
angiography; its applications and results in
anatomy, physiology and clinical practice”).
It was published in Italian in 1938 and in
German in 1949.
During the twenties the radiographic

documentation was limited to obtaining
only one radiograph for each injection.
Thanks to the development of a rapid
cassette changer capable of taking films
in series (“radiocaroussel”) by José Pereira
Caldas (Figure 13), Egas Moniz could carry
out some physiologic observations on the
circulation of the brain The “radiocaroussel” Figure 13: José Pereira Caldas (1893-1967)
permitted the exposure of six films in rapid
sequence to allow the visualization of the
arterial, capillary and venous phases. He
published his results with the collaboration
of Pereira Caldas and Almeida Lima in 1934
with the title “Angiographies en série de la
circulation de la tête” (“Serial angiographies
of the circulation of the head”). They made
significant physiological observations. They
realized that the capillary barriers of the
internal and external carotid arteries were
different: flow through the brain was rapid,
while the capillaries of the soft tissues of the
head and neck offered great resistance.
Psycosurgery and the Nobel Prize
In 1939 a mentally deranged patient

shot Egas Moniz and almost killed him.
He recovered, and became increasingly
interested in research on prefrontal
lobotomy, which he had started to do in
Figure 14: Egas Moniz and prefrontal lobotomy (cartoon from
1935. His constant and almost obstinate Urol Laboratory)

P. 18
forties psychosurgery was often used to

treat patients with psychosis resistant to
treatment with shock. But later, prefrontal
lobotomy fell in bad reputation, and
was discarded with the development of
psychopharmacology (figure 14).
In his first 20 patients, 35% were cured,

35% improved, and 30% didn’t present any
change. None died, and none worsened
after the operation. Besides the theoretical
conception, he created with Almeida Lima
the appropriate instrument, the “leucotome”
(Figure 15).
His initials favorable results with

prefrontal lobotomy suggested further
possibilities in the surgical direction. To
alleviate the tremor in Parkinson’s disease,
Moniz, always with the help of Almeida
Lima, started in 1934 giving injections of
alcohol into the pallidum and the striatum,
but without good results. Years later, in
the U.S.A., Cooper got successes with this
approach, using more advanced techniques.
Figure 15: The “leucotome”
In 1936 he traveled to Paris to present

drive of find material causes to psychic at the session of March of the Academy of
phenomena (“only by an organic orientation Medicine his work “Essai d’un traitement
can psychiatry make real progress”), concept chirurgical de certains psychoses”
to which he had stuck during his studies with (“Essay of a surgical treatment of some
Regis on toxic psychoses in 1902, prompted psychoses”), the first publication that would
his interest on “psychosurgery”. He wrote: be continue with “Tentatives operatoires
“to cure these patients it is necessary to dans le traitements de certains psycoses”
destroy the cellular-connective bonds, (“Operative trial in treatments of certain
and among them we consider to the most psychoses “).
important those related to the front lobes”.
In the postwar years psychosurgery
Pedro Almeida Lima, already the first disseminated the name of Moniz. In 1949
Professor of Neurosurgery of Portugal, the Karolinska Institute of Stockholm
carried out in Lisbon the first injection of accepted the proposition arisen by Brazilian
alcohol in the prefrontal area in November initiative in the Congress of Lisbon in 1948,
12th, 1935, and the first prefrontal and supported from all over the world
leucotomy (later renamed “lobotomy” by many investigators. Egas Moniz was
by Walter Freeman and James Winston honored with the Nobel Prize of Physiology
Watts) in December 27th. During the and Medicine “for his discovery of the

P. 19
therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain
psychoses” (Figure 16), together with the
Swiss Rudolf Walter Hess (“for his discovery
of the functional organization of the
interbrain as a coordinator of the activities
of the internal organs”), who worked in
stereotactic localization. Moniz could not
attend the ceremony, but his lecture was
read by the noted Swedish surgeon Herbert
Olivercrona, an ardent proponent of carotid
Figure 16: The Nobel Prize
angiography. In his preliminary speech in
the Swedish Academy, in front of notables
guests and the Swedish King, Olivercrona
praised Moniz’s works in psychosurgery,
but not a word was said about angiography
on that occasion.
After his retirement he wrote his memoirs

that appeared in 1949 with the title of
“Confidencias de um investigador científico”
(“Confidences of a scientific investigator “)
(Figure 17). In “Um ano de politica” (“A year
of politics”) he summarized his political
experience, of which he would go away
definitively in 1918.
In 1951, it was offered to Egas Moniz the

Presidency of the Republic of Portugal that
he refused.
Figure 17: Confidences of a scientific investigator
He died in Lisbon, on December 13th,
1955. He was 81 years-old (Figures 18).
Epilogue
The work of Egas Moniz granted

international fame and acceptance to
Portuguese medicine. He has a charismatic
personality, wide culture, and brilliant
intelligence. His early political career and
the complete exploitation of his medical
achievements were enhanced by his talent
like orator and writer of elegant style. Figure 18: Egas Moniz at the end of his life

P. 20
He created two manual techniques,

cerebral angiography and psychosurgery,
but because of his sick hands, he was
not able to perform himself none of the
two (Figure 19 to 22). But in spite of his
limitation in physical activity, his scientific
and intellectual activity remained with
dynamism and energy until the end of his
days.
Figure 19: Egas Moniz at the end of his life

As counterbalance of the rigid scientific
discipline that he imposed himself in his
hospital activity, he wrote several essays:
on the only physician pope in the history,
Petrus Lusitanus (Pope John XXI); on the
painter José Malhoa; on the representation
of madness in art; on the work of the
Portuguese physician and writer Julio Dioniz;
on his thoughts on Oscar Wilde; on the
work of the sculptor Mauricio of Almeida.
He had great devotion for the life and work
of Santiago Ramón y Cajal, to whom he
dedicated two lectures in the Academy of
Sciences of Lisbon. In a scientific session
Figure 20: Note the deformity of his hands
Figure 21: Note the deformity of his hands Figure 22; Note the tophi in his ear

