1. Describe the functions of the cytoskeleton.

- Overall functions:
+ Give mechanical support to the cell (moving or changing its shape) .
+ Help the cell maintain its shape.
+ Keep the order of the cell organelles in the proper place.
+ Manipulate the plasma membrane.
- Specific functions of its parts:
+ Microtubules (Tubulin Polymers): maintainence of cell shape, cell motility, establish
the spindle in cell division, organelle movement.
+ Microfilaments (Actin Filaments): maintainence of cell shape, changes in cell shape,
muscle contraction, organelle movements, cell motility, division of animal cell.
+ Intermediate Filaments: maintainence of cell shape, keep cell organelles in proper
place, formation of nuclear lamina.
2. Describe four different intercellular junctions.
- Plasmodesmata : is a microscopic cytoplasmic canal, which can pass through the
plant cell walls and allows the molecules to directly communicate with the
adjacent plant cells. That exchangeable molecules are water and small soluble
(sometimes protein and RNA).
- Tight junction: membranes of neighboring cells are pressed tightly together,
preventing leakage of extracellular fluid.
- Desmosomes: is one type of anchoring junction, involving intermediate filaments,
function like rivets, fastening cells together into strong sheets .
- Gap function (communicating junction): provide cytoplasmic channels from one
cell to an adjacent cell , through which ions, sugars, amino acids, and other small
molecules may pass (similar in their function to the plasmodesmata in plants).
3. Name the three stages of cellular respiration; for each, state the region of the
eukaryotic cell where it occurs and the products that result.
- Glycosis path way: takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. The products: 2ATP,
2NADH, 2 molecules of pyruvate (Pyruvic acid).
- Citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle (pyruvate oxidation occurs before moving to this
stage): takes place in matrix of mitochondria. The products: 2ATP, 6NADH,
2FADH2, 4CO2.
- Electron transport chain (ETC) and Oxidative phosphorylation: take place in
Mitochondrial Inner membrane. The products: 28 – 34 ATP.

4. List the phases of the cell cycle; describe the sequence of events during each phase
and the regulation of its phases.
- Interphase:
+ G1 phase: Cell increases in size and prepare to copy its DNA.
+ S phase: DNA is replicated, chromosomes duplicated.
+ G2 phase: Cell continues growing, prepare for cell division.
- Mitotic phase:
+ Prophase: Chromatin coils tightly & becomes visible under microscope, Nucleoli
disappear, Centrioles migrate to poles, Mitotic spindle begins to form.
+ Prometaphase: The nuclear envelop fragments, the chromosomes become more
condensed, complete spindle form, each of the sister chromatids of each chromosome has
a kinetochore, which attaches to the spindle fibers extended from opposite poles.
+ Metaphase: Cell aligns its chromosomes in the middle of the cell (metaphase plate), For
each chromosome, the kinetochores of sister chromatids are attached to kinetochore
microtubules coming from opposite poles, Cell preparing to separate its chromosomes.
+ Anaphase: Kinetochore microtubules shorten, Non-kinetochore microtubules
lengthen ,Sister chromatids move toward opposite poles of the spindle.
+ Telophase: Separation of chromosomes completed, Spindle disassembles, Nucleus &
nucleoli reform, Chromosomes uncoil.
- Cytokinesis: Cell Plate forms (plants), Cleavage furrow forms (animals), Forms
two, identical daughter cells.
- Regulations:
+ G1 checkpoint: Most important checkpoint (mostly), checkpoint for the cell division to
begin by preventing damaged cells divide.
+ S checkpoint: stops cells with DNA damage from proceeding in the cell cycle.
+ G2 checkpoint: prevents cells from entering mitosis when DNA is damage.
+ M checkpoint: Anaphase, the separation of sister chromatids, does not begin until allthe
chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle at the metaphase plate.
5. Why is a cell considered the unit of life? Please explain.
Because they: are the smallest living unit, grow and develop, reproduce, all based on
universal genetic code (DNA), obtain and use material and energy, respond to their
environment, maintain a stable internal environment.
6. What are the possible functions of plasma membrane-associated proteins?
Examples or explanations can be provided if necessary.

7. Summarize the connection among the following terms: genome, chromosome,

genes, locus, and alleles, based on the context of a eukaryotic cell.

8. Summarize how information in DNA nucleotide sequence can be converted into

polypeptide sequence.