P. 21
he commented about medical climatology
and geology. He wrote obituaries on
distinguished colleagues, and he also paid
homage to the first circumnavigator of
the globe, Fernando Magellan. He wrote
an operetta titled “A nossa Aldeia” (“To
our village”) dedicated to Pardilho, a small
village where he moved to when he was 5
years-old.
It has been said that youth with its lack

of frightening experiences, which tend
to inhibit the ease of associations, had
advantages, but Moniz is an example that
men in their sixth and seventh decades
showed remarkable ingenuity. He was 52
when he embarked on cerebral angiography,
61 when he pioneered prefrontal lobotomy
and 67 when he launched the first surgical
attack against Parkinsonism.
Moniz received the Gran-Cruz da

Instrução e Benemerência (Portugal) Figure 23: Portuguese stamp (1966)
and the Gran-Cruz de Isabel la Catolica
(Spain); he was appointed Grand Officier
de la Couronne d’Italie, and Commandeur
de la Légion d’Honneur (France). He was
Doctor, honoris causa, of the Universities
of Bordeaux and Lyon; Membre de Mérite,
and President at various times, of the
Academy of Sciences, Lisbon; Member of
the Academy of Medicine and of the Société
de Neurologie, Paris; of the Societe de
Oto-Neuro-Ophtalmolodie de Strasbourg;
of the Academy of Medicine, Madrid; of
the Sociedad de Neurología y Psiquiatría
de Buenos Aires; of the Society of British
Neurological Surgeons; Honorary Member
of the Royal Society of Medicine, London;
of the Académie Nationale de Médecine
de Rio de Janeiro; of the American Society
of Neurology; of the Spanish Association
of Medical Writers. A 1937 Portugal
stamp commemorates the first cerebral
arteriogram, performed by Egas Moniz in Figure 24: Portuguese stamp (1955)

P. 22
1927.
There is an eponym associated with

his name, the Egas Moniz’s sign: forceful
plantar flexion at the ankle may result in
dorsiflexion of the toes in pyramidal tract
lesions.
Joseph Babinski, the “Grand Master of

French Neurology”, teacher and friend of
Egas Moniz, prefaced the first book on
cerebral angiography (published by Moniz
Figure 25: Portuguese stamp in 1931), and paid him a great homage
with the following words: “Paul Valèry in
one of his works remarked that a scientific
discovery is less interesting because of its
consequences of the results, but rather on
the virtue of the intellectual analysis through
which the new knowledge was acquired.”
“The work of Mr. Moniz on the arterial

encephalography is if the nature to entice
Figure 26: Portuguese stamp Figure 27: Portuguese bank note (1989)
Figure 28: Medal commemorating the first centenary of Egas Moniz´s birth

P. 23
Figure 29: Portrait of Egas Moniz, by José Malhoa (1932). Currently in Hospital de Santa Maria, in Lisbon, Portugal.
the eminent psychologist. But it is not “Mr. Moniz attached himself to this idea,
the mere product of verification of facts considered all aspects, anticipated all the
presenting themselves by chance to be criticism one will attempt to make a priori,
he made himself consider the dangers
observed by an attentive researcher, from
he might be exposed to with this kind of
which he would benefit and which in fact
approach. Persuaded that he will overcome
has already been profitable: it is the fruit the obstacles and convinced that if his
of sustained contemplation and of broad thoughts are going to be realized it will
experiences pursued in a rigorous fashion.” present benefit for the patients, he decides

P. 24
to put his project into effect and launches neuroradiology. Besides being brilliant as a
his enterprise courageously, as in another physician, he was a mathematician, a literary
time his countrymen Diaz and Vasco da and artistic critic, a musical composer, a
Gama took of to cross the ocean for the historian, a politician and a diplomat, a
route to India”. writer, a teacher and a Maecenas. He has
left us his perseverance, his never faint
Egas Moniz was an extraordinary man. love to work and investigation, and the
He must certainly be the most interesting unyielding devotion to the objective search
and charismatic person in the history of of truth (Figure 23 to 29).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
• 1) Alexander F.G., Selesnick S.T. Historia de la psiquiatría. Editorial Espaxa, Barcelona, 1970
• 2) Bull J. The History of Neuroradiology. Proc.Roy.Soc.Med. 1970; Vol 63:637-643
• 3) Castilla del Pino, C. Psiquiatría In Laín Entralgo, P: Historia Universal de la Medicina, Vol 7, pages 289-294.
Salvat Editores S.A., Barcelona, 1974
• 4) Chermet J., Bigot J.M. Techniques d’exploration radiologique de la veine cave supérieure EMC 32225 F15,
7-1975, pages 1-10
• 5) Doby T. Development of angiography and cardiovascular catheterization. Publishing Sciences Group, INC.,
Littleton, Massachusetts, 1976.
• 6) Dotter C.T., Steinberg I. Angiocardiography. Paul B. Hoeber, Inc. Publishers, New York, Reprint with
corrections, 1952.
• 7) Eisemberg R. L. Radiology. An Illustrated History. Mosby, St.Luois, Missouri, 1992
• 8) Ferris E.J., Baker M.L. Vascular and Interventional Radiology. In: Gagliardi R.R., McClenan B.L.: A History of The
Radiological Sciences. Diagnosis. Pages 271-288. Radiology Centennial, Inc., 1996
• 9) Grainger R.G. The historical development of intravascular contrast agents In: Thomas, A.M.K.: The invisible
Light. 100 years of medical radiology. Pages 34-38 Blackwell Science Ltd, 1995.
• 10) Heuser C. Pielografìa con ioduro de sodio y las inyecciones intravenosas de yoduro potásico en radiografía.
La Semana Médica 1919, 26: 424
• 11) Huckman M. S., Stewart D.A. Neuroradiology. In: Gagliardi R.R., McClenan B.L.: A History of The Radiological
Sciences. Diagnosis. Pages 289-318 Radiology Centennial, Inc., 1996
• 12) Moniz E. Sobre la historia de la leucotomía prefrontal. Symposium Ciba, Vol 3, No.4, Oct. 1955, pages 98-101
• 13) Ole Daniel Enersen Antonio Caetano de Abreu Freire Egas Moniz Whonamedit.com (http://www.
whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/454.html)
• 14) Obrador S. Neurocirugía In Laín Entralgo, P: Historia Universal de la Medicina, Vol 7, pages 376-380. Salvat
Editores S.A., Barcelona, 1974,
• 15) Pallardy G., Pallardy M.J., Wackenheiem A. Histoire illustré de la radiologie Les Editions Roger Dacosta, París,
1989.
• 16) Perino F.R. Egas Moniz . El Día Médico, 1956, XXVIII, 38: 1040
• 17) Pollack H. M. Uroradiology. In: Gagliardi R.R., McClenan B.L.: A History of The Radiological Sciences.
Diagnosis. Pages 195-253 Radiology Centennial, Inc., 1996
• 18) Rolfe E.B. History of Neuroradiology In: Thomas, A.M.K.: The invisible Light. 100 years of medical radiology.
Pages 19-23 Blackwell Science Ltd, 1995.
• 19) Rosenbusch G., Oudkerk M, Ammann E. Radiology in Medical Diagnostics. Evolution of X-ray applications
1895-1995. Blackwell Science Ltd., 1995
• 20) Salvaggio S. Diccionario biográfico de los Premio Nobel. Ed. Claridad, Buenos Aires, 1958.
• 22) Sutton D. Arteriography. E. & S. Livingstone Ltd, 1962.
• 23) Taveras J.M. Neuroradiology: past, present, future. Radiology 1990; 185: 593-602

SIMBOLISM AND MEDICINE
P. 25
Medicine and the snake

Dra. María Victoria Suárez
Chief of the Department of Women Imaging
Diagnóstico Médico S.A., Buenos Aires, Argentina
The snake figure was associated with Asclepios, the ancient Greek God of
medicine, and possessed benevolent properties. It was believed to be able
to cure a patient or a wounded person just by touch. It is connected with the
underworld, not only because it crawls on the ground, but because it can
bring death, connecting the upper with the underground world. The ability of
the snake to shed its skin has been associated with the circle of life, and the
renaissance spirit.
The Staff of Asklepios encircled by the

snake has been from olden times the symbol
of medicine (Figure 1). Every investigation of
symbolism has to take various functions of
the human mind under scrutiny. A symbol
is a condensation of different conscious
and unconscious images. The Greek
word symballein means putting together;
thus according to this original meaning
in a symbol different ideas of identity are
thrown together.
Man was able to see likeness and analogy

in various forms and functions and he used
this perception of sameness to form his
fantasies, initial ideas and metaphors. Man’s
archaic thinking, still in its magic phase of
development, used these first hunches and
intuitions to exert power over his dangerous
environment. Man’s initial thinking was full
of magic strategy to ward off the power
and revenge of the gods. Yet, his magic
thinking was also full of intuitive awareness
and a creative catching of intimate relations
between form and function, even before
man’s words were able to express those Figure 1: The Rod of Asklepios encircled by the snake.

P. 26
question why did and does the snake arouse

these various symbolic ideas of likeness?
In the first place, the snake is related

to the eternal problem of life and death.
Being caught by his poisonous fangs can
lead to nearly immediate destruction. Man
can be ensnarled in the grip of a monster,
a dragon, a serpent, a boa constrictor, the
ominous token of all threat and danger
hovering over him. Deep unconscious fears
Figure 2: Egyptian papyri with an individual in reverence to the are aroused by this primordial monster,
winged-serpent.
that sucks in what was given life to. It is as
if the primordial mother takes back what
ideas. Symbols were drawn and sculptured
she created. Let us not forget that ancient
even before the word was created. Each
heathenism was pregnant of the idea of
symbol is the transmogrification of the
giving the first born back to the womb of
world or its parts into a cosmogonical
Baal in order to promote fertility.
interpretation. That is why we have to go
back to look at man’s primitive and archaic Indeed, in many mythologies birth takes
art when we want to trace an idea to its very place out of the world-snake. The panic at
beginning. birth, conditions man’s first reminiscences.
The rhythms and undulatory movements of
Why the snake became the symbol of
the womb at birth deliver a motile likeness
medicine can never be reduced to one
with the undulatory movements of the
simple likeness or analogy. Various animistic
serpent. Some snake dances are performed
and magic meanings of the snake gradually
by women of the tribe as long as a woman is
joined into a permanent token.
in labor in order to keep the bad spirits away
Although the name Asklepios for the God and to stimulate the snake-like rhythmic
of Medicine comes from the Greek language movements of the womb. Imitative rhythm
(asklapas= snake), the adoration of the snake as a means of magic power is found in many
as a life-giving power and god of fertility can symbolic dances. The head of Medusa
be found in much older cultures, such as (Figure 7) with its vision of whirling snakes
Egypt (Figure 2) and Sumer (Figure 3), and around the introitus represents a typical
in quite isolated peoples and cultures such picture of the pangs of birth. Looking at
as the Aztecs (Figure 4) and the American Medusa’s head could change the trespasser
Indians (Figure 5). Snake worship exists in into a frozen image of stone.
various sects even in our days.
But the snake represented also a male
Asklepios (Figure 6) was a Greek god, son phallic deity, the magic giver of life. The
of Apollo. It was thought that he once lived serpent, ready to strike, fits into the image
inside a snake. The idea of the life giving of male sexual attack, of erection and
power residing inside a snake is nearly rape. Aaron’s rod changed into a snake to
universal and is even nowadays found in overawe Pharaoh with the power of God
various primitive tribes. This opens the (Figure 8), and Moses, by divine order, made

P. 27
Figure 3: Assyrio-Babylonian monarch with a serpent headed staff that was also used by Pharaohs and later by Cardinals and
popes.
a brazen image of the serpent, put it on a children of Israel.

stick, and used it as a magic cure against
the snake bite (Figure 9). For a long time this But the snake is not only a token of
sign of phallic adoration remained with the death, or a symbol of birth, or of phallic

P. 28
Figure 4: Quetzacoatl, was the feathered serpent worshipped

throughout Meso-America.
Figure 6: Aesculapius with his staff. Vatican Museums.
Figure 5: August is the month the Hopi Indians hold their

annual snake dances and ritual prayers for rain. In that month
the Indians handle the deadly rattlesnakes without apparent
harm. During the rest of the year, Hopi Indians avoid the
snakes as much as anyone else.
creation. As the serpent continually sheds

its skin, the snake became a token of
renewal, revigoration, reincarnation, and
regeneration and finally of eternal life. In
the miraculous omnipotent potion of the
Middle Ages, the theriac, snake meat and
snakeskin were important ingredients
(Figure 10). The serpent as a symbol of
longevity and eternity was already very
Figure 7: Medusa (Caravaggio, 1590). Galleria degli Uffizi,
soon in history depicted as the orobouros, Florence.

P. 29
Figure 8: Aaron’s Rod Changed into a Serpent. Caption: “The king wears a crown on his head. His name is Pharaoh. Moses and Aaron
are standing up before the king. Just now Aaron had a rod in his hand; he threw it down on the ground, and it was changed into a
serpent. Then the king’s servants threw down their rods, and they were changed into serpents too. But Aaron’s rod swallowed up
all the other rods. God has sent Aaron to Pharaoh to do this wonderful thing.” Illustration from the 1897 Bible Pictures and What
They Teach Us: Containing 400 Illustrations from the Old and New Testaments: With brief descriptions by Charles Foster
Figure 9: Moses and the Brazen Serpent (Sébastien Bourdon, 1654). Museo del Prado, Madrid.

P. 30
the snake biting in its own tail, thus forming

the wheel of eternity (Figure 11).
In the Garden of Eden the snake seduced

the woman and the man to loose their
nirvanic innocence and to eat the apple
from the tree of knowledge (Figure 12).
Thus man discovered the original sin of
“knowing” of sexual union and from now on
man covered his genitals (Figure 13). Here
again the snake symbolizes the mystery of
the continuity and wisdom of life. “Be ye
wise as serpents and innocent as doves.”
(Matth. X, 16).
These are only few of the many archaic

Figure 10: Theriac, also called Confectio Andromacha or feelings of identity that went into the snake
Electuarium Anodynum cum opio was a famous drug used as
panaceum, initially an antidote for snake bites and poison and symbol. The difficulty of analysis of the
last resort drug for patients in terminal stages. When opium
was added, it became an effective pain killer. The recipe was function of symbolization is that we have to
first devised by the ancient Greeks (Mithridatum), completed use words, those very tokens of condensed
by emperor Nero’s personal physician, and perfected by the
Venetians during the late Middle Ages and the Early Modern meaning, in order to clarify symbols. Yet,
Period. The preparation there was a public spectacle and a
matter of state. Theriac contained up to 40 ingredients, its important is that the symbol has a direct
preparation lasted up to 12 years, and was thus extremely
expensive. It contained, among others, opium and viper flesh. unconscious appeal to us -we are moved by
Figure 11: The term ouroboros is derived from two words in ancient Greek language. The first word is “oura” which means “tail” and
the second is “boros” which means “eating”. Combined, these two words give the meaning “he/it that eats his/its own tail” or “tail
eater”. A serpent eating its own tail has been depicted in different versions of the infinity symbol throughout the history.

P. 31
Figure 12: Adam and Eve (Michelangelo, 1512). Sistine Chapel Paintings
it- without having a clear verbal explanation. earlier days sacred serpents were kept in
Symbols carry the memories of the race; the Asklepian temples. The old magicians
they are the genes of history. They force prescribed the touch of a serpent with their
us into a direct empathy of which we are usual medication (Figure 16), like some of
usually not consciously aware. our modern revivalist sects still do now.
The Aesculapian priests had to sleep with
The mystery of the final acceptance of the
childless women patients till these women
staff with the winding snake as the symbol
of Asklepios (Figure 14) and medicine dreamed of snakes (Figure 17). Then they
in general (Figure 15) is hidden in the were sure to be pregnant. Even in our times
unconscious minds of the ancient physicians pregnant women experience the living child
of Kos and Knidos. At those blessed spots in their wombs as a movement of snakes
Hippocratic medicine was born after ages and the phobic fear of the snake often is the
of clinical verification. We know that in the fear of pregnancy.

P. 32
Figure 13: The Rebuke of Adam and Eve (Charles Joseph Natoire, 1740). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

P. 33
Figure 16: A priest of Asklepios and a patient calling up the
sacred non-poisonous snakes.
Figure 14: Aesculapius Holding a Staff Encircled by a Snake

(Giovanni Battista Cipriani). Wellcome Library, London.
Figure 17: A Visit to Aesculapius (Edward Poynter, 1880). The

Tate Gallery.
Figure 15: The staff with the winding snake as the symbol of
medicine in general. Figure 18: The caduceus of Hermes.

P. 34
Figure 19: Mercury running with the caduceus in his left hand (1653 etching). British Museum.

P. 35
The snake also symbolized the physician’s caduceus is related to ducere= to guide. The
ability to rejuvenate the sick. The serpent snake guides us in magic protection against
and staff represented a duplication of evil spirits.
sexual symbols full of the expectations of
cure and eternization of the race. The relation of medicine to the cult of the
snake tells us how deeply ingrained age-old
In symbolic research it is unimportant symbols are in our unconscious thinking.
if there were originally one or two snakes It is important to be aware of the hidden
winding around the staff because a symbol symbolic thinking we all unwittingly use in
is never constant in its form and even the our scientific ponderings. Writing about the
well-known caduceus of Hermes (Figure philosophy of medicine is struggling with
18) (now adorning the uniform of many words and concepts that are in a continual
a medical officer) of Hermes the God of change. We think we have found a fixed
Commerce and herald to Hades (Figure 19), formulation but the wheel of time changes
with its heraldic double serpents (or ribbons) the meaning of our words and the methods
provoked in earlier days comparable of conceptualization; the snake creeps out of
associations of magic power and protection its skin. But beyond this, the mystic serpent
against the various fears of mankind. The shows us that the man of medicine is the
earlier Assyrian medical caduceus consisted retainer of the mystery of regeneration and
of a staff and two snakes and the word the servant of life and its continuity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Antoniou SA, Antoniou GA, Learney R, Granderath FA, Antoniou AI. The rod and the serpent: history’s ultimate
healing symbol. World J Surg. 2011 Jan;35(1):217-221
• Froman CR, Skandalakis JE. One snake or two: the symbols of medicine. Am Surg. 2008 Apr;74(4):330-334.
• Nayernouri T. Asclepius, Caduceus, and Simurgh as medical symbols, part I. Arch Iran Med. 2010 Jan;13(1):61-68.
• Nayernouri T. Asclepius, Caduceus, and Simurgh as medical symbols, part II. Arch Iran Med. 2010 May;13(3):255-
261.
• Okuda J, Kiyokawa R. Snake as a symbol in medicine and pharmacy - a historical study. Yakushigaku Zasshi.
2000;35(1):25-40
• Prakash M, Johnny JC. Things you don’t learn in medical school: Caduceus. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 2015 Apr;7(Suppl
1):S49-50
• Rabinerson D, Salzer L, Gabbay-Benziv R. On gods, snakes and staffs--the emblem of the medical profession.
Harefuah. 2014 Oct;153(10):617-20, 623.
• Ramoutsaki IA, Haniotakis S, Tsatsakis AM. The snake as the symbol of medicine, toxicology and toxinology. Vet
Hum Toxicol. 2000 Oct;42(5):306-8.
• Retief FP, Cilliers L. Snake and staff symbolism, and healing. S Afr Med J. 2002 Jul;92(7):553-556.
• Shetty A, Shetty S, Dsouza O. Medical Symbols in Practice: Myths vs Reality. J Clin Diagn Res. 2014
Aug;8(8):PC12-14
• Wilcox RA, Whitham EM. The symbol of modern medicine: why one snake is more than two. Ann Intern Med.
2003 Apr 15;138(8):673-7.
• Young P, Finn BC, Bruetman JE, Cesaro Gelos J, Trimarchi H. La vara de Esculapio, símbolo de la medicina. Rev
Med Chil. 2013 Sep;141(9):1197-1201

MEDICAL STATUES
P. 36
Johann Christoph Friedrich

von Schiller (1759-1805)
Dr. Arpan K. Banerjee
MBBS (LOND) FRCP FRCR FBIR
Past Chairman, British Society for the History of Radiology
Past President, Radiology Section Royal Society of Medicine (Lond)
‘Respect the dreams of thy youth’

Don Carlos
The Schiller Monument is located in central Berlin (Berlin-Mitte) on

Gendarmenmarkt, in front of the flight of steps leading up to the former royal
theater, today a concert hall. It honors the poet, philosopher, historian and
physician Friedrich Schiller, who is also regarded as one of the most significant
dramatists and lyricists of the German language. The set of statues was
executed by Reinhold Begas a prominent 19th-century German sculptor. It is
a registered historic monument.
Friedrich Schiller is today best prevalent in Germany at that time and was
remembered as a German poet, philosopher an important contribution to the Romantic
and playwright probably most famous for “Sturm and Drang” movement which
his poem ‘Ode to Joy’ which was set to music emphasised the expression of feelings in
by Beethoven in his ninth symphony. the artist as of primary importance.
Schiller however like many so-called Schiller’s medical dissertation was entitled
“medical truants” started of his career “On the Connection between the Animal
as a doctor, a profession that he soon and Spiritual Nature of Human Beings”.
abandoned in favour of the humanities. His medical education was to influence his
playwriting and philosophical contributions.
Schiller was born on 10 November 1759
in Marbach, in Germany. His father was In 1780 he obtained a post as a military
a military doctor. Religion played a large doctor in Stuttgart. However his medical
part in his upbringing and initially he was career was short lived as he decided to
groomed for the priesthood. In 1773 he attend the opening night of his play in
entered a military academy in Stuttgart Mannheim without permission and as
where he was eventually to study medicine. such was arrested, given a 14-day prison
Medicine however was not this first love sentence and banned from publishing. He
and while a student he wrote his first play, consequently fled Stuttgart and journeyed
“The Robbers”. This play criticises the issues through Germany eventually settling in
of class, religion and economic inequalities Weimarin 1787. Two years later he became

P. 37
Figure 1: Statue of Friedrich Schiller at the Gendarmenmarkt in Berlin, Germany.

P. 38
Professor of History and Philosophy in Jena.

Schiller to music in his Lieder for piano
In 1799 he returned to Weimar and with
and voice. The most famous Schiller poem
Goethe founded the Weimar Theatre.
set to music is perhaps “Ode To Joy” which
Beethoven uses in the final movement of
Schiller wrote several philosophical and
the Ninth Symphony (1824).
historic works. His interests were freedom,
ethics and aesthetics and he was a believer
Schiller died on 9 May 1805 in Weimar of
in beauty being both an aesthetic and moral
tuberculosis.
experience. He developed and elaborated
Kant’s philosophy. In 1794 he published In Germany, statues were erected in
an important work in letter form “On the Stuttgart in 1839 and Weimar in 1857.
Aesthetic Education of Man” expressing his
disillusionment with the French Revolution. In Berlin a statue was unveiled in 1871
in the Gendarmenmarket on the 112th
Schiller wrote several plays including “The anniversary of Schiller’s birth. It is in front
Robbers”, “Don Carlos”, “The Wallenstein of the formal Royal theatre, today used as
trilogy”, and “William Tell”, amongst others. a concert hall.
Several of his plays provided the inspiration
for subsequent operas including Verdi’s five At the base of the statue are four allegorical
act opera “Don Carlos” (premiered 1867) figures in each corner representing Schiller’s
and Rossini’s “William Tell” (1829) areas of creativity namely poetry front left,
tragedy front right. At the back are history
Franz Schubert set several poems by and philosophy.
REFERENCES
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Friedrich-Schiller
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_Ferdinand_Meyer
• https://www.theguardian.com/music/tomserviceblog/2014/sep/09/symphony-guide-beethoven-ninth-choral-
tom-service
• http://www.classicfm.com/composers/beethoven/music/symphony-no-9-d-minor/

HISTORY OF THE BRAIN
P. 39
A brief history of the human brain:

some philosophical considerations
Paulo Nuno Martins
Researcher in History of Science
Inter-university Centre for History of Science and Technology
New University of Lisbon, CIUHCT-UNL
e-mail:paulonuno2003@iol.pt
Since immemorial time, the study of the brain always attracted man. This
article aims to be a summary of the history of the brain, through ages, looking
for main issues that occurred in each period, particularly in the present, with
regard to the study of telepathic communication and clairvoyance.
Introduction
Through ages, the brain has been an

important differentiator of the human
species in relation to others, being
characterized by particular functions that
make it a vital organ for the perception of
the world around him.
The human history1 shows that human

beings have undergone major changes
throughout the body, particularly in the
skull and the brain. About 3.5 million years
ago, Australopithecus was a specie that
inhabited our planet, consisting of a skull
of about 450 cm3, with a prominent guy (no
tests) and with a large jaw.
This was followed by the Homo habilis,

about 2.2 million years ago. This specie had Figure 1: Aristotle
a cranial capacity around 600 cm3, having a
more rounded skull and larger teeth. Finally, the Homo sapiens emerged just
over 200,000 years, having a skull with
The Homo erectus appeared around 1.8 about 1,700 cm3, with a flattened face (with
million years ago, and was characterized by a big forehead), a chin and teeth suitable for
a skull with values between 800 and 1,100 eating meat, fruit and vegetables.
cm3, and a pronounced brow, but small
teeth. This article intends to describe the history

P. 40
of the functions performed by the human

brain, from the most trivial (hear, speak and
see), to the most transcendental, namely,
clairvoyance and telepathic communication.
The history of the human brain: some

considerations
At the philosophical level, the interest for

the brain arose with Aristotle (384-322B.C)
(Figure 1) who proposed the existence of
a non-material substance, the soul, which
was independent of the body and brain, but
having influence on thoughts and emotions.
The brain would function for the “cooling” of
the body2.
Figure 2: Galen
At the scientific level, the story of the
brain begins with the physicist Galen (130-
210 A.C.) (Figure 2) who proposed that
that the nerves carrying a fluid from the
brain and spinal cord to the periphery
of the body. This medical view remained
unchanged until the 19th century3 (Figure1).
Meanwhile, Descartes (1596-1650) (Figure
3) in his work Traité4 proposed that human
behavior depended on mind (which was
separated from the brain and the body),
while Darwin5 (1809-1882) (Figure 4) argued
that human behavior depended solely on
the functioning of the brain.
In the 17th century, the physicist Thomas

Willis (1621-1675) (Figure 5) laid the
foundations for the modern knowledge of
the nervous system and neurology. In fact,
he challenged the idea of Galen about the
brain as a “refrigerator”, and proposed
that the brain is the center of thoughts,
emotions and memory, paving the way of
an explanation for the existence of the soul6.
In the 19th century, the technique to

Figure 3: Descartes observe the structure of brain cells7 held

P. 41
Figure 4: Charles Darwin
by Camillo Golgi (1843-1926) (Figure 6) and

the theory of individual neurons proposal Figure 5: Thomas Willis
by Ramón y Cajal8 (Figure 7), as well as, the
bioelectricity discovered by Luigi Galvani
(1737-1798)9,contributed definitely to the
construction of a new theory about the
structure of the brain.
Later, Emil du Bois-Reymond (Figure 8),

Johannes Muller (Figure 9), and Hermann
von Helmholtz (Figure 10) found that a
brain cell could control the activity of
other adjacent neurons, that is, the result
of an electrical stimulus sent by a neuron
to other neurons could be predicted (as
in Galvani’s experience)10. So, the idea of
fluid, advocated by Galen, was replaced in
the 19th century, definitely by the notion
of neurons, constituents of nerves and the
brain itself, where each can influence others
to which it is connected, through electrical
stimuli (i.e., the signals electro-chemical).
At the end of the 18th century, Franz

Joseph Gall (1758-1828) (Figure 11) sought Figure 6: Camillo Golgi

P. 42
Figure 7: Ramón y Cajal
Figure 9: Johannes Muller
by its use.
In the 19th century, Pierre Flourens

(1794-1867)12 (Figure 12) performed some
experiments on the brain (which consisted
in the removal of certain regions of the
brain of animals) and concluded that all
the regions of the brain are involved in
a particular behaviour. However, John
Hughlings Jackson (1835-1911)13 (Figure
13) studied epilepsy and found that certain
sensory and motor functions correspond
to different regions of the brain. This
experience reinforced the new model of
the brain, referred to earlier: neurons are
well organized and are responsible for a
Figure 8: Emil du Bois-Reymond
particular function (for example, visual
processing).
to connect the psychology to neurobiology,
and proposed three ideas about the The physician Pierre Broca (1824-1880)
structure of the brain11: a) the brain controls (Figure 14) was the first neurologist to be
body movements, and behaviours of the able to relate a given behaviour (inability to
subject; b) the brain can be divided into 35 communicate) and an injury in the specific
regions (each responsible for a particular area of the brain, known as the «Broca´s
function); c) each region can be stimulated area»14 (area in the frontal lobe, the left

P. 43
Figure 12: Pierre Flourens
Figure 10: Hermann von Helmholtz
Figure 11: Franz Joseph Gall Figure 13: John Hughlings Jackson

P. 44
Figure 14: Pierre Broca
Figure 16: Korbinian Brodmann
hemisphere), while Karl Wernicke (1848-

1905) (Figure 15) studied a patient who had
a brain injury but could communicate, and
so concluded that this injury was located
in a different region of the brain, known
as «Wernicke´s area»15 . Based on these
discoveries, it was proposed that different
brain functions processing would be done
in different areas of the brain. Korbinian
Brodmann (1868-1918) (Figure 16)
continued to identify brain region according
to injurie, having distinguished 52 areas in
the human cerebral cortex, known as «map
of the brain of Brodmann»16
In 1958, David Hunter Hubel (1926-2013)

(Figure 17) and Torsten Nils Wiesel (1924-
...) (Figure 18) have given an important
contribution to the study on the “map” of
Figure 15: Karl Wernicke the brain (and therefore won the Nobel

P. 45
Figure 17: In 1958, David Hunter Hubel Figure 18: Torsten Nils Wiesel
Prize in Physiology and Medicine, in

1981). Hubel17 and Wiesel18 studied the
activity of neurons in the primary visual
cortex of anesthetized cats. From these
experiments some fundamental principles
of brain organization were concluded: a)
the neurons that respond to the same trait
were grouped in the same area (according
to the discoveries of Broca and Wernicke);
b) mental abilities such as, memory are
the result of sequential “computations” of
specific brain regions. Moreover, Roger
Sperry (1913-1994)19 (Figure 19) and Michael
Gazzaniga (1939-…)20 (Figure 20) found that
when «Corpus Callosum» (structure that
connects the two hemispheres of the brain)
(Figure 21) is removed from the brain, then it
occur a split of perception or consciousness
of the patient.
Today, through neurology, we know that

the brain consists of three key parts: cortex,
limbic system, brainstem and cerebellum. Figure 19: Roger Sperry

P. 46
In the brainstem and cerebellum is located

the body consciousness. The limbic system
(called “affective memory of the soul”) is
where discursive consciousness appeared,
with ability to distinguish between good
and evil. The neocortex is where are
located the higher faculties of the mind and
consciousness/soul. The right hemisphere
is associated with dreams, whereas the left
hemisphere is related to the senses. The
brain works on the basis of the reception
and processing of data send by neurons.
The processing of any feeling, the most
trivial to the most complex, gives rise
to the activation of some areas of the
brain. For example, the location of the
brain’s parietal lobe vision is located in the
dominant hemisphere, while the mystical
experiences are linked to the activity of
the non-dominant hemisphere21. In this
case the space-time barrier, characteristics
Figure 20: Michael Gazzaniga
of the activities of the 5 senses, would be
Figure 21: The corpus callosum

P. 47
Figure 22: The pineal gland
transcended, becoming visible what is with Roberto Assagioli24, has contributed

invisible to the physical eye, creating a bridge to the vision that the man has not only a
between the physical and the spiritual. It is physical/biological, emotional, intellectual/
in this context that one can talk, nowadays, social dimension, but also a spiritual
in Transpersonal Psychology, as the branch one. Furthermore, the philosophies of
of Psychology that studies the modified
India25 argue that the human being has
«states of consciousness» that occur in
access to seven levels of consciousness
humans (and may be induced through
or perception26 (Figure 22) and that the
meditation, breathing techniques22) and
thought and feeling are not more than a
that is in convergence with the point of view
of several contemporary physicists (David certain kind of “vibration” that depending
Bohm, Fritjoff Capra, Amit Goswami, Costa on the type emitted, the viewer will see
de Beauregard) who argue that human one aspect or another of reality, known in
consciousness affects physical reality23. quantum physics as “experience of delayed
Transpersonal Psychology, in particular choice”27.

P. 48
A conscious observer is required to from the activity of the organ we call brain? “.
achieve a given thought and/or feeling in Arguably, the interaction between neurons,
the physical world,28 i.e., subject observer the brain activity, the relationship of the
and object observed are interconnected, brain with more subtle human activities are
and are the co-creator of the observer extraordinary challenges for the future of our
reality manifested. A more subtle example understanding of our role in the Earth. The
of this relationship observed in the human message of science today is, perhaps, how
realm, it’s instant communication (called we integrate the depth of our knowledge
«non-local») or ESP (extra-sensorial- with the entire Universe. We depend on
perception), which occurs without the help the existence of galaxies, stars and planets
of the 5 senses, and is characterized by a that surround us. But, at the same time we
“transmission of a thought or message” influence (through our “choice”) the life of
in tune with who we love. This non-local what surrounds us. Perhaps, in the 21st
experience (outside of space and time) century, the greatest challenge for science
was performed for the first time, in the is that we are in one of the most important
area of quantum physics, by Alan Aspect periods in the history of the human being
and his collaborators29, through quantum brain, particularly, understanding the
particles “correlated” by polarization, and importance of its transcendental functions
instant communication occurred among (such as, self-consciousness). To this
them, regardless of their distance. Later, purpose, the biologist Eugene Stoermer
this experience was held between human and Nobel Prize Paul Crutzen proposed
beings, by scientist Grinberg-Zylberbaum the word “Antropocene” to indicate a new
and colleagues30, and a transfer of “non- period of significant human impact on
local” information (outside of space Earth´s geology and ecosystems33.
and time) between two shamans brains
“correlated” through meditation occurred.
This was evidenced by an “evoked potential”
Conclusions
characteristic of electroencephalogram of
these two persons. This experiment was The brain is an organ that functions as
repeated by Peter Fenwick, in London, with a physical appliance that allows us to tune
similar results. into a particular program, such as a radio
or a television, capturing the frequency of
We may ask how is unchained and a given program, according to the choice
processed the transcendental activities of what we want to hear and see. René
in the human brain? This issue has been Descartes argued that the pineal gland
addressed by eminent physicists, since the located in the center of the brain, was the
20th century, as E. Schrődinger31 himself point of union between the body and the
wondered “how the body secretes the soul, soul34 (Figure 23), and it would be like an
or how the brain secretes the mind, that is “antenna” (composed of “apatite crystals”)
the question, here’s the great mystery”. More that would vibrate according to the magnetic
recently, António Damásio32 has also written waves that captures. This theory aimed to
that “at the beginning of a new millennium, explain the phenomena of clairvoyance and
it is clear that there is an issue that stands telepathy.
out above all others life sciences: how is the
set of processes that we call “spirit” emerges It is true that nowadays, the medicine

P. 49
Figure 23: The human being has access to seven levels of consciousness or perception
know the areas of the brain responsible are located in tubulines and microtubules.
for the various functions performed by the Furthermore, the neurophysiologist Karl
human being, on a daily basis. However, Pribam36 and the physicist David Bohm
there are still to be clarified the brain proposed the «Theory of holographic mind»
areas which performed the transcendental that argues that the mind is a hologram (of
activities (such as those that occur during our thoughts and feelings) and the brain
the “peak experiences”) which leads to an makes it a reality in the physical world.
appearance of a «Model of brain-mind», Currently, these two scientific theories
proposed by the physicist Stuart Hameroff are the starting point for a deeper study
and the mathematical Roger Penrose35 to about the brain and its various functions37,
explain such situations. These scientists in particular the less known or explored,
defend that the brain-mind has a “classic such as clairvoyance and telepathic
component”, responsible for processing the communication.
trivial information in everyday life (eating,
speaking, writing, etc.), and that are located
in the dendritic membranes, and a “quantum Acknowledgements
component” (that computer programs are
unable to perform), responsible for creativity Paulo Martins acknowledges the
(e.g., awareness and the change of a given suggestions of Professor Dr. Marinho
pattern of behaviour) and experience the Antunes Lopes about the History of the
«altered states of consciousness», and that brain.
REFERENCES
• 1- Harari Y. Sapiens:A Brief History of Humankind. Harper. 2015.

• 2- Reverón R. “Aristóteles: Pionero en el Estudio de la Anatomie comparada”. Int. J. Morphol. 2015; 33(1):333-336.
• 3- Galeno C. Selected Works. Oxford University Press.1631.

P. 50
• 4- Descartes R. Traité de l´homme. Arvensa Editions. 2015.

• 5- Darwin C. The descent of man. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street. 1871.
• 6- Zimmer C. A fantástica história do cérebro. Editora Campus.2004.
• 7- Golgi C. Sulla fina anatomia degli organi centrali del Sistema nervosa. Milano: U. Hoepli. 1886.
• 8- Ramón y Cajal S. Les nouvelles idées sur la structure du système nerveux chez l´homme et chez les vertébrés. Paris:
Reinwald. 1894.
• 9- Galvani L. De viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius. Light. 1953.
• 10- Finkelstein G. “Mechanical neuroscience: Emil du Bois-Reymond´s innovations in theory and practice”. Front.
Syst. Neurosci. 2015; 9(1): 133-134.
• 11- Gall F and Spurzheim J. Untersuchungen uber die Anatomie des Nervensystems uberhaupt und des Gehirns
insbesondere. Editora Treuttel e Würtz. 1809.
• 12- Flourens J. Recherches experimentales sur les propriétés et les fonctions du système nerveux dans les animaux
vertébrés. Paris: J.B. Ballierre. 1842.
• 13- Jackson J. Evolution and Dissolution of the Nervous System, Speech, Various Papers, Addresses and Lectures.
Hodder&Stoughton. 1932.
• 14- Sabbatini R. Mapeando o Cérebro: O Estudo da Localização Cerebral no Século Dezenove. Revista Cérebro &
Mente. 1997.
• 15- Wernicke K. Der Aphasische Symptomencomplex: Eine Psychologische Studie Auf Anatomischer Basis. Nabur
Press. 2009.
• 16- Brodmann K. Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde in ihren Prinzipien dargestellt auf Grund des
Zellenbaues. Leipzig: Barth. 1909.
• 17- Hubel D. Eye, Brain and Vision. W.H. Freeman&Co. 1988.
• 18- Wiesel T and Dowling J and Stryer L. Colloquium on Vision: From Photon to Perception. National Academy of
Science. 2000.
• 19- Sperry R and Eccles J and Prigogine I. Reach of the Mind: Nobel Prize Conversation. Saybrook Pub. 1989.
• 20- Gazzaniga M. The ethical brain. New York: Dana Press. 2005.
• 21- Alonso J. “El tálamo y la visión. Mente y cerebro”. Investigation Y Ciencia, 2007; 22 (1): 32-34.
• 22- Aurobindo S. The synthesis of Yoga. Sri Aurobindo Ashram. 1955.
• 23- Versyp T. La Dimension Cuantica: De la Física Cuantica a la Conciencia. Barcelona. 2006.
• 24- Assagioli R. Psychosynthesis: A Manual of Principle and Techniques. Nova York:Penguim. 1976.
• 25- Dasgupta S. A History of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. Volume I. 1997.
• 26- Castro J. Chakra Sutras. King of Books. 1992.
• 27- Goswami A. Self-Aware Universe – how consciousness creates the material world. Penguim Putnan Editions.
1998.
• 28- Goswami A. Visionary window. Penguim Putnan Edition. 2003.
• 29- Aspect A and Dalibard J and Roger G.“Experimental test of Bell inequalities using time-varying analyzers”.
Physical Review Letters 1982; 49 (1):1804-1806.
• 30- Grinberg-Zylberbaum J and Delaflor M and Attie L and Goswami A. “Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox in the
Human Brain: The Transferred Potential”. Physics Essays 1994; 7 (1): 422-428.
• 31- Schrődinger E. What is Life ?. Cambridge University Press. 1967.
• 32- Damásio A. How the Brain creates the Mind. Scientific American. Volume 12. 2002.
• 33- Crutzen P and Stoermer E. “The Anthropocene”. Global Change Newsletter 2000; 41(1): 17-18.
• 34- Axelrod J. “The pineal gland”. Endeavour, 1970; 29 (108): 144-8.
• 35- Hameroff S and Penrose R.“Orchestrated reduction of quantum coherence in brain microtubules – a model
for consciousness”. Toward a Science of Consciousness: Contributions from the 1994 Tucson Conference. 1996.
• 36- Pribam K. “Rethinking Neural networks: Quantum Fields and Biological Data”. Proceedings of the First
Appalachian Conference on Behavioural Neurodynamics.1993.
• 37-Kandell E and Schwartz J and Jessel T et al. Principles of Neural Science. McGraw-Hill. 2012.

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John Lennon’s dream Pag 4 Johann Christoph Friedrich Pag 36

von Schiller (1759-1805)

Portuguese to receive A brief history of the Pag 39

a Nobel Prize human brain: some

Medicine and Pag 25

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ALMA Culture & Medicine - Vol 4. N 1 - December 2017 -

John Lennon’s dream

Prof. Dr. Alfredo E. Buzzi

A dream you dream alone is just a dream.

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ALMA Culture & Medicine - Vol 4. N 1 - December 2017 -

Egas Moniz: the first Portuguese

António Caetano de Abreu Freire (1874-1955), known as Egas Moniz, was a

Neurosurgery advanced quickly after the

Antonio Gaetano of Abreu Freire, born in As a student, he doubted between

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He obtained his medical education in

That same year of 1899 the citizens of

He liked music, blew the trumpet in a

En 1901 he married Elvira de Macedo

In 1902 he went to France to study

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one scientific paper.

When King Carlos of Portugal and his

In 1918 he updated in the monograph

He was designated Portuguese

In Portugal, Sidonio Pais was assassinated

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Moniz’s hands were severely deformed

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In the U.S.A., Donald Cameron, surgeon of

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Moniz started all over again. Intravenous

The new series of trials in patients began

The third case of this series with sodium

He described “the carotid displaced

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expression change to surprise when Moniz

The next day, July 7th, 1927, Moniz

Back in Portugal, Moniz proposed to his

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Although Antonio Martins should have

arteriography widely in many medical and

It was Moniz’s task to join cases, to In 1931 a seemingly more comfortable

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familiar. The method may be necessary at

In 1929 Moses Swick introduced an

ALMA Culture&Medicine - Editorial Alfredo Buzzi - www.almarevista.com

la angiografía cerebral” (“New aspects sufficiently short exposure time.